Ammonites

N w l e Monks Philip Palmer

For VJM

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0John Sibbick/NHM: p.67 top
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0 The Natural History Museum, London, 2002

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in
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Published in the United States of America
by the Smithsonian Institution Press
in association with The Naturai History Museum, London
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United Kingdom
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-PublicationData
Monks, Neale.
Ammonites / Neale Monks and Philip Palmer.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references (p. ).
ISBN 1-58834-024-4(alk. paper)-ISBN 1-58834-047-3(pbk. : alk. paper)
I. Ammonoidea. I. Palmer, Philip. 11. Title.
QE807.Ag M68 2002
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Front cover main image: Parkinsonia dorsetensis, Middle Jurassic ammonite
 Contents
............

Preface

Acknowledgements

Chapter I: An introduction to ammonites

The Cephalopoda
A short history of the Cephalopoda
A clue to the past: Nautilus
The anatomy of Nautilus

Chapter 2: Ammonite fossils

Ammonite shell morphology
The suture line
The aptychus
Ammonite soft body anatomy

Chapter 3: Ammonite form and function

Buoyancy
Water pressure
Orientation
Jet propulsion, half a billion years before Frank Whittle
Streamlining
Defence
Chapter 4: Aspects of a m m o n i t e biology
Sexual dimorphism
Ammonite reproduction
Ammonite old age, pathology and predators

Chapter 5: A m m o n i t e taxonomy a n d classification 107

Suborder Anarcestina
Suborder Clyrneniina
Suborder Goniatitina - the goniatites
Suborder Prolecanitina
Suborder Ceratitina - the ceratites
Suborder Phylloceratina
Suborder Lytoceratina
Suborder Ancyloceratina - the heteromorphs
Suborder Ammonitina - the true ammonites

C h a p t e r 6: T h e extinction of t h e a m m o n i t e s I35
Periodic extinctions throughout the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic
Late Cretaceous decline and extinction
The ammonites' successors - the Coleoidea

Collecting a m m o n i t e s a n d a m m o n i t e collections 143

Further i n f o r m a t i o n I45
Glossary 14 8
Index I54
 Preface

Most of what is written about ammonites is found in scientific journals,

and an account of the natural history of ammonites for the general reader
has long been overdue. The last such book, that went some way to bringing
ammonites to the general reader was The ammonites: Their life and their
world, was written by Ulrich Lehman and translated into English in 1981.
Lehman drew from the latest scientific papers of the time, many of which
he wrote himself, creating an impressive array of facts and theories which
produced a detailed but very readable book. However, since its publication,
palaeontologists have not just accumulated more information about
ammonites but have also made some fundamental changes in the way
ammonites are envisaged. The most significant has been the switch away
from the nautilus as the prototype of the ammonite animal towards the
more active cephalopods like the octopus. Any new book on ammonites
must take into account these new observations and ideas, and in this book
we describe some of the most important ones.

This book is not about the geology of ammonite fossils. Lists of

stratigraphical and geographical occurrences are absent, and not much is
said about the use of ammonites in stratigraphy, important as that is. Also
absent are involved descriptions of ammonite taxonomy, which would
easily fill a book this size several times over. Instead, we hope that by
6 1 AMMONITES

placing the accent on the biology of ammonites, we have provided enough

to get the student, the enthusiastic amateur, or the armchair naturalist
started in the tricky field of ammonite palaeoecology. Not all the theories
described here are held by every ammonite expert, but we make no apology
for that. Ammonites may be abundant fossils, but with regard to some
important questions they offer very little in the way of solid evidence.
Indeed, when it comes to ammonites, palaeontologists have been in
agreement on remarkably little! By laying before the reader some of these
questions, and the facts available to answer them, we hope to show that
despite being familiar fossils, ammonites are not well understood at all.

Note that in this book 'ammonite' is talzen to be any member of the order
Ammonoidea, though strictly speaking 'ammonite' is used for the single
suborder Ammonitina within the Ammonoidea (see p. 128).
 Acknowledgements
...........................

f i e authors would like to thank all of their many friends and colleagues at
The Natural History Museum who helped and encouraged the authors
along the way. In particular, the assistance of the Curator of Fossil
Cephalopods, Steve Baker, is noted with thanks; without his help in
examining the specimens in his care, this book would not have been
possible. The authors also wish to thank Robert Ralph for reading through
the manuscript and providing many useful comments and suggestions.
It was as an undergraduate at the University of Aberdeen that one of us
(NM)was inspired by Bob to take writing seriously! The authors would also
like to thank two anonymous reviewers from the USA. NM would also like
to acknowledge the frequent collaborations and conversations with other
palaeontologists that went a long way towards defining his understanding
of ammonites (though of course the opinions of the authors cited here are
their own!). Foremost on this list include Ottilia Szives, W. J. Kennedy,
Andy Gale, Andrew Smith, Noel Morris and Jeremy Young, but there are
many, many others.
 AN INTRODUCTION
T O AMMONITES
.......................
AMMONITES intrigue people who know nothing about fossils, just as
much as they do amateur and professional palaeontologists. Amateur fossil
collectors quickly build up collections of dozens of species of ammonites,
while the mathematically-minded delight in the precision of their spiral
shells. Gift shops around the world frequently sell ammonites as attractive
ornaments for the home, from small ones costing very little right up to giant
ones for the seriously wealthy connoisseur. The compact, spirally coiled
shells of ammonites have inspired artisans and architects. For example, the
house of the Victorian naturalist Gideon Mantell in Lewes, Sussex, features
classical Ionic columns, and the whorls at the tops of the columns are not
plain spirals but stone replicas of the mid-Jurassic ammonite Teloceras.

The ammonites have contributed to mythology and place names to a

surprisingly high degree. In England, ammonites were called 'snakestones',
and in some places snake-like heads were even carved onto them. One
particular town with a legend explaining the snakestones is Whitby, on the
Yorkshire coast. The story goes that the town
left: Lower Jurassic
snakestone from Whitby. was plagued by snakes until the Abbess,
Yorkshire, UK. A snake's St. Hilda, turned them all into stone. The cliffs
head has been cawed
on to the ammonite
around the town expose Lower Jurassic shales
Dactylioceras commune. that are particularly rich in fossil ammonites,
 10 AMMONITES

above: The Upper Jurassic ammonite L/irgatosphinctessp. from the Himalayas.

including one that palaeontologists call Hildoceras. In India, certain parts of

the Himalayas are made up of Jurassic rocks, and periodically rivers wash
out fossil ammonites. The local people hold these fossils in great esteem.
They see them as symbols of the god Vishnu, the supreme god of the
Hindus. On wedding days, such an ammonite is a traditional gift from the
bride's family to the bridegroom, and it becomes a central part of the
household's rituals and prayers.
 A N INTRODUCTION TO AMMONITES 1 11

Delightful as the artistic, mythological and religious associations of

ammonites are, the reality is much more down to earth. Ammonites are
cephalopods, relatives of the nautiluses, octopuses, squids and cuttlefish.
Since they are extinct, it is only through study of their fossils that
palaeontologists have been able to piece t.ogether something of their
anatomy, their habitat and their ecology. They are a kind of mollusc,
characterised by having an external shell divided into chambers by
complicated partitions called septa. Molluscs share a number of distinct
features. All are soft bodied, and most have an external, calcareous shell
secreted by a special layer of tissue called the mantle. Most are aquatic and
even the terrestrial snails and slugs prefer damp habitats and cannot
tolerate dry conditions for very long. Although they eat a wide variety of
foods, most are equipped with a rasping tongue called the radula which is
covered in rows of teeth. Molluscs can be divided into a number of classes
all sharing a common ancestor believed to have lived early in the Cambrian
period about 550 million years ago. By far the largest group is the class
Gastropoda, which includes the snails and slugs, of which there are
pproximately 50,000 species. The next largest dass is the Bivalvia of
lrhich there are over ro,ooo species alive today. These are the clams,
ysters, scallops and mussels. Most live in the sea, although there are also
ome living in freshwater. The third major class is the Cephalopoda, to
lrhich the ammonites belong.

'HE CEPHOLOPODA
The name Cephalopoda literally means 'head-footed', a reference to the
ring of arms that all cephalopods have surrounding the mouth. Although
sharing the same basic design as the other molluscs, cephalopods have
become adapted to an active, predatory lifestyle. They are able to swim, and
have muscular arms and a sharp beak for catching and dismembering their
prey. Thousands of fossil species of cephalopod are known, of which the
nautiluses, ammonites and belemnites are the best known groups. Only a
12 & AMMONITES

Phylum Mollusca

Classes: Gastropoda Bivalvia Cephalopoda (plus 4 minor

groups)

Orders: Nautiloidea Arnrnonoidea Coleoidea

Clyrneniina Prolecanitina Ceratitina Ancyloceratina Phylloceratina

above: The three orders of cephalopods: the Nautiloidea, Ammonoidea and

Coleoidea.

few hundred species of cephalopod are alive today, mostly squids,

octopuses and nautiluses. There are no living ammonites or belemnites;
they became extinct at the end of the Cretaceous.

Scientists have divided the cephalopods into three subclasses or orders, the
Nautiloidea, Ammonoidea and Coleoidea. The Nautiloidea contains the
living and fossil nautiluses. These have external shells, usually straight in
the most primitive species but tightly coiled in the later ones, including the
living species. Their shells are chambered, divided by gently curved walls
called septa. On the radula, each row of teeth consists of one large central
tooth and six small teeth on either side, making 13 teeth per row in total.
The Ammonoidea includes the ammonites and their relatives such as the
goniatites and ceratites. Superficially they resemble nautiluses in having a
coiled, chambered shell, but ammonites have complex septa, with
 A N INTRODUCTION TO A M M O N I T E S ) 13

numerous folds and divisions at the edges where the septum meets the
outer wall of the shell. The radula is also different, instead of 13 teeth there
are only nine teeth per row, one central tooth and four on either side. The
structure of ammonite shells, and their similarities and differences with
nautiluses are discussed in more detail in Chapter 2.

The third group, the Coleoidea, includes the belemnites, the cuttlefish, the
scluids and the octopuses. Apart from the belemnites, this group has
reached its greatest diversity in the modern seas and oceans, and examples
can be found today in rock pools, coral reefs and throughout the depths of
the ocean and abyssal plain. The Coleoidea have internal shells, sometimes
chambered, as with cuttlefish, and other times not, as with squid. The
octopuses have no shell except the argonauts (see p. 21). The radula of
coleoids is similar to that of ammonites, with nine teeth, which suggests
that coleoids and ammonoids are more closely related to one another than
to the nautiluses. Unlike either the nautiluses or (as far as we can tell) the
ammonites, coleoids can produce ink, which they use as a 'smoke-screen'
to cover their escape when threatened. This has given rise to the common
name for this group, the inkfish. Coleoids are also particularly intelligent
compared with other invertebrate animals. They have sophisticated
hunting, social and mating behaviours, and many species show an aptitude
for learning. Octopuses, for example, have learned how to open bottles or
press buttons to obtain morsels of food.

All nautiluses and ammonites, and the more primitive coleoids such as the
belemnites and cuttlefish, share the same basic shell design. The shell is
made from a mineral called aragonite, sometimes called mother-of-pearl,
and, as noted above, is divided up into a series of chambers by the septa.
Connecting the chambers is a strand of tissue called the siphuncle which
passes through perforations in each of the chamber walls. Ultimately it
joins the main body of the animal. The si~huncleis well supplied with
14 ' AMMONITES

blood, and is the transport system which pulls water out of the chambers
while filling them up with gas. Emptying the chambers of water reduces
the overall density of the animal, enabling it to attain neutral buoyancy, so
it can float easily and swim with the minimum of effort. In terms of
function it serves the same purpose as the swim bladder of bony fishes. The
siphuncle can compensate for changes in pressure if the animal swims into
shallower or deeper water, and is also able to pump out any water that seeps
back into the shell. Ammonite shells are so similar to the shells of
nautiluses, that it is certain they served the same purpose. The only
differences are the more complex septa in the ammonites and the fact that
the siphuncle does not run through the centre of the chambers, as in
nautiluses, but usually near the bottom of chambers. The way in which
ammonite shells worked, and why they had the shapes they did, are
discussed in more detail in Chapter j.

Though their shells are common fossils, there is very little evidence for the
other aspects of ammonite anatomy. The radula has been found in quite a
few species, and the siphuncle is often preserved. Strange structures called
aptychi are commonly found associated with ammonites, though precisely
what they were is open to debate. Some experts consider them to be trap-
doors which sealed off the shell when the ammonite was threatened, while
others believe them to be part of the jaws. Ammonite hatchlings, called
ammonitellas, and even eggs are commonly found, and are about the same
size as the eggs and hatchlings of modern squid. Occasional fossils have
been found to show traces of the eyes, gills and tentacles, and the diet of a
few species is ltnown from what appear to be traces of the gut or stomach
with fragments of food preserved. Therefore something of the ecology of
ammonites can be infered from these few fossils, as reviewed in Chapter 4,
but not nearly as much as palaeontologists would like. Studies of living
cephalopods, particularly the coleoids, remain the best way to understand
what ammonites might have been like.
 A N INTRODUCTION TO AMMONITES 15

1f our knowledge of ammonite biology is limited, the same cannot be said

about their diversity. Ammonite fossils are so common and widespread that
they have become one of the most useful invertebrate groups for dating late
Pa1aeozoic and Mesozoic rocks. Most importantly, a single species or
subspecies often only lasted for 2 million years -orless. If such a species can
be found in roclts in different places, then geologists can say with some
confidence that both formations were deposited at the same time. Many
species of ammonites had a global distribution, malting them ideal time
'markers'. Correlating different geological formations in time using fossils
is a major part of a process called biostratigraphy. Biostratigraphy is very
important in producing geological surveys and maps, and essential to
mineral and oil prospecting. This is the main reason that ammonites have
been so intensively studied. Because so many species of ammonites have
been found and named, an elaborate system of classification has developed
to order them. To cover the classification of ammonites would easily fill a
book of this size, so instead a brief survey of the main groups and how they
are related is given in Chapter 5.

A SHORT HISTORY OF THE CEPHALOPODA

THE NAUTILOIDEA
The first molluscs appeared during the early Cambrian, and among them
were the earliest cephalopods, primitive nautiloids. Typical of these early
nautiloids was Plectronoceras, which had a slightly curved, conical shell a bit
like a tall limpet. Although such a poorly streamlined shell would not have
been well adapted for swimming, the shell of Plectronoceras had both
chambers and a siphuncle, and so presumably was able to regulate its
buoyancy. Perhaps it drifted in the plankton lilte a jellyfish. Quite how and
why these early cephalopods acquired chambered shells and the ability to
control their buoyancy is not known, but by the Ordovician, nautiloids had
become streamlined and capable swimmers. Long, straight shells, known
as orthoconic shells, reduced drag and so allowed them to reach greater
speeds with less effort. From the Ordovician onwards, all nautiloids had a
notch in the lower edge of the opening of the shell called the hyponomic
sinus, which indicates that they had evolved the system of jet propulsion
still employed by all living cephalopods. The details of cephalopod jet
propulsion are described in Chapter 3, but essentially they use a two-stroke
system. Water is sucked into the body cavity inside the shell from outside,
and then squeezed out through an adjustable tube, which in nautiluses is
called the hyponome. The hyponomic sinus is the inflection in the lower
edge of the shell through which the hyponome pokes, and so its presence
in fossil nautiloids implies a hyponome, and therefore jet propulsion.

One peculiarity of jet propulsion as employed by cephalopods is that

normally the jet emerges from the front of the shell, thus it sends the
animal in the other direction, i.e. backwards. Being flexible, the hyponome
can be used to direct the jet, and so provide some steering ability; however,
forcing the jet through a tightly curved hyponome reduces its efficiency.

right: Nautilus pompilius

showing the hyponomic
sinus where the hyponorne
protrudes and the optic
sinus.

eye in position
of optic sinus

hyponorne
 A N INTRODUCTION TO AMMONITES 1 17

Living nautiluses move forwards very

slowly, and their escape response is
to swim backwards, when the
jet is at its most effective. Squids
and cuttlefish rarely use the jet for
swimming forwards, preferring to
use their fins for that purpose,
and like the nautiluses, reserve
the jet for hasty retreats from
danger. The octopus rarely
swims, but when it does, it
swims backwards.

As neutral buoyancy effectively

made them weightless, these
orthocone nautiloids were
among the first really big
animals. Most are between j o
cm and 2 m (12 in and 6.5 fi)
long, far larger than any of the
other invertebrates around at
the time, and a few were
substantially larger. The biggest
were at least 5 m (16 ft) long, above: The straight and chambered shell of the
Cambrian nautiloid Endoceras sp.
and as the top predators of
their day must have been
comparable to modern great white sharks or killer whales. One peculiarity
of many orthocone nautiloids was that the chambers nearest the apex of the
shell were filled, not with gas, but with a mineral called calcite, and as the
nautiloid grew, successively more chambers were so filled. These solid
chambers acted as counterweights for the main body of the animal.
During the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic, other groups of nautiloids appeared
which had coiled rather than straight shells. Such shells are very compact, and
bring the centres of mass and buoyancy together. The centre of mass (also
known as the centre of gravity) is the point through which the weight of the
animal acts, and the centre of buoyancy is the point through which its
flotation acts. If they are close together, the animal is unstable, which makes
them much more manoeuvrable. A small force will tip the shell up or down,
or side to side. In contrast, the shells of the orthocone nautiloids have widely
separated centres of mass and buoyancy. They would have been very stable
and resistant to changes in direction, so while the orthocone shell shape was
ideal for rapid backwards swimming, it was also very difficult to steer.

These coiled nautiloids steadily diversified throughout the Palaeozoic and

Mesozoic, while the orthocone nautiloids became less common. Possibly
the orthocone nautiloids could not compete with the rapidly evolving bony
fish and sharks, which combined both speed and agility, and the last species
of orthocone nautiloid became extinct in the Triassic. During the Mesozoic
nautiluses were widespread but always less diverse than the ammonites,
although the mass extinctions at the end of the Cretaceous which wiped out
the ammonites, hardly affected the coiled nautiluses.

T H EA M M O N O I D E A
The ancestors of the ammonites were a small and rather poorly known
order of orthocone nautiloids known as the Bactritina. Even at their most
diverse in the Devonian, they were not common, and many
palaeontologists have never even heard of them, let alone seen one. It is
perhaps surprising that this very obscure group of fossils should have given
rise to one of the best known, the ammonites!

What distinguishes the bactritids from nautiloids is the globular shape,

calcareous shell and small size of the first chambers, the so-called
 A N INTRODUCTION TO AMMONITES 19

above: The straight nautiloid Bacrrites carinatus from the Devonian of Germany.

'embryonic shell'. Nautiloids, both fossil and recent, all have relatively large
embryonic shells, and living species lay a few large eggs. In contrast,
bactritids produced large numbers of small eggs and so did their
descendants, the ammonites. Lilte bactritids and coleoids, ammonites had
small embryonic shells, thus indicating a close relationship between the
coleoids and ammonites.

The ammonites proper appeared early during the mid-Devonian. Unlike

the bactritids they did not have orthoconic shells, but coiled shells like the
coiled nautiloids, a striking example of convergent evolution. They probably
evolved coiled shells for exactly the same reason as the nautiloids, improved
manoeuvrability. By the end of the Devonian, the bactritids had all but
become extinct, while the ammonites prospered. For the rest of the
Palaeozoic and the entire Mesozoic, a period of well over 290 million years,
the ammonites were the pre-eminent cephalopod group, and among the
most diverse and widespread of all marine invertebrates. Why were they so
successful? This is very difficult to say, but perhaps it was their ability to
 R
20 AMMONITES

reproduce quickly that allowed them to evolve rapidly and so adapt to

changing conditions. Until their gradual decline toextinction at the end of
the Cretaceous, at least some ammonites survived all the previous major
mass extinctions. These survivors diversified and gave rise to whole new
families of ammonites; indeed, ammonites are among the fastest evolving
animal groups we know about from the fossil record.

THE COLEOIDEA
A second group of cephalopods were derived from the bactritids; the
coleoids. Although they share the bactritid and ammonite characteristic of
having a small embryonic shell and a radula with nine teeth per row, they are
different in having internal, rather than external, shells. In the more
primitive groups the shell is similar to that of an orthocone bactritid, except
in being internal. Functionally, these shells worked in the same sort of way,
with gas-filled chambers connected by the siphuncle. Other groups of
coleoids still use the shell to provide buoyancy, but in a modified form, such
as the 'cuttlebone' possessed by cuttlefish. Many living species have reduced
shells without chambers that do not provided buoyancy (squids) or else have

above: The Upper Jurassic Belemnoteuthis antiquus, a squid-like coleoid with

hooks on its eight arms.
 A N INTRODUCTION TO AMMONITES /BI 21

no shell at all (octopuses). Quite why these cephalopods have dispensed with
the buoyant shell is not clear, perhaps it is related to living in deep water,
where a hollow, gas-filled shell can be difficult to build and maintain.

The Coleoidea appeared in the Devonian, but did not become common
until much later. The Jurassic was the heyday of first big group of coleoids,
the belemnites, as well as the time when the first squids evolved. Also
common in the Jurassic were vampyromorphs, squid-like animals of which
only a single species survives today, confined to the deep sea. Octopuses,
lacking any kind of shell, are rare fossils, but some are known from the
Cretaceous, and cuttlefish appeared in the Cainozoic. Coleoids, such as the
giant squid are the dominant cephalopod group and important members of
many marine ecosystems.

As the successors of the ammonites, the evolution of the coleoids falls

outside the scope of this book, but there is one kind which may have a direct
connection with the evolution of the ammonites. This is the paper 'nautilus',
or argonaut (Argonauta species), in fact a kind of octopus. Unlike most other
octopuses, argonauts live close to the surface of warm seas rather than on
the sea floor. The female produces a ~aper-thinegg case resembling a shell
into which she lays her eggs. Compared with the females, the males are tiny,
and while the females have been known since ancient times, the males were
only described in the nineteenth century. The most curious thing about the
argonaut is its egg case, particularly the fact that it closely resembles an
ammonite shell, such as the Triassic ammonite Trachyceras. This is unlikely
to be a result of convergent evolution, that is, a similar solution to a common
problem, because the ammonite's shell and the argonaut's egg-case do
completely different things. Could it be mere coincidence?

Female octopuses brood their eggs in caves. Living hundreds of metres above
the sea floor, the argonaut cannot do this. It has been suggested that when
22 ! AMMONITES

above: From the outside the egg case of Argonauta hians closely resembles the
ammonite Trachyceras from the Triassic.

argonauts evolved in the Mesozoic they instead used the floating ammonite
shells, left behind after the ammonite died, in which to brood their eggs.
Some of these early argonauts even evolved ways of patching up damaged
ammonite shells by secreting calcite from their arms, and eventually got so
 AN INTRODUCTION TO AMMONITES 1 23

p o d at it they cpuld make a facsimile of an ammonite shell from scratch!

A second theory is more profound since it ties the argonauts much more
closely to the ammonites than mere squatters of empty shells. Lewy (1996)
suggested that argonauts are in fact 'nude ammonites', the culmination of
a line of ammonites that switched from using the shell as a buoyancy device
to an egg case. Lewy points to the strong sexual dimorphism of ammonites;
like argonauts, ammonite species occur in two sizes, a big 'macroconch'
and a small 'microconch'. He believes that the macroconch was the female,
and that she had a larger shell so that she could brood the eggs safely
inside. Yet again we have a nice story, with only circumstantial evidence to
support it, but in its favour is one particular fact that is otherwise difficult
to explain. Like other coleoid cephalopods, octopuses have nine teeth per
row on the radula. What is striking is that in many species, particularly the
more primitive deep-sea species, these radula teeth are very like those
found in fossil ammonites, and not at all like those of other coleoids such
as squid and cuttlefish. Is this a clue to a closer affinity than most
palaeontologists care to imagine?

A CLUE TO THE PAST, NAUTILUS

Although coleoids share some features with ammonites, as far as the shell
is concerned the two groups are very different. In contrast, the shells of
nautiluses and ammonites are broadly similar, and fortunately for
palaeontologists, a number of species of nautilus are still to be found in the
tropical Indian and Pacific oceans today. They are usually all placed in a
single genus, Nautilus, although recent studies have suggested there may
be two distinct stocks, and so a second genus, Allonautilus, has been
described. All the living species of nautilus are found in deep water,
generally between zoo and 400 m (650 and 1310 ft) deep, particularly
favouring the steep 'cliffs' that lie between islands and the deep sea floor.
Nautiluses are opportunistic feeders, scavenging for large invertebrates
like crustaceans.
24 ! AMMONITES

Nautilus shells are strikingly beautiful, with a distinctive tiger stripe design
on the outside, and an iridescent sheen on the inside, from which they get
their common name of 'pearly nautilus'. Since the shell is buoyant, after
the death and decay of the animal, the shell can float for long periods of
time and wash up on a beach thousands of miles away from where the
animal lived. As a result, although the shells have been known about for
hundreds of years, the animal itself was only described in 1832. It was
described by the anatomist Richard Owen, best known as the inventor of
the word 'dinosaur'.

It is possible that nautilus was known about in ancient times. Around 350
BC, Aristotle wrote a treatise called the Historia Animalium, literally 'an
inquiry into animals'. In many respects he was the first marine biologist,
and this book amply demonstrates his acute powers of observation. He
knew, for example, that dolphins and whales were mammals and not fish,
a point which even Herman Melville writing Moby Dick in 1850,took issue
with (although perhaps for literary rather than scientific reasons). Aristotle
postulated the first classification of living things, foreshadowing Linnaeus'
Systerna Naturae, while his ideas of adaptation certainly influenced Darwin's
thoughts on evolution. In book 4 of the Historia Animalium, there is a good
account of cephalopods in general, including the first detailed description
of their anatomy, but at the end there is a most perplexing passage:

"There are two others found in shells resembling those of the

testaceans. One of them is nicknamed by some persons the
nautilus or the pontilus, or by others the "octopus egg"; and the
shell of this creature is something like a separate valve of a deep
scallop-shell. This octopus lives very often near to the shore,
and is apt to be thrown up high and dry on the beach; under
these circumstances it is found with its shell detached, and dies
by and by on dry land. These octopuses are small, and are
 A N I N T R O D U C T I O N TO A M M O N I T E S f 25

shaped, as regards the form of their bodies, like the bolbidia.

There is another octopus that is placed within a shell like a
snail; it never comes out of the shell, but lives inside the shell
like the snail, and from time to time protrudes its feelers."
A R I S T O T L E , Historia Animalium, B O O K 4

The above is based on a translation by D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson. His

word 'polypus' has been replaced with the modern word for the same thing,
'octopus'. What animal was Aristotle writing about? Is the 'octopus egg' the
argonaut? They certainly are weak swimmers, and after storms do get
washed ashore. Argonauts are not attached to their 'shells' (the egg case), but
hold onto them with their arms; so after death the egg case and octopus can
become separated. So far at least the description fits the argonaut nicely, and
indeed argonauts are common in the Mediterranean, so Aristotle was
probably familiar with them. It is the final line that is problematic. Here
'another octopus' is distinguished from the one that seems to be the
argonaut. It is said to be fixed inside its shell like a snail, but capable of
extending 'feelers' presumably its arms. Could this line refer to the nautilus
rather than the argonaut? It is firmly attached to its shell, and has numerous
thread-like arms much more like feelers than the muscular arms of the
octopus. These arms do indeed protrude from the shell while the rest of the
animal is hidden inside the shell. The similarities between this description
and the nautilus are truly striking, but we will probably never know exactly
what animal Aristotle was describing. It is difficult to see how he could have
ever seen a nautilus: they are not found in the Mediterranean, the Red Sea,
or even the western parts of the Indian Ocean.

THE ANATOMY OF NAUTILUS

A typical nautilus shell, such as that of Nautilus pompilius is smooth, tightly
coiled and about 20 cm (8 in) in diameter. The shell is coiled exogastrically,
that is, over the 'back' of the animal, like the shells of ammonites but unlike
26 AMMONITES

above: Nautilus umbilicalis, a living nautiloid found in the south west Pacific
 A N INTRODUCTION TO AMMONITES [ 27

those of many coleoids, such as cuttlefish. The outside of the shell is dirty
white with brownish-red, irregular bifurcating bands radiating out from the
centre of the coil. Overall the pattern is most strongly developed around the
upper half of the animal, and virtually absent on the underside. Looking
down from above, the dark top of the shell would blend in with the sea
floor, while from below the unmarked surface on the underside would
match the light filtering down from above. This is called countershading
and is common among aquatic animals.

The shell is composed of aragonite, in two distinct layers. The outer layer is
made up of vertical prisms, the inner layer of concentric layers of pearly
shell. The aperture is sinuous with a notch on either side just below the
recessed centre of the shell (umbilicus) where the eye is situated; this is
called the optic notch. Further down, there is another notch where the
hyponome (or funnel) protrudes. This is the hyponomic sinus. The aperture
is dosed by a non-calcareous operculum, or lid, made of a leathery substance
and attached to the head ofthe animal. It is sometimes called the 'hood', and
is ornamented quite differently from the shell. Whereas the shell sports vivid
brown stripes, the operculum is a paler brown with numerous white spots
of different sizes randomly scattered over the surface, except for two lines of
raised white tubercles on either side of the midline.

If the shell is sectioned through the middle the arrangement of chambers,

siphuncle and the main body of the animal are clear. The body sits in the
final and biggest chamber in the shell, which is known as the body or living
chamber (see plate I). The animal is attached to the inside of the shell by
special muscles, called retractor muscles. Normally the head and arms of
the animal protrude from the aperture, but if frightened the muscles pull
the animal deeper inside the body chamber and the aperture is sealed off
tightly by the hood. If the nautilus is lucky, it will be too difficult for a
predator to open up. Behind the living chamber are the smaller chambers
28 1 AMMONITES

which make up the phragmocone, the buoyancy regulating part of the shell,
connected to the main body of the animal by the siphuncle.

The soft body of the animal is made up of two main parts: the front part which
can protrude from the shell and the back part which is secure inside the shell.
The front part includes at least 50 (in females) and as many as go (in males)
grasping arms surrounding a mouth. The arms are arranged in a circle
around a central mouth, or buccal mass. The ends of the arms are somewhat
sticky and covered in taste-buds. They are used to find food as well as catch it;
in the deep, dark world of the nautilus, the arms are used to touch the sea
floor, taste the water, and so turn up the small animals it likes to feed on.
These arms are very different to those of the other living cephalopods - they
lack suckers or hooks. Instead, each arm consists of a thin, distal part (which
is the sticky, taste-bud covered part) and a stout basal sheath into which the
distal part can be withdrawn. Curiously, these sheaths are ornamented in the
same way as the hood, and it is suggested that the hood and the arms are, in
an evolutionary sense, related structures (see plates 2-3).

Like other cephalopods, within the centre of the ring of arms the nautilus
is equipped with a sharp beak, although unlike the beaks of coleoids, it has
a calcareous tip. The calcified beaks of fossil nautiloids, called rhyncholites,
are common, and so this would appear to be typical of the Nautiloidea in
general. Behind the beak is the radula. The beak is used to slice up food into
manageable pieces which are swallowed whole, while the radula is used to
assist in swallowing.

Nautiluses have a pair of 'pinhole camera' eyes, a much less effective kind
of eye than the lens eyes which coleoids have. Instead of a lens, a small hole
in the front of the eyeball focuses the image on the retina. Unlike a lens,
the bigger the hole, the poorer the definition of the image. Pinhole cameras
can produce either a dim, sharp image or a bright, blurry one, but it can
 A N INTRODUCTION TO AMMONITES 1 29

above: The Middle Jurassic ammonite Brasilia bradfordensis sectioned to show

its chambers with calcite crystals in some and hardened mud in others. The
body chamber is missing.

never produce a bright and sharp image. So nautiluses must see their
underwater world in a fuzzy, vague sort of way. In contrast coleoid eyes can
have lenses big enough to make the image bright while still retaining
sharpness and contrast.
30 1 AMMONITES

Much of the back half of the animal consists of a muscular pouch called the
mantle cavity. Inside the mantle cavity are the gills, reproductive organs and
digestive organs. As with other molluscs, the mantle cavity secretes the
shell, but it is also involved in producing the flow of water which brings
oxygen to the gills and powers the jet propulsion system. An extension of
the mantle, called the hyponome, stretches beyond the aperture of the shell
and out under the head. Nautiluses can push water out of the mantle cavity
by retracting the head into the shell like a plunger, using special 'retractor'
muscles, and the outward flow of water is forced through the hyponome,
producing a jet. When the retractor muscles relax, the head springs
forwards and water is suclzed back into the mantle cavity through the
aperture of the shell. By alternating between these two actions, nautiluses
generate what is called a ventilation cycle, continually bathing the gills in
fresh water from which oxygen can be extracted. Just as importantly, the jet
produced can be used for swimming, The retractor muscles are attached to
the shell at certain points where they leave distinctive 'scars'. These scars
can be seen in some fossil nautiluses and ammonites, indicating that they
may have been able to produce a similar ventilation cycle.

As the nautilus grows, it moves itself forward, sealing off part of the old
living chamber with a new septum and then filling it with gas. In doing so
the extra buoyancy compensates for its extra weight. Living species of
nautilus can add a new chamber every month when growing most rapidly,
but between the laying down of a new septum, lesser increments of growth
leave behind distinctive 'growth lines'. In addition, as the animal grows, it
detaches the retractor muscles from their original position and then re-
attaches them at a new spot further forward. This leaves a series of scars
along the inside of the shell. Fossil nautiluses show similar patterns of
growth lines and scars, indicating that they grew the same way.
 A N INTRODUCTION TO AMMONITES 1 31

n e shells of nautiluses are often washed up on beaches far from their

natural habitats. These 'drift shells' can be easily distinguished from fresh
shells since over the months they collect a rich fauna of encrusting animals
and plants called epifauna, which are never seen on living nautiluses.
Tnese include tube-building worms, bryozoans, barnacles, and algae.
Ammonite shells are often found with encrusting animals, particularly
oysters, but it is not certain whether these grew when the ammonite was
alive, or like the shells of nautiluses, they only became attached after the
ammonite was dead.
 AMMONITE FOSSILS

FOSSILS are the remains of organisms that have been preserved in

sediments. Some fossils are found in unusual sediments, like the famous
tar pits of La Brea in California, or the permafrost of Siberia, but most
fossils come from marine limestones, clays and sandstones. Marine
environments have high rates of sedimentation, burying corpses quickly,
and increasing the chances of fossilisation. Over time, replacement of the
original structure of the organism with minerals preserves its overall shape,
producing a fossil. Hard tissues, such as bone or shell, have a much higher
chance of preservation than soft tissues like muscle or skin, and so the
vast majority of fossils are of what palaeontologists call 'hard parts'. In the
case of ammonites, the main hard part is the shell, and that is what is most
often found.

Ammonite shells are made from aragonite, a mineral that is unstable, and
after death it tends to decay. Sometimes it is replaced with other minerals
like iron pyrites or calcite, but more often it simply dissolves away. If the
shell is filled with sediments before it decays, then the fossil can be
preserved in three dimensions, otherwise the fossil is crushed flat leaving
an imvression in the rock. Some of the most
left: Internal cast of an upper
Jurassic ammonite showing
commonly seen modes of preservation are
near empty chambers. shown on p. 34.
34 ! AMMONITES

body chamber and phragmacone uncrushed

phragmacone only uncrushed

body chamber crushed phragmacone uncrushed

body chamber and phragmacone crushed

phragmacone 0body chamber

above: Some modes of preservation of ammonites. From top to bottom:
a)The body chamber is filled with hardened sediment and the phragmacone
[the chambered part of the shell) is filled with crystalline calcite. This is the usual
mode of preservation in limestones. b) The body chamber is filled with sediment
but the phragmacone is crushed. This sometimes occurs in nodules in calcareous
clays. c) The body chamber is crushed flat, but the phragmacone is filled with
pyrite and remains uncrushed. This is a common mode of preservation in black
pyritous shales and clays. d) The body chamber and the phragmacone are
crushed flat. This is the commonest mode of preservation in clays and shales.

A M M O N I T E SHELL M O R P H O L O G Y
Ammonite shells are built to the same basic plan as the shells of living
nautiluses, but there are significant differences. Both ammonite and
nautilus shells are divided into chambers connected by a siphuncle
(making up the 'phragmacone'), and both coil exogastrically to form a
regular, flat spiral. However, ammonite shells differ significantly in the
shape of the septa dividing the shell into chambers, the position of the
siphuncle, and the shape of the embryonic shell.
 A M M O N I T E FOSSILS 1 35

SEPTA
The septa dividing the shell of any cephalopod into chambers are shallow
concave walls, but what distinguishes ammonites from nautiluses and
coleoids is that the septa are thrown into folds radiating outwards from the
centre and becoming more tightly folded as they merge with the wall of the
shell. The pattern the septum makes at its junction, or suture, with the wall
is called the suture line. The suture line varies greatly among different
groups of ammonites, and so has become very important in the
classification of ammonites, as is described in Chapter 5.

septa1 neck muscle scars

\ I
36 1 AMMONITES

SIPHUNCLE
In nautiluses, the siphuncle runs more or less through the centre of the
septa, and where the siphuncle pierces a septum, a short 'collar' surrounds
the siphuncle, called the septal neck. This neck extends backwards from the
septum into the preceding chamber. Such a backwards-pointing (or
retrochoanitic), septal neck is common in fossil nautiluses as well as in
living species of nautilus. In contrast, the septal necks of most ammonites
point forwards, and are termed prochoanitic. Prochoanitic septal necks are
also seen in those coleoids which have chambered shells, such as
belemnites, and so is yet another character that ammonites share with
coleoids.

EMBRYONIC S H E L L
One final difference between ammonite and nautilus shells is the shape of
the embryonic shell, the part of the shell which developed before the animal
hatched from its egg. In living nautiluses, the eggs are large for a
cephalopod, and inside the egg the nautilus embryo develops a cap-shaped
shell made of an organic material called chitin. In contrast, ammonite eggs
are small, about the same size of those of squids, and the embryos secrete
a calcareous barrel-shaped shell very similar to those of embryonic coleoids
such as belemnites. This initial shell, the protoconch, is made from
aragonite. The growth and development of ammonites is described in
Chapter 4.

COILING
A N D ORNAMENTATION
Ammonites exhibit a wide range of coiling modes. Some resemble
nautiluses in being involute, i.e. the whorl section is crescent or kidney-
shaped, and later whorls wrap over the earlier whorls, hiding them from
view. Involute forms include oxycones, where the shell is disc-like as it is
highly compressed from side to side (see plates 6-8), and cadicones, which
are compressed from top to bottom, producing a globular shell. Other
 AMMONITE FOSSILS ( 37

above: Common types of ammonite shells. Only primitive ammonites had

orthocone shells, most others were coiled spirals.

ammonites are evolute, with later whorls only partly obscuring the earlier
whorls, which can be clearly seen at the umbilicus. Extreme forms of
evolute coiling include serpenticones, where later whorls just touch the
earlier ones, and cyrtocones, where successive whorls are not in contact at
all. Further variations in coiling mode can be seen among the
heteromorphs, which begin as spirals but then unfold in various ways.
Some are straight, some are helical and some are a combination of coils,
straight sections and hooks. The heteroaorph ammonites are discussed in
Chapter 5.

The opening of the shell, the aperture, is in some species plain and similar
to those of modern nautiluses, but in many ammonites it is much more
38 AMMONITES

top left: An oxycone ammonite, Amaltheus sp.

top right: The Lower Jurassic evolute ammonite Asteroceras stellare which is
openly coiled.
bottom left: The Upper Jurassic serpentlcone ammonite Dacfylioceras commune
show~ngwhorls just resting on previous whorls without overlap.
bottom right: The Lower Cretaceous crytocone ammonite Aegocrioceras
quadratus in which whorls do not touch each other but form an open spiral.
 A M M O N I T E FOSSILS 1 39

elaborate. Extensions of the shell from the sides of the aperture, called
lappets, and from the bottom, called rostra, are particularly common in
Jurassic and Cretaceous ammonites.

A few ammonites have smooth shells, like those of nautiluses. However,

most have ornamented shells, with ribs, keels and spines. These are
modifications of the shell produced by the mantle as the animal grew. The
ribs may be fine or bold, simple or forked. In some species ribs run
uninterrupted from the recessed centre of the shell (umbilicus)on one side
of the shell over the ventral surface and up to the umbilicus on the other
side. In other species longitudinal ridges, called keels, cut across the ribs
along the ventral surface. Spines are not common in Palaeozoic or Triassic
ammonites, but they became increasingly widespread and well-developed

simple bifurcate fasciculate

looped virgatotone falcate

above: Six of the commonest types of ribbing found on ammonites. Simple

ribbing characterises early Jurassic forms while virgatotome ribbing occurs on
late Jurassic forms.
 I
40 AMMONITES

above: The Lower Jurassic ammonite Amaltheus gloriosus in which the ribs are
raised to form a keel seen laterally (left) and ventrally (right).

in Jurassic and Cretaceous ammonites (see plates 9-10). They are believed
to have evolved as a defence against predators, but how they were formed
is not clear. The spines are usually hollow, and so presumably extensions of
the mantle protruded from the edge of the aperture to secrete them. As the
animal grew larger and added new chambers, the spines that were once at
the edge of the aperture wound up further and further back, eventually on
the chambered part of the shell. Being hollow, if these broke off they would
release the gas from inside the chambers, reducing the animal's buoyancy.
To prevent this the spines were sealed off after they were formed. Indeed,
it is common to find ammonites with the spines broken off, and the
sealed-off stumps left in place. These stumps are known as tubercles or
spine-bases.
 A M M O N I T E FOSSILS 41

above: The Lower Cretaceous ammonite Euhoplires armatus. Two lines of

stumps are visible which were the bases of spines that have since been lost

The coloration of ammonites is only hinted at in the fossil record, as

pigment is very rarely preserved. Traces of longitudinal stripes have been
seen on some ammonites (see plates 11-12); these are more like garden
snails than the tiger stripe pattern of the modern nautilus.

T H E S U T U R E LINE
The figure on p. 42 shows a specimen of Lytoceras which has been
preserved as an internal mould, that is, sediment has filled the hollow
chambers of the shell, and the shell has dissolved away. The septa have
gone, but left behind as a suture between the moulds of each chamber is a
tracery of what the junction between the septum and the wall of the shell
looked like, called the suture line. Another way of looking at the shape of
the septa is too look at the internal mould of a single chamber, as with the
42 AMMONITES

above: This specimen of Lytoceras aaleniarum has had one of the chambers
painted black to make it easier to see the suture line.
 A M M O N I T E FOSSILS 1 43

from Euaspidoceras below. The front view shows four extensions

reaching forwards, called 'saddles'. In between the saddles are inwards
pointing folds called 'lobes'.

AS mentioned earlier, the shape of the suture line and the number of lobes
and saddles are very useful in classifying ammonites. Most ammonite
species have a distinctive suture line, which can be used for identification,
like a sort of ammonite fingerprint. For example, Hamites hybridus has the
four-lobed pattern typical of heteromorphs on each side of the shell: the
external, lateral, umbilical and internal lobes (see p. 44). These may be bifid,
with two approximately similar 'leaves' to the lobe, or trifid, with three 'leaves'
one on each side of the line of symmetry, and one in the middle of the line of
symmetry. The siphuncle usually lies close to the external lobe, on the outside
of the whorl. Suture lines are especially usefiil in the identification of an
ammonite where the rest of the fossil is not well preserved.

left: The back of a septum

in Euaspidoceras in which
the ventral, dorsal and
lateral lobes form a vertical
cross. The front view shows
four saddles forming a
diagonal cross.
44 AMMONITES

I internal lobe inside the coil

I'I
I I U umbilical lobe near the umbilicus
L lateral lobe on the flanks
E external lobe outside the coil

' left: The positions of the main lobes

in a typical ammonite.
I I
below: The suture line of the heteromorph
I E ) Harnites hybridus.

I
external lobe lateral lobe

In general, primitive ammonite groups have relatively fewer folds than

more advanced ones. The very earliest ammonites, such as the Anarcestina,
have suture lines that are barely distinguishable from those of nautiluses.
Later groups, like the Goniatitina and Ceratitina have successively more
folds, while the suture lines of the Ammonitina are the most complicated
of all, as is described further in Chapter 5.
THE APTYCHUS
occasionally an ammonite is found with a shield-likestructure in the body
&amber. In fact there are two types: the aptychus and the anaptychus. The
aptychus (plural aptychi) is composed of two parts, each a mirror image of
the other, often joined along a common straight edge. The anaptychus
(plural anaptychi) is a single plate, preserved as a carbonaceous film on an
impression, indicating a chitinous composition, but sometimes with a thin
shelly film covering the surface.

Aptychi are made of calcite, unlike the shell of the ammonite which is of
aragonite, and therefore the aptychus may not have been formed by the
mantle, which laid down the shell. Aptychi are found in such common
ammonites as Hildoceras, Haploceras, Phylloceras, Stephanoceras,
Peerisphinctes, Scaphites, and Aspidoceras. While they are not known any
earlier than the early Jurassic, none are known after the end of the
Cretaceous. This is when the ammonites died out, which seems to support
the view that aptychi are specific to ammonites. Anaptychi are known from
much older rocks, as old as late Devonian in age, and have been found in
ammonites such as Eoasianites, Psiloceras, Eoderoceras and Lytoceras.

Sometimes the individual parts of aptychi are found without being

associated with an ammonite, and since the pIates of aptychi are very
bivalve-like, with concentric ridges around a point of origin, they were first
described as bivalves. Only when they were found in the body chamber of
an ammonite was it realised that they were part of the ammonite. It was
thought that, by analogy with the operculum of certain marine snails, the
aptychi probably served the same function, namely to close the aperture of
the shell against predatory intruders. Then came the doubts, founded on
the observation that, in some cases the presumed 'operculum' did not fit
the aperture of the shell precisely and therefore could not function in that
way. It was in 1864that two Americans, Meek and Hayden, discovered a
46 AMMONITES

Scaphites from the Upper Cretaceous of Dakota with the aptychus in the
body chamber but with the clear impression of the upper part of the jaw in
between the two parts of the aptychus. After much thought they stated that
'... we must then view the two enveloping valves as forming together one of
the opposing mandibles'.

In the I ~ ~ O Trauth,
S , a Viennese palaeontologist, published a number of
papers on aptychi, defending the view that they were used by the ammonite

above: The aptychus in

place at an aperture.

left: The two parts of an

aptychus, separated from an
Upper Jurassic ammonite,
and lying loose in the rock.
 AMMONITE FOSSILS 1 47

left: A crushed specimen of the ammonite Neochetoceras steraspis from the

Upper Jurassic of Germany, with the aptychus in place in the body chamber.

to close off its shell, and his view was supported by the work of Schindewolf
during the 195os, who published a photograph of an Upper Jurassic
ammonite, Physodoceras, from Germany which had the aptychus in place at
the aperture of the ammonite shell. But by the 1g70s, ammonite
researchers like Lehman had returned to the jaw theory. For example the
body chamber of a Lower Jurassic Pleuroceras specimen contained a structure
48 1 AMMONITES

which Lehman interpreted as an upper jaw lying between the folded edges
of an anaptychus.

Lehman makes an interesting argument which is cogent and supported by

evidence, but it is counter-intuitive.Consequently, there remain many who
doubt his interpretation, partly on the grounds that jaws of living
cephalopods are, relative to the size of the body, very small. The giant squid
Architeuthis is about 10 m (33 ft) from the tip of its tentacles to the end of
its tail, but has a jaw apparatus less than 20 cm (8 in) across (about one-
fiftieth of its body length). The jaws of the 30 cm (12 in) long common
squid Loligoforbesi are about I cm (0.5 in) or so across, and so proportionally
similar to those of its giant relative. But an aptychus from a typical
ammonite such as the specimen of Neochetoceras is one-fifi of its body
length. In other words, if the aptychus was part of the ammonite's jaw, then
ammonites were radically different from typical cephalopods in this
respect, with simply enormous jaws. The matter is still hotly debated, and
the factual evidence of Lehman and Schindewolf seems to favour both sides
of the argument.

A M M O N I T E S O F T BODY ANATOMY
Most of what we know about the soft body parts of ammonites is based on
inductive argument by analogy with living cephalopods. There are certain
features present in all living cephalopods which we may safely assume to
have been present in ammonites. A constant feature is a head with
grasping arms surrounding a mouth, within which is the formidable beak,
and behind the beak is the radula. There are eight arms of equal length on
an octopus, while squids and cuttlefish have ten, of which two, the
tentacles, are much longer than the others. The nautilus has between 50
and g o arms, but they are much finer and without suckers. We do not know
if ammonites had eight, ten, or g o arms, whether they had suckers on the
arms or if they were plain like those of the nautilus.
 AMMONITE FOSSILS 49

Like other cephalopods, ammonites were probably carnivores, and the few
fossils found with remains of the gut seem to bear this out. Inside such
fossils, fragments of small crustaceans and echinoderms, plankton, and
even smaller ammonites have been found. Carnivores generally have a
short gut with a simple stomach, since meat is much easier and quicker to
digest than plant material. In squids and cuttlefish, there is a large digestive
organ, or liver, connected to the gut, and when fully digested the inedible
remains empty into the dorsal side of the mantle cavity via the anus.

The mantle cavity also contained the gills, the structures which took up
oxygen from the surrounding water and got rid of waste carbon dioxide.
The nautilus has four gills, two on each side of the animal, while coleoids
have just two. Traditionally, the ammonites have been assumed to have had
four as well, simply because this was thought to be the primitive condition,
50 1 AMMONITES

and ammonites must have been primitive cephalopods like nautiluses.

Now that ammonites are seen to share so many other features with
coleoids, this view has been dropped, and two gills is thought more likely.
But again, until a fossil shows them in place, this is just guesswork. The
flow of water inside the mantle cavity was probably similar to that of other
cephalopods, particularly the nautiluses, as we have described earlier. Water
would have entered the mantle cavity, passed over the gills, the oxygen
extracted, and then forcibly ejected through the hyponome carrying the
animal's waste away with it.

The bloodstream of modem cephalopods is closed, that is, the organs and
tissues are supplied with oxygen by blood which travels in veins and
arteries, and is pushed around by the pumping action of a heart. In fact,

above: Sepia oficinalis, common cuttlefish. Note the camouflage 'tiger stripes'
on the dorsal (top) of the animal, and the enlarged lowest arm.
 AMMONITE FOSSILS 1 51

8phalopod~ have a number of 'hearts', one for each gill, and one more to
nd the oxygenated blood around the body, although their blood pressure
is very low compared to that of a comparably sized vertebrate such as a fish.
Ammonites were presumably no different. A peculiarity of cephalopod
blood is that it is based on a copper pigment called haemocyanin.
~aemocyaninis the most common respiratory pigment seen in molluscs,
but is much less efficient at carrying oxygen than haemoglobin, the
pigment in vertebrate blood. Although inferior to haemoglobin,
haemocyanin works well enough for the low level of activity shown by most
molluscs, but their relatively poor ability to transport oxygen around their
bodies has been an evolutionary handicap to cephalopods. Compared with
similar sized fish, cephalopods have much less stamina. For example,
luids can sprint as well as any fish, but over long distances they tire more
lickly.

All the soft body parts of the ammonite would have been enclosed by the
mantle, and attached to the shell by the muscles. Since the posterior end of
the animal must have formed each septum as the animal grew in width and
moved forward into its enlarging shell, it must have taken on the shape of
the septum before beginning to form it. It should not be forgotten that the
mantle would also need to surround part of the siphuncle to produce the
septa1 neck.
 Cha

AMMONITE
FORM AND FUNCTION
.................................
MOST molluscs have shells, and cephalopods are no exception. What
distinguishes them from other molluscs is the way their shells work.
Gastropods and bivalves have shells primarily to protect them against
predators, but thick, strong shells are heavy, and this prevents them from
being fast-moving animals. In contrast the shells of cephalopods, while
retaining their strength, are not heavy because of the gas-filled chambers,
the phragmocone. It was the acquisition of this neutrally buoyant shell
combined with the ability to swim using jet propulsion that made the
cephalopods such successful marine predators during the early Palaeozoic.
TO some extent they have retained this advantage over invertebrates,
although vertebrates, particularly bony fish, have become pre-eminent in
modern oceans.

There are four key elements to understanding cephalopod form and

function - neutral buoyancy, orientation, jet propulsion, and streamlining
- each of which places compromises on the shell's defensive strength.
Ultimately, cephalopods have had to trade-off
left: A specimen containing increased mobility and swimming efficiency
Asteroceras (large shells) against the defensive properties of the shell.
and Promicroceras (small
shells1 from near Yeovil.
The shell can be thought of as being under a
Somerset, U K constant 'crushing attack' from the surrounding
54 &) AMMONITES

water. The thinness of the shell and the lack of structural support between
each septum, means the shell has little extra strength to resist the
additional forces from a predator's bite. The shell could be thicker, but
only by losing some of the empty space inside, and so with a loss of
buoyancy. In short, the shell can be thick and strong but heavy, or thin and
weak but buoyant, but not both. This is a perfect example of what are
called biological compromises, the end result of evolution having to deal
with contradictory but essential demands. Understanding that such
compromises exist undermines the ancient belief in organisms being in
some way 'perfectly designed' for their way of life, and that every aspect of
their anatomy is fitted to their ecology, a belief known as teleology.
Evolution is instead all about compromises, and advantages are almost
always initially only marginal, but they are cumulative, and the vast
periods of geological time allow these to build up into the amazing
diversity of life we see today.

In Chapter I the appearance of the first cephalopods in the early Cambrian

was described. At that time, most of the other invertebrates, such as
trilobites and gastropods, lived on the sea floor. Swimming above the sea
floor were jellfish, a few small trilobites and some primitive fish-like
chordates, the ancestors of the vertebrates. None of these swimming
animals were powerful swimmers, and they either kept close to the sea
floor or drifted with the plankton. As a result, most animal life proceeded
at a somewhat pedestrian pace: either crawling over the sea floor or
burrowing through it, or staying still and waiting for prey to wander within
reach. Predators and prey lived their lives on the sea floor, and that was
where they kept their eyes and antennae focussed.

The appearance of the cephalopods shattered the ambulatory and two

dimensional world of the late Cambrian. Cephalopods were able to cruise
along almost effortlessly, and so could search large areas for prey quickly.
 A M M O N I T E FORM A N D FUNCTION ( 55

Like owls snatching mice, death came from above for the bottom living
invertebrates of the Cambrian period, and it came rapidly and without
Of course it was only a matter of time before life adapted to these
new predators, some by developing stronger shells, others by learning to.
htlrrow into the sand or otherwise make themselves inconspicuous, but for
vhile these cephalopods were simply the most dangerous animals around.

Modern nautiluses retain the chambered shell as a flotation device, but only
a few coleoids do, for example the cuttlefish and a deep-sea squid-like
animal called Spirula. Although squids do not have chambered shells, some
have evolved an alternative method of acquiring neutral buoyancy - the use
of lightweight chemicals in their tissues, typically ammonium ions (NH;).
Ammonites not only retained the chambered shell, but refined it to such a
degree that many ammonite shells seem over-complicated.To understand
why ammonites had such a diverse array of shell shapes, we must first
understand how they worked in relation to buoyancy, water pressure,
orientation, and streamlining.

BUOYANCY
In the third century BC, the king of Syracuse (modem-day Sicily), Hieron
11, commissioned a goldsmith to ~roducea new crown to be used in an
upcoming religious festival. Hieron gave the artist a certain amount of gold,
but he was convinced that the craftsman had stolen some of the gold, and
that the finished crown had been adulterated with some base metal. But
how could he tell? It weighed just as much as the quantity of gold Hieron
had provided to make the crown. So the king asked Archimedes to solve his
problem.

AS everyone knows, the solution came to Archimedes whilst he was taking

a bath. Archimedes noticed that the surface of the water in the bath rose
when he got in. It is certain that people had overfilled their baths before,
56 AMMONITES

but Archimedes was the first to connect the amount of water that spilled
out of the bath with the volume of his body. This connection now bears his
name, Archimedes' Principle, and it states that the volume of water
displaced is equal to the volume of the body placed into the vessel
containing the water. Note that the weight of the object, or the substance it
is made of, is irrelevant. Archimedes would displace the same amount of
water whether he was made of flesh and bone, bronze or wood. It was this
fact that revealed how Archimedes could solve King Hieron's problem, and
supposedly he was so excited by his discovery that he ran straight to the
palace, without stopping to put on his clothes, shouting "Eureka! Eureka! -
I've got it! I've got it!"

History does not record exactly how Archimedes employed his observations
to test the quality of the crown. Most probably he would have called for an
amount of pure gold similar to that the king had given the goldsmith.
Placed into a vessel of water he could then measure how much water it
displaced. This quantity would be proportional to the volume of that lump
of gold, not its shape or size. He would then repeat the experiment using
the crown, and find out its displacement. If the crown was pure gold, then
the amount of water it displaced would be identical to that of the lump of
pure gold. Unfortunately for the goldsmith, the crown displaced too much
water. This could only mean one thing: it had a greater volume than the
lump of gold, so could not be pure gold. The goldsmith had replaced some
of the gold with another metal, and so attempted to defraud the lung. The
fate of the goldsmith is unknown, but doubtless it was unpleasant.

Archimedes' Principle operates on the relationship between the volume of

an object and the volume of water it displaces. But it leads to a further
development, the Principle of Buoyancy - why some objects sink and some
float. This principle deals with the ratio of the volume of a body and its
mass (density). Mass is the amount of matter in a body, and weight is the
 AMMONITE F O R M AND FUNCTION 1% 57

leasure of mass. If the masslweight of a body is high and the volume is

,w, it will sink in water. Reverse the ratio, high volume and low
rass/weight,and the body will float in water as seen in this example.

lrnagine a submerged submarine which in air weighs a thousand tons. The

submarine has a fked volume, but it can vary its mass by letting water into
its buoyancy tanks, or pushing it out with compressed air. If the thousand-
In submarine displaces exactly a thousand tons of water then it will
either sink nor rise - it is neutrally buoyant.

y letting water into the tanks, the submarine weighs more (increases its
lass) and it sinks. Forcing water out with compressed air has the reverse
Ted, the submarine weighs less (decreases its mass) and rises. Living
~ttles,the odd little Spirula, and nautiluses use their phragmacones
('buoyancy' tanks) in this way, and it is reasonable to suppose that the
phragmacones of fossil nautiluses, belemnites and ammonites functioned
in this way.

ephalo~odtissues are slightly more dense than sea water, and the material
from which the shell is made, aragonite, is almost three times more dense
than sea water. This means that the cephalopod tissues and shell weigh
more than the water they displace, and so the upwards force is not enough
to make them float. Adding chambers to a shell and then filling them with
gas increases the volume of the animal without adding significantly to its
weight. If the volume of water displaced is sufficiently great that the lift
produced matches the weight of the animal, then it will neither float nor
sink, but float in mid water. This is precisely what modern nautiluses and
cuttlefish do, and presumably so did ammonites, allowing them to hold
their position in the water column without actively swimming. In contrast,
squids, lacking a chambered shell, usually weigh more than the water they
displace, so tend to sink, and must swim continuously to stop sinking.
58 1 AMMONITES

As described earlier, nautiluses build their chambered shells throughout

their lives, adding new chambers as they grow. It is the siphuncle that does
the work of emptying the chambers. The siphuncle has a semi-permeable
membrane, which means that it only allows small molecules, like gases and
water, to cross it. Larger molecules, like salts, sugars and proteins, cannot.
When a chamber is completed, it is at first filled with ordinary sea water.
The nautilus then modifies the acidity and salt content of the blood which
flows through the siphunde. The increase in salt sets up an osmotic
gradient between the bloodstream and the sea water in the chamber. The
water then moves from the less concentrated sea water into the more
concentrated blood. Because the siphuncle is only semi-permeable, salt
cannot escape from the blood into the sea water. The saltiness of the blood
in the siphuncle does not decrease, and so water keeps moving from the
chamber into the siphuncle.
The net effect of this is to
reduce the amount of water in
the chamber. This reduces the
pressure in the chamber as the
water level drops, which causes gas
to diffuse out from the blood and
into the chamber. The change in
the acidity of the blood further
promotes this by making gases less
soluble in the blood. The overall
process is therefore one of draining
water out of the chamber and
letting gases passively diffuse in. In
above: Over time the siphuncle draws out this way the nautilus produces a
the water 'emptying' the chamber, while gas which is large but very light,
diffuses out of the blood in the siphuncle
filling the empty space.
reducing its overall density and
 A M M O N I T E FORM A N D FUNCTION 1 59

giving it neutral buoyancy. Of course, as the nautilus grows in size it must

compensate for its increase in weight, but there are otherwise no
limitations on the potential size of the animal provided it can keep adding
and emptylng new chambers. Besides the nautiluses, the few coleoids that
have chambered shells employ exactly the same system, and ammonites
are believed to have done so as well.

WATER PRESSURE
water pressure on an object increases the deeper you go, and for a hollow
object like a gas-filled chambered shell it is a major problem. Even on land,
we are exposed to the weight of the 500 krn (310 miles) thick atmosphere
pressing against our bodies. This force, called air pressure, is at sea level
said to be 'I atmosphere'. This translates into a force equivalent to a weight
of I kg pushing down on an area of I cm" (15 lb/in2.We do not notice this
force because our bodies are adapted to cope with it. This sounds like a lot
of force, but bones, tissues and fluid-filled cells resist compressive forces
well, and this amount of pressure does no harm. Furthermore, air pressure
changes very little. Moving up or down tens or even hundreds of metres
makes very little difference to the pressure to which an animal is exposed.
Even a visit to a high altitude city like Denver, Colorado at an altitude of
3000 m (9843 fi) subjects the visitor to an air pressure only 2 or 3 per cent
less than at a sea level city like New York. The air is said to be a little
'thinner', meaning a given volume of air has less oxygen than it would at
sea level. Since our lungs do not change in size as we travel around, a
breath-full at Denver holds less oxygen than it would at sea level, and some
people feel a bit faint for the first few days until they get used to it.

Water is a much more rigorous medium than air in this respect, since it is
much more dense, and much heavier. At the surface of the sea, water
pressure is exactly the same as it is on dry land at sea level, namely
I atmosphere, but it increases by I atmosphere with every additional 10 m
(33 ft) depth. Solid objects are not greatly affected by water pressure, since
they are non-compressible, and rocks and stones on the bottom of the sea
have the same shape and volume as they would on dry land. The same
holds true for water, which is also virtually non-compressible, and I kg
(15 lb) of sea water has the same volume at the bottom of the ocean as it
does at the surface. Hollow objects are very different, as gases compress
readily with increasing depth. Manufactured structures tend to be hollow
and filled with air, so are very sensitive to water pressure. Submarines are
a good example of such a structure, being essentially hollow tubes filled
with air. Anyone who has seen movies about submarines will be familiar
with unsettling creaks as the metal strains to resist the crushing force of the
surrounding water. Even with the best design and strongest metals,
submarines are only able to go down to relatively trivial depths compared
with the greatest depths of the ocean. An 80 m (262 ft) depth is the sort of
dive a submarine might do to try and escape from a destroyer, whereas
most of the floor of the ocean is between 1000 and 5000 m (3280 and
16,400 ft) further down. Even at 80 m (262 ft), a submarine has to resist a
water pressure of no less than nine times atmospheric pressure. Implosion
- the catastrophic failure of the hull to resist the force of water pressure -
is a very real danger to submarines. At 200 m (650 ft), a submarine must
resist 21 atmospheres, which is roughly equivalent to 210 tonnes (230 tons)
of weight being pressed down on every square metre of the surface of the
ship! This is a staggering amount of force, and is about the limit for most
military submarines. Only special deep-sea submersibles can go any
further down, and they are all very small vessels with thick hulls and are
usually spherical in shape.

When oceanographers started diving to the bottom of the sea in

submersibles they found to their astonishment that there were lots of
animals living there. Even the appropriately named abyssal plain teemed
with life. The abyssal plain lies (on average) below 4000 m (13,124 ft) of
 A M M O N I T E FORM A N D FUNCTION 1 61

water, and so the ambient water pressure is over 400 atmospheres, which
translates to about 4000 tonnes/mz (4400 tons/in2). In this harsh and
sunless realm can be found thousands of different species of anemones,
corals, worms, snails, sea cucumbers, starfish, shrimps, crabs, and fish.
Some have shells, but many, like the anemones and sea cucumbers, are
completely soft bodied and often rather watery or flabby in appearance.
provided the shells and bones are solid and any soft tissues are completely
filled with water or some other liquid, then the pressure does not crush
these animals in the way it would a submarine. While there are numerous
cephalopods at this depth, mostly squids and octopuses, there are no
cephalopods with chambered shells. Cuttlefish are only found in water of
less than zoo m (650 ft) depth, and the nautiluses between zoo and
400 m (G5o and 1312 ft).The deepest diving cephalopod with a chambered
shell is Spirula,.which inhabits waters down to about 1000 m (3280 ft).

Why are cephalopods with chambered shells absent from the deepest parts
of the ocean? Nautiluses have been intensively studied in this regard, and
the limitation appears to be water pressure. Below a certain depth, the shell
is unable to resist the compressive forces of water pressure. This limit is at
around 700 m (2296 fi), and beneath that depth the shell is at risk of
imploding, which is fatal for the animal. Cuttlefish are even more severely
limited. They have a very distinctive shell, the cuttlebone, which is divided
into thousands of tiny thin-walled chambers, giving it a rather flaky texture.
This design allows the animal to change its density very quickly, and unlike
the nautilus can actually use these changes to rise or sink in the water
column like a submarine. However, this open design makes the shell
structurally weak, and this restricts cuttlefish to shallow water. The only
cephalopod with a chambered shell living in deep water, Spirula, seems to
lessen the problem of water pressure by being very small. Its shell is tiny
for a cephalopod, only 2-3 cm (I in) in diameter, and its walls are
proportionately thicker.
62 1 AMMONITES

Ammonite shells are chambered like those of the nautilus, so the

assumption is that the ammonites lived at a similar range of depths.
However, as we have seen, the septa of ammonites are far more complex
than those of the nautilus. Many palaeontologists believe that the
elaboration of the junction between the septa and the wall of the shell was
an adaptation to living in deep water where the water pressure is greater.
The folds could have spread out the forces produced by water pressure
more evenly around the shell, reducing the stress on the junction between
the septum and the shell wall. However, ammonites are not commonly
found in deep water sediments, and the majority seem to have inhabited
shallow coastal seas between about 50 and zoo m (1G5 and Gso ft). So why
did they need to be adapted to deep water, when the modern nautiluses,
which live in much deeper water, have shells with very simple sutures. One
possible solution to this contradiction is that ammonites did not go into
particularly deep water, but by having shell designs that were intrinsically
more robust they could make them thinner and lighter than those of
nautiluses. In this way they would have been able to produce shells more
quickly using less material, and consequently grown much faster. An
alternative explanation of the function of the complex septum implies they
were an adaptation not to water pressure but to predation. The suture line
is seen as a mechanism for distributing what are called 'point forces'
around the shell. Point forces are produced when sharp or pointed objects,
such as the teeth of a shark, press against the shell. The force is
concentrated in a small area, the point, and if the force is sufficient, the
shell is pierced. If a point force can be distributed around the shell, the
stress at any one point is reduced, and it becomes less likely that the shell
will break.

ORIENTATION
It should now be clear how ammonites were able to attain neutral
buoyancy, within the limits set by water pressure. However, simply being
 A M M O N I T E F O R M A N D FUNCTION 1 63

above: The centre of mass is vertically below the centre of buoyancy so that
when the nautilus pumps water out of the hyponome, it causes the shell to rock.
like pushing a pendulum. This uses energy which is not used for propulsion and
is therefore an inefficient mode of swimming.

able to float is useless if the animal cannot swim properly, catch its food, or
see its enemies. In other words, it must be oriented properly. The
orientation of a floating object depends on the relative positions of the
centre of mass and the centre of buoyancy. Normally an object will float
with the centre of mass vertically below the centre of buoyancy.

It is easy to imagine this if one considers a hot-air balloon. The basket in

which the passengers stand - the gondola - is much the heaviest part of
the whole structure, so the centre of mass of a hot-air balloon can be
assumed to be in the gondola. On the other hand, the volume of the
gondola is so small compared with the huge bag which contains the hot air
64 ! AMMONITES

- the envelope - that the centre of mass of the air displaced by the balloon
will be somewhere inside the envelope. Consequently, the balloon will float
with the gondola directly below the envelope. If the gondola is pushed by a
gust of wind to one side, then the centre of mass is no longer directly below
the centre of buoyancy. This is an unstable orientation, and the gondola will
swing back until it is directly below the envelope once more.

Cephalopod shells are like underwater balloons. The animal itself is small
but heavy, and occupies only the final chamber of the shell. This is where
the centre of mass is. The chambered part of the shell, the phragmocone,
is light but accounts for most of the volume of the animal, and so displaces
most of the water. The centre of buoyancy is here. When free-floating, the
orientation of a cephalopod such as a nautilus will be with the centre of
mass, the body, vertically below the centre of buoyancy, the chambered
shell. For coiled nautiluses and ammonites this means that the body
chamber is close to the sea floor, and that the aperture points forwards and
slightly upwards.

right: In many species of

ammonites, the aperture appears to
- - Z Z

have pointed more or less upwards.

 AMMONITES 1

plate 1: The shell of the nautiloid Nautilus pompilius sectioned to show body
chamber, septa and siphuncle.
68 ) AMMONITES
 AMMONITES ( 69

plates 6, 7, and 8: The Lower Jurassic oxycone ammonite

Oxynoticeras oxynotum.

The sectioned photograph [opposite] shows tall chambers with green calcite
and yellow pyritised septa; above left is a ventral view, and above right is a
lateral view of the same specimen.
70 1 AMMONITES

plates 9 and 10:

Large spines on the Upper
Cretaceous ammonite
Collignoceras woolgari.
 AMMONITES I

plate 11: Spiral lines on the phragmacone

and body chamber of the Lower Jurassic
ammonite Liparoceras naptonensis.These
lines break up the outline of the animal in
order to confuse a predator.

plate 12: A specimen of the fossil

C
nautiloid Aturia from the M~ocene
of Australia, which, despite being
30 Ma old, presetves some traces
of its 'tiger stripe' coloration, very
similar to that of living species of
nautilus.
 I AMMONITES

plate 13: Microconch with lappets, of the Upper Jurassic ammonite

Aulacostephanus autissiodarensis.
 AMMONITES I

plate 14: Macroconch of the Upper Jurassic ammonite Aulacostephanus

autissiodarensis.
 ( AMMONITES

plate 15: The partially uncoiled Upper Cretaceous ammonite Scaphites nodosus
from the USA.
 AMMONITES 1 75

plate 16: Bost~ychoceras

polyplocuin from the Upper
Cretaceous of Germany. The
coiling is loose and slightly
open, and the aperture is on
the right hand side [dextral)'
instead of the usual left hand
side (sinistral).
 ( AMMONITES

plate 19: Part of

the phragmacone of
an Upper Cretaceous
straight ammonite,
Baculites sp.
 AMMONITES I

plate 17: Middle Jurassic Parkinsonia dorsetensis ammonite has

been polished to show 'suture' lines, frilled edges of the septa which
separate the chambers.
 I AMMONITES

m
plate 18: Titanites sp. a macroconch from the Upper Jurassic of the UK.
 AMMONITES I

plate 20: Scaphites sp. preserved w ~ t hsome of the or~glnalshell, the metalic
wh~te'mother of pearl' layer. Normally, the actual shell IS replaced with minerals
 I AMMONITES

plate 21: Ammonite marble cut and polished for ornamental use.
 AMMONITE FORM AND FUNCTION 1 81

Ammonites vary greatly in the length of the body chamber and the way the
shell is coiled. There are some ammonites with short body chambers, about
a third or a half of a whorl, but most have body chambers much longer than
this. The Jurassic ammonite Dactylioceras is typical, with the body chamber
occupying the entire final whorl of the shell. In such ammonites the
aperture would have been oriented upwards. Such an ammonite would not
have been able to see the sea floor, much less gather food from it. It is also
unclear how such an animal could have swum, and so these ammonites
have been interpreted as being plankton drifters. Working out how these
ammonites would have been oriented depends on how big and how heavy
the soft body of the animal was, something for which there is little
evidence. For example, a heteromorph ammonite with an open hook-
shaped shell such as Hamites can be restored with a body occupying the
complete hook, in which case the aperture points upwards. But suppose
that the body was much smaller, and like a snail it could move along the
living chamber. With the body at the front of the living chamber, the shell
would point forwards and only slightly away from the sea floor. If the
ammonite was disturbed then it could pull itself deep into its shell for
protection, and the aperture would tip upwards and away from the sea.

JET PROPULSION, HALF A BILLION YEARS

BEFORE FRANK WHITTLE
Jet propulsion came quite late in the development of aircraft. Hot-air
balloons similar to those still in use today were invented during the
eighteenth century, and solid fuel rockets even earlier. Gliders sturdy
enough to carry a human were in production by the close of the nineteenth
century, and by the first decade of the twentieth century the addition of
propellers driven by a lightweight internal combustion engine allowed the
Wright brothers to make the first powered flight. It was not until the 1940s
that Frank Whittle designed and built the first jet aeroplanes for the RAF
towards the end of the Second World War, so it is perhaps surprising that
82 1 AMMONITES

the cephalopods have used exactly the same principles to get around
quickly and efficiently for 500 million years.

A jet is in fact a very simple machine. It operates by taking fluid in at one

end and compressing it. This pressurised fluid is then released through a
nozzle, and the reaction against the rapid escape of this pressurised fluid
drives the jet forward. In aeroplanes the fluid is of course air, while
cephalopods use water.

In most aquatic molluscs the continual movement of cilia on the gills

produces a gentle current between the mantle cavity and the outside, which
refreshes the water inside the mantle cavity. This is important, since the
gills extract the oxygen the animal needs from this water, while the kidneys
and gut empty out the waste products of metabolism and digestion. For
some molluscs, this gentle rate of mantle cavity circulation is insufficient.
Mussels and oysters live in silty environments and frequently get clogged-
up with the fine particles they draw in along with the plankton they eat.
Periodically, they clap their two shells together, rather like castanets, rapidly
flushing out the water in the mantle cavity along with mud or silt. Scallops
have taken this clapping motion a step further, and use it in a much more
regular and controlled manner, allowing them to swim. They can move fast
enough to escape from their main predators, starfish. In the most advanced
species, water is sucked in at the front and sides at low pressure, and then
sent out in two high pressure jets from the back. They also have smooth,
streamlined shells and two rows of tiny but sensitive eyes; these scallops are
alert and surprisingly capable swimmers.

Cephalopods also push water through the mantle cavity using muscular
contractions, but their system is more sophisticated than that employed by
scallops. It needs to be: while scallops spend most of the time resting on the
sea floor unless disturbed, cephalopods must move constantly to find food
 AMMONITE FORM AND FUNCTION 1 83

and avoid predators. In Chapter I we described how nautiluses use muscles

to squeeze out water from the mantle cavity through the hyponome, to
a powerful jet of water. The mechanism used by squids, cuttlefish
and octopuses differs slightly from this. Instead of squeezing the water out
of the mantle cavity, the mantle itself is able to contract in a very forceful
manner. The water escapes through a nozzle, which in these cephalopods
is a single flexible tube called a 'siphon'. When the mantle relaxes it
expands, and water is sucked back in to refresh the mantle cavity.

Whether or not ammonites had jet propulsion, of either the nautilus or

squid variety, is a matter of hot debate among palaeontologists. On the one
hand they did have buoyant shells, like nautiluses, and retractor muscle
scars are present on the inside of the shell indicating that they were able to
pull the body into the shell. Also, as jet propulsion occurs in living
examples of both primitive cephalopods (the nautiluses) and advanced
cephalopods (the squids, and even the largely bottom dwelling octopuses),
it is reasonable to suppose that jet propulsion was a characteristic of all
extinct cephalopods, including the ammonites. However, the hyponomic
sinus is not present in most ammonites, and in some species the apertural
constriction or rostrum would have obstructed the hyponome, so perhaps
ammonites did not have a hyponome. The spines and ribs on many
ammonites would have greatly increased drag, as would the open coiling of
some ammonites, particularly the heteromorphs. Finally, the body
chambers of ammonites are totally unsuitable for producing an efficient
and powerful jet of water. The mantle cavities of both nautiluses and squids
are relatively short and broad, so that each ventilation cycle is brief but
strong. In contrast the body chambers of ammonites are long and narrow,
and in the case of many species of heteromorph, highly convoluted. These
are the worst shapes for producing a good jet of water; the head would need
to be pulled in a long way to flush out a useful amount of water and the
bends in the chambers would waste energy instead of turning it into thrust.
84 AMMONITES

STREAMLINING
Although living cephalopods have a powerful source of thrust in jet
propulsion, the key to swimming efficiently is minimising drag. Perhaps
the biggest obstacle to assuming that ammonites were adept swimmers is
that so many of them seem to have had shells that produced lots of drag.

Drag is the name given to the forces which inhibit the movement of an
object through a fluid. There are three main forces: friction, adhesion, and
suction. Friction is the resistance of water against the forward motion of the
object. As the animal moves through the water, the molecules of water rub
and jostle against its surface, catching on the small imperfections on the
animal's skin, slowing it down. Water is a 'sticky' or viscous fluid and
adheres to any animal trying to swim through it; this adhesion is the second
source of drag. Finally, as the animal swims forwards the space it occupied
is instantly filled with water, being drawn in by suction. This suction is the
negative pressure region where the animal was before it moved forwards -
the empty space - and though it sucks in water, it also sucks back the
animal. To keep moving, the animal must resist this force.

A swimming animal must therefore overcome all these forces if it is to keep

moving. For very small animals these forces are insurmountably large
relative to their own power. For example, small insects which accidentally
land on the surface of a pool of water find it so 'sticky' they cannot take off
again. For bigger animals, including cephalopods, the forces of drag are
relatively weak, but they do add up. To have the greatest acceleration or to
swim at a fixed speed using the minimum of energy, an animal needs a
body shape that creates the minimum of drag; such shapes are said to be
streamlined.

Friction and adhesion are dependent on the surface area of an object, the
larger the surface area the more water molecules it disturbs and the more
 A M M O N I T E FORM A N D FUNCTION 85

molecules can stick to it. Smooth objects have a lower surface area
than rough or spiny ones, and so swimming animals tend to have smooth
bodies without projections of any sort. (Certain very small projections
reduce drag, by trapping a layer of water around the object to form a sort of
lubricant. Shark skin has tiny tooth-like spines all over it, which seem to
work in this way.)

Overall shape is important, not just texture, and rounded edges rather than
square or flat ones reduce drag by reducing the turbulence produced as the
object moves along. Less turbulence means that the suction force behind
the animal is smaller.

Theoretically, the best shape for moving in water is one that is rounded in
front and tapering at the back. Unsurprisingly, many fast moving aquatic
animals have this shape, such as salmon, dolphins and penguins. Squid
also have this shape, though compared with fish they are 'back to front',
with the rounded tail-end leading and the head and arms trailing. When
swimming at top speed, squids wrap their fins around their bodies and pull
the arms into a tight cone, further improving their streamlining. Cuttlefish
and octopuses are not as streamlined as squids, and they do not swim as
quickly or for such long distances. Nautiluses are poorly streamlined
compared with squids, but they are very slow swimmers and so
streamlining is probably not important. At very low speeds the savings on
energy gained by being streamlined are small and may not be worth it if
they compromise other aspects of design. This is why the Japanese express
'bullet trains' are streamlined and the subway trains on the London
Underground are not: at 250 krn/hr-I (155 mph) the savings are real and
valuable; at 40 km/hr-I (25 rnph) they are irrelevant. On the other hand, if
efficiency is important, then any savings, however marginal, are
worthwhile, as can be seen in the smooth and rounded designs of most
motor-cars produced today.
86 ' AMMONITES

Historically, ammonites have been described as being good or bad

swimmers on the basis of streamlining alone, irrespective of any other
aspect of shell shape such as the length of the body chamber. For example,
ammonites with globose shells covered in spines or ribs were considered to
be unable to swim quickly, and so must have lived on the sea floor. Other
ammonites with smooth, disc-like shells were supposed to be well
streamlined and so must have been fast and efficient swimmers. This is
now believed to be a gross oversimplification, and experiments using
model ammonites in water tanks show that on the whole ammonites were
about as well streamlined as the nautilus, or worse. None was anything like
as well streamlined for swimming as the squids.

DEFENCE
In all molluscs with external shells, whatever else the shell does it must also
provide a final line of defence against predators. At its very simplest a shell
should be a barrier through which a predator cannot attack, and so it is not
surprising that many molluscs have thick shells. The downside to having a
thick shell is that it is heavy and takes longer to build than a thinner shell.
A compromise reached by some molluscs, particularly marine snails, is to
only thicken the shell in certain places while leaving the rest of the shell
relatively thin. Although the thin part of the shell can be broken easily, the
predator will hopefully be stopped when it reaches one of the thick barriers,
called varices. Another solution is to make the shell too difficult for the
predator to handle, thereby putting off the predator which will go and find
an easier target. Spines and ribs are commonly found on snails and clams,
as well as almost all ammonites, although surprisingly very few fossil
nautiluses, and none of the living species. In some cases the spines may
simply be a 'hedgehog1defence - by covering the entire surface and being
long and sharp they make the animal inside an unpalatable mouthful. More
often the spines are arranged in distinct rows along the shell and not all
over, and so probably do not work in exactly that way. Instead they may
 A M M O N I T E FORM A N D FUNCTION ) 87

ake the shell seem bigger than it is, especially to predators that need to
ke the entire shell into their mouth or between their claws. If these sorts
'predators cannot handle the shell properly, they cannot open it.

any molluscs also use their shell to avoid detection by predators.

Disruptive patterns break up the outline of the shell making the animal
difficult to spot, particularly against complex backgrounds like coral or
seaweed. Camouflage patterns also hide the outline of the animal by
blending in with the surroundings. This is usually done by adopting the
same colours and textures as the background. The nautilus seems to
combine disruptive and camouflage patterns on one shell. Its red-brown
stripes resemble those of the tiger, and break up its outline, but they are not
uniformly distributed. Instead, they are boldest on the top surface and
absent from the underside, the resulting pattern providing a form of
camouflage known as countershading. From above, the nautilus is dark
and so difficult to spot against the dark water below; while looking from
underneath, the creamy white underside matches the light filtering down
from above. The coleoids have internal shells, and they are well known for
their colour-changing abilities. Small pockets of coloured pigments inside
the skin can be expanded and contracted. The combined effect of
thousands of these special cells is rather like the pixels on a computer
screen, and almost any pattern or shade can be adopted.

Unfortunately, fossils very rarely preserve colours or patterns, and so we

know next to nothing about what ammonite shells looked like in this
regard. A few Tertiary nautiluses preserve traces of colour banding very
similar to that of living nautiluses, as described in Chapter I, suggesting
that countershading might have been relatively common among externally
shelled cephalopods. On the other hand, there are a few ammonite fossils
which show bold markings, such as zigzags and spirals, and so these
species at least might have relied on some kind of disruptive coloration.
 ASPECTS
O F AMMONITE BIOLOGY
....................................
WE know very little about the food of ammonites compared with what we
know about the feeding habits of living cephalopods. Many shallow water
species of cephalopod have been observed in the wild or in aquaria,
including squids, cuttlefish, octopuses and nautiluses. The feeding habits
of the open ocean and deep sea species have been deduced from the
stomach contents of some caught by net or line. ?his gives us a fairly firm
basis from which we can interpret the evidence from the fossil record.

NAUTILUS
The nautilus is the logical animal to start with since it is the living
cephalopod which most obviously resembles the ammonites. Like many of
us, it is very fond of crustaceans, particularly large prawns and lobsters.
This is borne out by the stomach contents of specimens taken from the
wild, and also by the relish with which
left: The Lower Cretaceous nautiluses feed on these animals in captivity.
ammonite Australiceras sp.
from Australia showing Nautiluses are opportunist feeders, meaning
damage to the shell. that they will take what they can find. Exactly
Producing a v-shaped track
near the outer edge. The
how they forage is not completely understood
Persistence of the track since our observations of wild nautiluses are
implies that the mantle was
also damaged. Size, 8.5 cm
limited, but the sense of touch and smell seem
3.4 in] width. to be most important. As it swims along, the
90 AMMONITES

nautilus sweeps its tentacles through the water and on the sea bed.
Obviously this system has its limitations - any fish or shrimp which feels a
nautilus tentacle can try to make a quick escape into its burrow - and the
nautilus is probably not a very effective hunter. A peculiarity of the nautilus
compared with squids and octopuses is that it eats the shells as well as the
flesh, and will also eat the cast-off moults of large crustaceans even though
they might seem rather unappetising. Possibly these shells are a valuable
source of calcium which it needs to build its shell. Fossil nautiloids have
been sectioned and found to contain pieces of crustacean, showing that
nautiluses have been feeding on these animals for a very long time.

CUTTLEFISH
Cuttlefish have been kept in aquaria for many years, and their feeding
habits are well known. Usually they settle on to the fine sand at the bottom
of the tank and use their uncanny colour changing abilities to blend in
perfectly, sometimes adding a sprinkle of sand over their backs to complete
the disguise. If a small shrimp or fish is put into the tank, the cuttlefish will
stay quite still until the animal moves into range, then, almost explosively,
its two long arms shoot out and the little animal is captured. The whole
process takes a fraction of a second - the arms shoot out in one hundredth
of a second, and the prey is pulled back within one eightieth of a second.
Facilitating this remarkable hunting method is particularly fine eyesight.
Cuttlefish have binocular vision that allows them to see their prey and
judge the distance and direction of their target before making an attack.
The nautilus, with its poor, monocular vision could never do such a thing.

OCTOPUSES
Octopuses also hunt on the sea bed but they tend not to wait patiently llke
the cuttlefish. They are active hunters and investigate every possible nook
and cranny among the rocky habitats they favour in their quest for food.
Like the nautilus and cuttlefish they are very fond of crustaceans. Despite
 ASPECTS OF A M M O N I T E BIOLOGY 1 91

their soft and clumsy appearance, octopuses are quite adept at catching and
oveirpowering species as large as the edible crab, and sometimes even the
- rrnidable lobster falls prey. Octopuses will also eat large gastropods and
ams, and even fish if they can catch one. A few species have been
~cumentedmaking brief excursions overland between rock-pools in
rch of prey, taking any prey they encounter en route - including rats!
opuses feed in a distinctive way using their beak and a venomous saliva.
With crustaceans and molluscs they use the radula to rasp a hole through
the shell into which they inject the venom. The prey is paralysed almost at
nnr e, and the saliva can begin the process of digestion, loosening the
mu scles from the shell. After a while the octopus sucks the meat cleanly out
oft'he shell, discarding the almost intact shell. In a few species this venom
powerful enough to be painful to humans, and one species, the blue-ring
:topus, is deadly.

SQUIDS
Squids differ from all the other cephalopods as they feed not on the sea
floor but in mid-water. Fish is a favoured prey item of many species, but
swimming crustaceans such as krill are also taken. In fact squids are
voracious and will attack almost anything that moves, including other
squids. They rely on their great speed to approach their target quickly, and
like the cuttlefish they have extendable arms which they use for snatching
their prey quickly. Many species have sharp hooks on these arms, rather
like cat's claws, for grabbing hold of fish which tend to be too slippery for
simple suckers.

Not all squids are so active. One family, the Cranchidae, are passive drifters
inhabiting relatively deep water. Instead of swimming they float, buoyed up
by ammonium-rich tissues. Their bodies have a flabby, jelly-like appearance
and a distinctly unpleasant smell. They are hugely abundant and form a
major part of the diet of the deep-diving bottlenose and sperm whales,
92 & AMMONITES

although to humans they are unpalatable. When oceanographers began

mapping the sea floor they were surprised to see sonar echoes well above
the sea floor, and that this 'deep scattering layer' as it was called, moved
upwards at dusk and back down by dawn. The deep scattering layer is now
known to be dense schools of fish, crustaceans and squids. During the
daytime they inhabit deep water (between about 200 to 800 m
(650-2620 fi)) away from many of the major predatory fish, seabirds and
dolphins. When night falls these huge schools of animals swim upwards,
into the top 200 m (650 ft) of the sea, where they can feed on the tiny
planktonic plants and animals that are there. By daybreak the squids,
cmstaceans and fish have begun the return trip back to the safety of deeper
water. This up and down cycle is called a diurnal vertical migration.

AMMONITES
So much for the living cephalopods then, but what about ammonites? In
Chapter 3 we discussed the swimming abilities of ammonites, which seem
to have been limited at best. Also, while some contemporary cephalopods,
such as belemnites, have been found with hooks suggesting that they had
grasping arms like those of squids, no ammonite has ever been found with
similar hooks. If ammonites could not pursue or catch fish, how did they
feed, and what did they eat? In rare cases, ammonites have been found with
what seem to be their last meals inside the living chamber. These remains
include ostracods (tinycmstaceans around 1-2 mm in length or around 0.1
in), benthic foraminifera (single-celled organisms) and pieces of crinoid
(filter-feedingechinoderms distantly related to starfish and sea-urchins).
Broken up ammonite shells have also been found inside the living
chamber, suggesting that at least some ammonites ate others of their kind.
The problem is that we cannot be absolutely sure that what are interpreted
as gut contents in ammonite fossils are actually that; the remains of other
animals could easily have been incorporated as sediment filled the empty
ammonite shell. At face value, at least, it would seem that while ammonites
 ASPECTS O F A M M O N I T E BIOLOGY 1 93

ate many different things they did not share quite the same tastes as
modern cephalopods - the remains of fish, large crabs and lobsters are
notably absent. In fact the list of animals they fed on can be divided into two
groups: tiny benthic animals (ostracods and foraminifera) and larger but
still slow moving animals (echinoderms and other ammonites).

The heteromorph ammonites are a special case. Virtually nothing is known

for certain about their diet, any more than about their mode of life, but the
shape of their shells do indicate that many could not have been powerful
swimmers. Heteromorphs, such as the straight-shelledBaculites are shaped
in such a way that the head would have hung straight down, and so if they
could swim at all it would have been vertically and not horizontally. The
obvious analogue among living cephalopods would be the cranchid squids
with their diurnal vertical migrations. Did these ammonites move from
deep water during the day into shallow water at night to feed? Heteromorph
ammonites with helical shells, such as Tumlites, would also have hung
head downwards, but even a gentle jet of water would have been enough to
make them spin. Imagine a Cretaceous evening scene a few miles offshore
at dusk. At a depth of IOO m (330 ft) or so, vast shoals of helical ammonites,
each one jo cm (12 in) or so in height, are slowly corkscrewing their way
upwards. Each one is trailing its long tentacles, sweeping through the water
and reeling in any tasty morsel it finds. Such a feeding method would have
been very efficient, allowing them to search the surrounding water
thoroughly for every scrap of food. For tens of millions of years these
elegant, pirouetting predators must have been a very distinctive and
beautiful part of the marine realm.

SEXUAL D I M O R P H I S M
During the nineteenth century, geologists recorded where they had
collected fossils according to the standards of the time, often no more
94 AMMONITES

precisely than the 'upper', 'middle' or 'lower' part of a formation. Indeed, a

large proportion of specimens in the older museums are labelled in this
way. The problem with this is that the Upper Chalk, for example, was
deposited over a period of millions of years. The twentieth century saw a
progressive refinement of the stratigraphical divisions into smaller and
more clearly defined intervals, some as brief as 20,000 years. Fossils
collected from these narrow intervals produce assemblages of specimens
which can be assumed to have lived more or less contemporaneously. Such
'bed-by-bed' collecting, as it is called, has proved especially interesting with
regard to ammonites, showing that often two forms with very similar
growth and shape characteristics occurred together, the two forms differing
primarily in size alone.

TWO FORMS
At first, the two different forms were thought to be separate, though closely
related, species. However, closer inspection of each form revealed a very
curious thing: until they reached maturity, they were identical. The smaller
variety, known as the microconch, looks very like the early whorls of the
larger macroconch. It appears that the microconch and macroconch were
growing in the same way, but the microconch stopped halfway through.
Besides being bigger, the macroconch usually has longer body chambers,
two-thirds of a whorl or more, whereas the body chambers of the
microconch are only about half a whorl (see plates 13-14). A further
distinction between the microconch and the macroconch is the shape of the
living chamber, particularly the aperture. The microconch often possesses
lappets, lateral extensions of the shell on either side of the aperture. Well
developed lappets are typical of the late Jurassic ammonite Kosmoceras, the
microconch having lappets equal in length to the diameter of the shell,
which the macroconch lacks. The ornamentation on the later whorls of the
macroconch is often weaker than it is on the earlier whorls, and on the final
whorl may be absent altogether. In the late Cretaceous ammonite
 ASPECTS OF AMMONITE BIOLOGY 1 95

Mortoniceras, the macroconch possesses a long, hook-like rostrum. Among

the heteromorphs, the microconch of the straight-shelled heteromorph
r ",t ites has a tapered aperture with fluted edges, while the aperture of the
LCbII

mac:Toconch is curved over into a hood-like structure. So what were these

two distinct 'varieties' of otherwise similar ammonites?

AS mentioned in Chapter I, the male argonaut is much smaller than the

" male, and a similar arrangement can be seen in other invertebrates, such
spiders. Although there is no conclusive evidence, many
.laeontologists now believe that the two varieties of ammonite -
microconch and macroconch - were in fact the male and female of a single
species. The question is which was which?

WHICH IS W H I C H ?
If we look at living cephalopods, except for the nautilus, it is the females
that are larger. Coleoid reproduction is very curious, and when these
animals were first studied they caused much confusion. All coleoids have
eight arms (plus two tentacles in the case of squids and cuttlefish), but in
the males one of these arms is modified. This arm is called the hectocotylus
and has a groove running along the inside. To fertilise a female, the male
places a packet of sperm, called a spermatophore, inside this modified arm
and then pushes the arm into the mantle cavity ofthe female. The arm then
breaks off the male's body. He may remain close to the female to make sure
no other male tries to mate with his chosen female, but otherwise his part
of the mating process is over, and he dies soon after. The female breaks
open the spermatophore when she is ready to fertilise and lay her eggs.
During the nineteenth century, when naturalists first dissected
cephalopods, once in a while they would find a female with a hectocotylus
inside. They thought it was some sort of parasitic worm, which had taken
on the appearance of a cephalopod arm as a disguise; they called these
worms Hectocotylus ('arm with a hundred suckers'). Now we know that
 96 ! AMMONITES

above: A microconch of the Middle Jurassic ammonite Kosmocerasphaeinum.

these are not worms at all, but the name has stuck. Since males only have
one hectocotylus and one spermatophore, they can fertilise a female only
once, so there is no need to defend a harem of females or defend a territory.
On the other hand, the female's part in reproduction persists long after
fertilisation. She produces relatively large eggs for a mollusc, and each egg
is endowed with a large quantity of yolk. Female squids place the eggs
inside tough cases which protect them from predators, while octopuses
 ASPECTS OF AMMONITE BIOLOGY 1 97

ace the eggs inside a cave and stay with them until they hatch. But in all
ses, the female dies soon after. This is an energetically expensive way of
doing things, but does mean that when they hatch, the babies are perfectly
formed little predators well able to look after themselves. In contrast,
molluscs like clams and limpets cast large numbers of tiny eggs into the
plankton. This means they have access to the microscopic animals and

above: A macroconch of the Middle Jurass~cammonite Kosmoceras phaeinum.

plants there for food instead of the yolk sac - but they also run the risk of
being eaten by the countless larger animals that feed on the plankton.

The nautilus is, as is so often the case, very different. Both sexes have
dozens of thin arms, but the male has one large, spoon-like arm called a
spadix with which he can place the spermatophore inside the female.
Unlike the hectocotylus this arm does not break off, but can be used each
time he mates. Female nautiluses produce only a very few eggs at a time
and as far as we know they do not offer any brood care at all. Male and
female nautiluses therefore have a much less demanding time when
breeding, and can do so many times throughout their lives. They are also
similar in size and shape, though the males are often slightly broader to
accommodate the spadix. If the microconch and macroconch are truly
different sexes of one species, then the stronger parallel is obviously with
the coleoids rather than the nautiluses: the microconch was the male, and
the macroconch the female.

BUT WHY?
Why were the sexes so strongly dimorphic? In many dimorphic species, the
male develops secondary sexual attributes to display its overall health and
vitality, in other words, its quality as a potential mate. The peacock's train, the
tail-fins of male guppies, the tusks of narwhals are all examples of such
attributes. Beyond impressing females, they serve little purpose, indeed, they
can be a liability, for example the bright colours on the tail-fins of guppies are
known to make them easier targets for predators than the drab females. The
females prefer the more brightly coloured males, possibly because to have
survived long enough to reach sexual maturity, such males must be
particularly alert or fast swimmers. Did the lappets of the microconch work
in the same way, showing off to the females which males were the best? Many
palaeontologists believe so, and the idea that the lappets were 'claspers' which
held on to the female while they were mating, is now largely discounted.
 ASPECTS OF A M M O N I T E BIOLOGY 99

~f the male was elaborately ornamented to impress the female, then why
was the female, the macroconch, so much larger than the male? If the
macroconch is the female, why did they need to be bigger than the male
and why were their living chambers proportionally larger? What did they
use all this extra body space inside the shell for? As described in Chapter I,
most octopuses brood their eggs inside caves, and one kind of octopus, the
argonaut, goes even further and builds a shell-like egg case especially for
this purpose. In this way the female can protect the clutch of eggs from
predators, remove any that are unfertilised, and keep the eggs clean and
free from parasites or fungi. Female ammonites may have done a similar
sort of thing by brooding the eggs inside their spacious shells. If they did,
then such a strategy is unusual for cephalopods. Nautiluses do not brood
their eggs, and generally nor do cuttlefish or squids.

AMMONITE REPRODUCTION
In contrast with many other molluscs, which are hermaphrodite, all living
cephalopods are either male or female. As described above, it seems likely
that this was the case for the ammonites too, with the microconch and
macroconch probably being the male and female respectively. However,
there are important differences in the reproductive biology of nautiluses
and coleoids, and one significant gap in our understanding of ammonites
is which group they more closely resembled. Nautiluses grow quite slowly
and it takes several years, perhaps as many as ten, for them to become fully
grown. Sexual maturity might occur sooner, after about five years or so, but
virtually nothing is known about how nautiluses reproduce in the wild.
Nautiluses may live for 15 to 2 0 years, and will mate and lay eggs many
times throughout their lives. In captivity nautiluses lay only a few eggs at a
time, and these eggs can take many months to hatch, but the eggs are large
and the hatchlings relatively large, perfectly formed miniature versions of
their parents. Coleoids are very different. They can grow extremely quickly,
many species reaching adulthood within a year. Once fully grown, they
100 ! AMMONITES

mate only once, and then die. The males yolk egg ammonitella

may die immediately after spawning, or

else guard the female until she has laid
her eggs. The females may die after laying
the eggs, as is the case with squids and
embryonic ammonite
cuttlefish, or, as described earlier, they
may protect the eggs until they hatch, as
octopuses do. This is one of the great
mysteries of coleoid biology - why such 10.4 in)

large, advanced and behaviourally

sophisticated animals should be 'annuals'.
Did ammonites 'live fast and die young'
like coleoids, or did the grow slowly and
reproduce many times like nautiluses?

Clues may come from the way the shell

developed. Ammonite shell growth can
be divided into three distinct phases. The
first is that of the protoconch, the single arnrnonlte -

barrel-shaped chamber which is believed of first 'shaft' of

'paper clip' -like shell
to have been formed inside the egg, and
so corresponds to the embryonic phase in 3ocrns (12 in) long

the life cycle of the ammonite. The

protoconch of an ammonite is much above: Ammonite shell
growth phases.
more like the protoconch of a coleoid
than that of a nautilus. The next stage of growth was the first whorl, which
ran from the protoconch to a distinctive change in shell morphology called
the primary constriction. The first whorl is relatively plain compared to the
later part of the shell, though it may have a simple form of ornament such
as pimples. There are no spines or ribs. The protoconch and the first whorl
together comprise the ammonitella. It is believed that the ammonitella was
 ASPECTS OF AMMONITE BIOLOGY 1 101

planktonic, rather than free swimming or benthic. After the primary

constriction, which appears to correspond to a hiatus in shell secretion, the
shell morphology changes, acquiring the mother-of-pearl, or nacreous,
inner walls and septa typical of adults. This is the third and final stage of
growth, during which time the ammonite left the plankton and took up its
adult mode of life. The external ornamentation changes markedly, the
simple pimples of the protoconch and first whorl being replaced with fine
growth lines, and later ribs, spines and keels. Subsequent growth is
essentially uniform from this point onwards, excepting the sexually
dimorphic features described earlier.

At hatching, nautiluses are quite large, with a shell diameter of around

2 cm (I in). Although there is a growth hiatus, called the nepionic

constriction, similar to the primary constriction seen in ammonites, there

is no drastic change in shell morphology or mode of life. Ammonite
hatchlings - the ammonitellas - are much smaller, and so it appears that
ammonites produced large numbers of small eggs, much as modern
squids and octopuses do, rather than a few big eggs as is the case with
nautiluses. Here at least the similarities in ammonite life cycles are
strongest with the coleoids. But did they follow the coleoid pattern of
having a fast growth rate, a short lifespan, and breeding only once? The
simple answer is we do not know.

AMMONITE OLD AGE, PATHOLOGY AND PREDATORS

Mature ammonites are easy to identifj. Sexually dimorphic ones develop
the lappets or collars at maturity, as well as any distinctive ornamentation.
Even species with little or no dimorphism show signs of a slow down in
growth after maturity. The septa become 'bunched' as the new chambers
become smaller. But being able to tell when an ammonite reached maturity
is not the same as being able to say how old it is. So how long did
ammonites live for?
 102 AMMONITES

above: The Upper Jurassic ammonite Peltoceras dorsetensis, showing simple ribbing on the
phragmacone and spinous ribbing on the body chamber. This change in ornamentalism is typical
of mature ammonites.
 ASPECTS O F AMMONITE BIOLOGY 1 103

LI F ESPAN
Wlthout any living ammonites to observe, our estimates of the length of
ammonite lifespans are somewhat vague. The living species of nautilus
grows slowly, adding a chamber every month or two, and taking several
vears to reach sexual maturity, after which they grow much more slowly.
lthough they do not stop growing, the later chambers are noticeably
lunched', that is, the septa are much closer together than they are in the
rest of the shell. Ammonite shells are broadly similar to those of nautiluses,
and so ammonites may have grown at a similar rate to nautiluses. If this
was so, then simply counting the number of chambers would give a
reasonable estimate of their lifespan. The problem is that we do not know
how similar the growth of modern species of nautilus is to ammonites, or
even other, now extinct species of nautiluses. Modern nautiluses live in
deep, cold water. Growth rates in invertebrates are directly related to
ambient temperature and pressure; low temperatures and high pressures
result in low growth rates. Ammonites appear to have preferred shallow,
warm water, and so might be expected to have grown much faster than
modern nautiluses.

An indirect growth rate indicator was described by the influential German

palaeontologist Schindewolf in 1934, who published a report of a Jurassic
ammonite encrusted with tubeworms. This paper was important because it
tied together something we can observe today, the growth of tube worms,
with something unknown, the growth rate of ammonites. Schindewolf
noticed that on his specimen of the ammonite Schlotheimia an encrusting
serpulid worm had grown its tube around the ammonite's shell in such a
way that the two animals must have been alive at the same time.
Schindewolf knew the growth rate of these worms, and so could estimate
the growth rate of the ammonite. He thought that each whorl of the
ammonite shell took somewhere in the range of four months to three years
to grow. A typical ammonite can have a dozen whorls, and so we are
104 AMMONITES

looking at a lifespan of anything from four to jG years. However, while

Jurassic species of tube worms might have grown at the same rate as their
relatives alive today, we cannot be certain.

Ammonite shells contain isotopes of certain elements such as oxygen and

carbon. Isotopes are varieties of the same element which differ in atomic
weight, and can be detected using certain analytical techniques. The odd
thing about the isotopes of oxygen in particular is that they occur in
different proportions depending on the ambient temperature. By carefully
analysing the composition of the shell it is possible to detect the relative
abundance of each isotope of oxygen at the moment that piece of shell was
being laid down. In this way, each part of the shell acts as a thermometer
set to the exact moment it was made! Palaeontologists have found that if
pieces of shell are taken from points all along the shell, different oxygen
isotope proportions are found. In fact, it seems that as the ammonite grew
it was sometimes in warm water, sometimes in cooler water, and then back
again to warmer water, with this cycle happening many times. The most
obvious conclusion is that these are the seasons - the periods of growth
recording cold phases during the winter, and warmer phases in summer.
By adding up these cycles, we can tell how many years the ammonite lived
for. Bomsiakoceras, for example, a small Cretaceous ammonite, has been
estimated to have lived for about 12 years. These various age estimates
greatly exceed those of the coleoids but are comparable to the living
nautilus. It would seem, therefore, that ammonites grew more slowly than
modern coleoids, and so the short life span and single breeding event
typical of coleoids seems unlikely to have been the case with ammonites.

PATHOLOGY A N D PREDATORS
A related and very interesting aspect of ammonite palaeontology is the
study of old, sick and damaged ammonites. After reaching sexual maturity,
ammonites, like nautiluses continued to grow albeit at a reduced rate.
 ASPECTS OF AMMONITE BIOLOGY 105

left: An enlarged view of

the scar damage on the
Lower Cretaceous ammonite
Australiceras sp. shown on
p. 88.

Compressed septa are not uncommon, but in addition reduced or deviant

ornamentation can also be seen. Such specimens are called 'gerontic
specimens'. Ammonites also show evidence of illness and damage from
predators. Parasitic infections may have caused the blisters visible on the
shells of some ammonites such as the heteromorph ammonite Baculites.
Some ammonites survived attacks from predators but were damaged
sufficientlyto require substantial shell repair. In other cases the ammonite
was not so fortunate, and the attack killed the animal and destroyed the
shell. The remains of the shell can give clues to the nature of the attack, in
particular, what sort of animal the predator was. Tooth marks on some
specimens of Placenticeras match the jaws of marine reptiles, indicating
that these animals were predators on ammonites.
 Chapter Five

AMMONITE TAXONOMY
AND CLASSIFICATION
................................

THE Ammonoidea are one of the three subclasses or orders within the
Cephalopoda, and are characterised by having chambered shells with
complex septal walls, a ventral siphuncle, and a radula with nine teeth per
row. The group is further subdivided into suborders, which are defined on
the basis of features such as suture line complexity, the shape and position
of the siphuncle and septal necks, and overall shell shape and
ornamentation.

Many of these groups give rise to others over time, and frequently the more
primitive groups are completely replaced by their more advanced
descendants. The orders are the Anarcestina, Clyrneniina, Goniatitina,
Prolecanitina, Ceratitina, Phylloceratina, Lytoceratina, Ancyloceratina, and
Ammonitina.

There is some inconsistency in the spelling of these orders. Some authors

prefer the use of the ending -ida rather than -ina, for example Ceratitida
instead of Ceratitina. In this book we use the ending -ina. A further
complication is in the use of the word 'ammonite'. Strictly,
left: The rich
variation of
the term is used for a single order, the Ammonitina or
ammonites. 'true ammonites', in contrast to the term 'ammonoids'
108 AMMONITES

which refers to all the members of the Ammonoidea. In practice this

limited use is seldom adhered to by any but specialists, and in this book we
have chosen to use the broader, if less accurate, meaning of ammonite as
any member of the order Ammonoidea.

Four suborders are exclusively Palaeozoic: the Anarcestina, Clymeniina,

Goniatitina and Prolecanitina, and are the most primitive of all the
ammonites. They show a little more complexity in the shape of the suture
line than do contemporary nautiloids or coleoids, and typically have smooth
or finely ribbed shells without spines or keels. Other characteristics are
variable and resemble the other cephalopod groups. In the Anarcestina,
Goniatitina and Prolecanitina the siphuncle is ventral, as it is in coleoids,
while the Clyrneniina have a dorsal siphuncle like some nautiloids.
Similarly, the septal necks of the Anarcestina and Clymeniina are
retrochoanitic, like nautiloids and most coleoids, while those of the
Goniatitina and Prolecanitina are prochoanitic as is the case with the later
ammonites. As a consequence of both the greater age of these four
suborders, and their relatively primitive morphology compared with the
Mesozoic ammonites, the Anarcestina, Clymeniina, Goniatitina and
Prolecanitina are placed in an informal grouping known- as the
palaeoammonoids, or 'ancient ammonites'.

Only a single suborder, the Ceratitina, makes up the next group, the
mesoammonoids or 'middle ammonites'. These are predominantly Triassic
in age, although a few are from the Permian. Compared with the
palaeoammonoids these ammonites have more complex suture lines, and
a consistently ventral siphuncle with prochoanitic septal necks. Perhaps
more markedly than any of the other groups, the Ceratitina are a grade
group, or stage, in the evolution of the higher ammonites, bridging the gap
between the Palaeozoic Goniatitina and the Mesozoic Ammonitina,
Ancyloceratina, Lytoceratina and Phylloceratina.
 A M M O N I T E TAXONOMY A N D CLASSIFICATION ( 109

f i e remaining Mesozoic ammonites make up the neoammonoids, or

'modern ammonites'; namely the orders Ammonitina, Ancyloceratina,
phylloceratina, Lytoceratina. All these ammonites have complex suture
lines, and like the mesoammonoids the siphuncle is always ventral and the
septa1 necks prochoanitic. In addition, the shells of these ammonites are
frequently ornamented with ribs, constrictions and spines. The
Ancyloceratina are commonly known as the 'heteromorph ammonites' on
account of their diverse, and frequently bizarre, shell shapes which are
quite unlike the regular spirals of most other ammonites.

ANARCESTINA
The Anarcestina developed from the Bactritina during the early Devonian,
and retain some features common to that group, such as a simple septa and
retrochoanitic septa1 neck. Unlike the Bactritina, however, all Anarcestina
have coiled spiral shells and a ventral siphuncle, two features typical of
ammonites in general. For this reason, the Anarcestina are considered the
first true ammonites. Compared with later ammonites the Anarcestina are
not particularly diverse, and the various genera can be quite difficult to tell
apart. Like the Bactritina, the Anarcestina have simple suture lines with
only a few lobes, a large external lobe and a smaller internal lobe. In some
species there are only these two lobes, but in others there is an additional
lobe on each flank, between the external and internal lobes. This is the
lateral lobe, and is usually larger in size than the internal lobe.

Although all the Anarcestina had died out by the end of the Devonian, they
gave rise to three other ammonite groups. One was very short lived, the
Clymeniina, which also became extinct at the end of the Devonian. The
second group was the Prolecanitina which was rather more diverse than the
Clymeniina, and much more successful, lasting into the Triassic. The third
and largest group was the Goniatitina and their descendants, which
included all the Jurassic and Cretaceous ammonites.
 9
110 AMMONITES

above: The Upper Palaeozoic Agoniatites sp-

left: The suture line of Anarcestes lateseptatus

from the Middle Devonian of Germany.

Most of the Anarcestina have little ornamentation, usually limited to fine,

sinuous ribs, and they do not have spines. Coiling is typically convolute,
with a dorso-ventrallycompressed whorl section which expands very slowly,
resulting in a globose, compact shell. The aperture lacks lappets or rostra,
but does have a hyponomic sinus very similar to that found on the modern
 A M M O N I T E TAXONOMY A N D CLASSIFICATION k 11 1

autilus, indicating that, like the nautilus, these ammonites had a

loveable hyponome through which water could be jetted for propulsion
nd orientation. The ammonitella is quite large, about I mm (0.1in) in
iameter, and ornamented with very fine transverse ribs or lirae.

'he ecology of the Anarcestina, like most of the Palaeozoic ammonites, has
ot been studied as intensively as the Mesozoic ammonites. The
Anarcestina are relatively abundant in oxygenated, shallow water
sediments perhaps indicating a preference for the coastal waters of the
continenta1 shelves. The fact that these ammonites have a we11 developed
hyponomic sinus is probably a good indicator that they were active
swimmers, but the relatively globose shell of many species would seem to
preclude great speed.

CLYMENIINA
This small group of ammonites is limited to rocks of Upper Devonian age,
and is distinguished from all other ammonites by the position of the
siphuncle in the shell. If a clyrneniid ammonite is sectioned, the siphuncle

left: Sectioned Clymenia

showing the dorsal
siphuncle (the backwards
pointing channels near the
top edge of the chambers
indicated by arrows).
 g;
112 AMMONITES

above: Gonioclymenia laevigata from the Upper Devonian of Germany

can be clearly seen. In the very first chamber, just like most other
Palaeozoic ammonites, the siphuncle is in a ventral position close to the
outside of the spiral. But for the rest of the shell, the siphuncle is along the
dorsal, inner surface.

Although a relatively small group with only a few species, the Clyrneniina
are surprisingly diverse. For example Solicylmenia has a bizarre triangular
form, while Epiwocklumeria is very involute, almost globose with deep
 A M M O N I T E TAXONOMY A N D CLASSIFICATION 1 113

,nstrictions. Clymenia is much more typical, being a relatively evolute

!gular spiral with a circular or dorso-ventrally compressed whorl section.
he surface is smooth, the only ornamentation being fine growth lines.
ke the Anarcestina, the Clymeniina have a hyponomic sinus, indicating
ley had a flexible hyponome for jet-propelled.swimming. The suture lines
these ammonites are relatively simple, and resemble those of the
~niatitesdescribed below. Clyrneniina are only weakly sexually dimorphic,
at all.

~ssilsof Clyrneniina can be found in a variety of sediments, including

mestones, clays and black shales, and are common in the nodular
mestones of Morocco where they are often collected and sold as curios.
iven the general requirement of abundant oxygen to supply the high
letabolism of cephalopods, it is unlikely they were able to spend much
me in anaerobic water, so where they do occur in black shales it is most
likely that the shells sank down after death; the animal itself lived high up
in the water column where there would have been plenty of oxygen.

Like the Anarcestina, the Clymeniina failed to survive the Devonian mass
extinctions which wiped out many other marine invertebrate groups. They
do not seem to have given rise to any other ammonite groups; all the later
ammonites have ventrally positioned siphuncles. Rather than being a basal
stock from which later groups emerged, the Clyrneniina seem to have been
something of a short-lived experiment.

GONIATITINA-THE GONIATITES
The Goniatitina, commonly called goniatites, are the most important of the
palaeoammonoids, having a wide variety of morphologies and numerous
species. Some species were widely distributed and lasted for only a
relatively brief period of time, making them useful for biostratigraphy.
Characteristic of goniatites is a simple suture line with triangular external,
114 AMMONITES

lateral and internal lobes and rounded saddles in between them. This
particular sort of suture line, the so-called goniatitic suture line, is also
exhibited by many of the Anarcestina, Clymeniina and Prolecanitina and is
typical of the most primitive ammonites. However, in the Goniatitina and
Prolecanitina particularly, there are many species which have complex
suture lines, and resemble the ceratites much more strongly.

above: Goniatites crenistria from the Lower

Carboniferous of the UK, showing rounded
saddles and pointed lobes.
I left: The suture line of Anarcestes sp.
 A M M O N I T E TAXONOMY AND CLASSIFICATION 1 115

Goniatites are variable in size and shape, but most are rather small,
relatively compact and have involute, smooth or weakly ribbed shells. A
number of species have longitudinal or spiral ribs which run along the
shell. The aperture lacks keels or lappets though there may be a modest
hyponomic sinus. The ammonitella is relatively small, with an initial
chamber less than 0.7 mm (0.03 in) in diameter, with a short, curved
prosiphon. The siphuncle sometimes starts from a central position and
gradually moves to a ventral one, but is usually close to the ventral surface
throughout growth. The ammonitella is ornamented with longitudinal ribs
(lirae) like those of the adult shell.

Fossils of goniatites are common in sediments deposited under both

aerobic and anaerobic conditions, and can be found in many different types
of rock. Some species are most abundant in limestones, and seemed to
prefer shallow water, while others, found in black shales, lived in the deeper
water but away from the anoxic sea floor. Having smooth shells and a
hyponomic sinus, goniatites could have been quite mobile swimmers. The
more complex suture lines of later species indicates that in some cases
goniatites were able to live in relatively deep water.

PROLECANITINA
Compared with the other palaeoammonoids, the Prolecanitina are
characterised by a generally flattened shell with rather complex suture lines
and numerous lobes and saddles. The Prolecanitina appeared in the late
Devonian but died out by the end of the Triassic, being replaced by their
descendants, the Ceratitina.

The early Prolecanitina have evolute or involute shells, with more or less
circular whorl sections, and are laterally compressed to a lesser degree than
the later species, which all have involute, disc-like shells. The surface of the
shell is generally smooth or only weakly ornamented with ribs; there are
116 ! AMMONITES

no constrictions or lappets. The

suture line is much more
complex than in the other
palaeoammonoids. The
saddles are rounded while
the lobes are almost always
divided into small finger-
like projections. The suture
lines of the more primitive
species are like those
goniatites, but the more
advanced species show
more complexity. In all of
the Prolecanitina there
are external, lateral and
umbilical lobes, but in the
advanced species as growth
progresses an additional lobe appears
between the lateral and internal lobe
above: The Lower
beneath the umbilical region; this is the Carboniferous
umbilical lobe. This umbilical lobe may itself Pro'ecanites compress us^

further subdivide, so that the suture line on

later chambers can be very complex, with numerous small lobes between
the lateral and umbilical lobe (see p. 44). Such a suture line is very
characteristic of the advanced palaeoammonoids; it can be seen in some
goniatites and is also typical of the ceratites as described below. More
complex suture lines make the shell more robust and resistant to both the
compressive forces of deep water, and damage caused by predatory attacks.
The trend towards increasing suture complexity in the palaeoammonoids
may be related to either the expansion of ammonites into deep water
habitats or in response to more dangerous predators, or indeed both.
 AMMONITE TAXONOMY A N D CLASSIFICATION I 117

In many of the later species the ventral face is not curved or flattened like
many of the other palaeoammonoids but tapered into a sharp edge. This
gives the shell an overall form rather like a discus. A similar shape is also
seen in some of the Jurassic and Cretaceous ammonites, and is believed by
some palaeontologists to be an adaptation .to fast, or at least efficient,
swimming.

CERATITINA-THE CERATITES
Compared with the palaeoammonoids, the Ceratitina, generally known as
ceratites, show a greater diversity of shell shape and external
ornamentation, and a much more complex suture line. Many are laterally
compressed, and weakly ornamented, resembling the Prolecanitina
described above, but there are numerous species which have strong ribs or
tubercles, while others have a rounded or quadrate whorl section, giving the
shell a much more robust appearance. There are also some heteromorphic
forms, resembling the Ancyloceratina in having open or uncoiled shells.
Some of these are not coiled in one plane, but are instead helical, like a
snail's shell.

The ammonitellas of ceratites are small, with an initial chamber less than
0.7 mm (0.03 in) in diameter, and are ornamented with small round
tubercles. The prosiphon is short and curved, and the first part of the
siphuncle either starts from a central position and gradually moves to a
ventral one in later chambers, or is close to the ventral surface all along.
The most characteristic feature of the Ceratitina is the ceratitic suture line.
There are generally four lobes, the external and internal lobes, and
between them a large lateral lobe and smaller umbilical lobe. In some
species, as the ceratite grew larger additional lobes were added by division
of the umbilical lobe, as with the Prolecanitina. Unlike the Prolecanitina,
which started off with simple sutures with three lobes and only developed
the umbilical lobe as they grew larger, all Ceratitina began with at least
 .sue6ala sal.geJa3eje.j a!sse!jl
lam01 aql40 au!l aJn1ns a q l :Ual

'saqol PaP!A!P
pue salppes papunol 6u!moqs '3lSS?!Jl
alpp!W a41 W O J ~snsopou sayleJa3 :aAoqe t
 A M M O N I T E TAXONOMY A N D CLASSIFICATION 1 119

four lobes. The lobes are usually quite complex, while saddles remain
rounded and simple.

Although there are Permian ceratites, which appear to have been derived
from the Prolecanitina, ceratites are more typical of the Triassic. Some are
found in black shales, implying they lived in the upper levels of relatively
deep water, above anoxic bottom water conditions; but mostly they are
found in limestone, indicating a preference for the warm, shallow
continental seas fringing the land masses of the time. In the Lower Triassic
marine limestones of China, distinct assemblages of ceratite species have
been identified, indicating that not all ceratites liked the same conditions
and that different species of ceratites became specialised for different
habitats. The robust, strongly ornamented species with less complex suture
lines are found in shallow water conditions (less than IOO m or 330 ft
depth), often associated with burrowing bivalves, suggesting soft bottoms
of sand and silt. More streamlined species with rounded, laterally
compressed shells and weak ornamentation are found in deeper water
conditions, as are the heteromorphic ceratites, along with a diverse array of
bivalves, gastropods, brachiopods and crustaceans.

The most streamlined species, with oxyconic shells and little or no

ornament are found in the deepest water environments. They also have the
suture lines of the greatest complexity, and seem to have been able to
tolerate depths of up to zoo m (G5o ft). This diversity is significant in
showing the remarkable recovery of the ammonites following the mass
extinctions at the end of the Permian. As described in Chapter 6, the
Permian saw the end of many of the Palaeozoic animal groups, such as all
the trilobites, many brachiopods and corals, as well as many of the
ammonites. Only a very few of the Prolecanitina and Ceratitina survived,
and soon after, the Prolecanitina became extinct. The ceratites, in contrast,
gradually diversified as the conditions became more amenable, and as the
120 1 AMMONITES

shallow water habitats recovered, so these new ammonites soon became

important predators within these ecosystems.

PHYLLOCERATINA
Appearing in the late Triassic, the Phylloceratina is one of the most uniform
and conservative groups of ammonites. The suborder includes only a single
superfamily within the Phylloceratina, the Phyllocerataceae, within which
all the known species are remarkably similar. These ammonites are rather
large, and the shell tends to be robust, more or less involute and with
rounded whorl sections. They are also streamlined in appearance, being
either smooth or ornamented with very fine ribs, and all are laterally
compressed. Many species have periodic constrictions on both the
phragmocone and the living chamber but they do not have keels. The
aperture of some species have lateral and ventral extensions, but these are
gently curved and rather short, and not at all like the strongly developed
lappets and rostra of many Ammonitina.

The suture line is finely divided compared with the Ceratitina, with
characteristically spiky lobes but rounded, lifelike saddle elements. The
primitive species have a suture line .that is quadrilobate, being divided up
into external, lateral, umbilical and internal lobes. In Jurassic and
Cretaceous species there are usually more than four lobes. These additional
lobes, often referred to as 'adventitious' lobes, were formed by divisions of
the umbilical lobe as ontogeny (growth)progressed. Like all the Mesozoic
ammonites, the siphuncle is ventral and the septa1 collars are prochoanitic.
All Phylloceratina have small ammonitellas with small initial chambers,
and are ornamented with tubercles as with the Ammonitina and
Lytoceratina. The prosiphon is either central or marginal.

The complex suture lines indicate that these ammonites had robust shells
and may have been better adapted to life in deeper water than the
 A M M O N I T E TAXONOMY A N D CLASSIFICATION 1 121

above: The involute shell of Phylloceras

heterophyllum from the Lower Jurassic.
M left: A Phylloceratid suture line with lobes
and saddles diminishing equally.

Goniatitina or Ceratitina. Having streamlined, smooth and involute shells

it is thought that the Phylloceratina were fairly good swimmers, though
they lacked keels and none were as laterally compressed as, for example,
Oxynonticeras or Placenticeras, which are both true ammonites, members of
the Ammonitina (see p. 128).
122 AMMONITES

As the only order of ammonites to occur in both the Triassic and the
Jurassic, the Phylloceratina are assumed to be the link between the Triassic
Ceratitina and the Jurassic and Cretaceous Ammonitina, Ancyloceratina
and Lytoceratina, although the exact relationships are not clear. Their most
obvious similarities are between the Phylloceratina and the Lytoceratina,
which both have weakly ornamented shells with periodic constrictions, and
both groups maintain a similar morphology throughout their long
stratigraphical ranges.

The Phylloceratina are widespread and known from all around the world
from the late Triassic until the very end of the Cretaceous. They are very
common in the Jurassic deep water Ammonitico-Rossolimestones common
around the Mediterranean, where they can be by far the commonest
ammonites. On the other hand, they tend to be very rare or absent from the
shallow water habitats favoured by other ammonite groups.

Being rather uniform in shape, fragments of these ammonites can be very

difficult to put a name to. Many a palaeontologist has found a collection of
such ammonites, and in despair called all the specimens Phylloceras
species. Furthermore, even the best specimens show that many species
changed very little over long periods of time, compared with the other,
more rapidly evolving ammonite groups.

LYTOCERATINA
A major suborder of ammonites, the Lytoceratina were one of the most
persistent and widespread of all the Mesozoic ammonite groups. Believed
to have been derived from the Phylloceratina, from which they differ in
being more evolute, the Lytoceratina are known throughout the Jurassic
and up until the very end of the Cretaceous. On the whole the Lytoceratina
are relatively conservative despite the long period of time during which they
occurred.
 A M M O N I T E TAXONOMY AND CLASSIFICATION 1 123

The Lytoceratina are divided into two superfamilies, the Lytocerataceae and
the Tetragonitaceae. The former are most abundant in the Jurassic and tend
to be evolute serpenticones with simple annular ribs periodically thickened
into flared collars, and with numerous constrictions all along the shell. A
few of the Lytocerataceae, such as Pictetia, have shells which are so loosely
coiled that the whorls are not in contact with each other. The
Tetragonitaceae are more common in the Cretaceous, and all have regular,
involute shells, but are otherwise similar to the Lytocerataceae. All
Lytoceratina share a common ammonitella morphology. The ammonitella
has a short, curved prosiphon, and the outside of the ammonitella is
ornamented with small, rounded tubercles. The size of the ammonitella is
variable, with an initial chamber from 0.3 to over 1.0mm (around 0.1in) in
diameter, smaller than the Palaeozoic ammonites but similar to, or slightly
larger than, the other Mesozoic ammonites. As with the other Mesozoic
ammonites, the siphuncle runs along the ventral surface of the shell and is
bounded by prochoanitic septa1 collars. Sexual dimorphism is less
common, and not as marlzed as among the Ammonitina, and where
present is limited to small differences in size. The key diagnostic feature of
the Lytoceratina is a complex suture line with a distinctive division of the
lobes and saddles. The most primitive species such as Trachyphyllites, is
quinquelobate. Two umbilical lobes (named UI and Uz) are formed by the
split across the umbilical seam of the initially singular umbilical lobe. In
later Lytoceratina, such as Lytoceras, there may be three or more of these
umbilical lobes formed by further subdivisions.

The circular whorl sections and evolute shells of typical Lytoceratina

suggest that these poorly streamlined ammonites would have been rather
indifferent swimmers. The open umbilicus would be a major source of
drag, leading to poor acceleration and making rapid lunges at prey, or quick
escapes from predators, difficult. The more involute species of
Tetragonitaceae might have been better swimmers.
124 ' AMMONITES

These ammonites are found in a wide range of sedimentary habitats, lilie

the Phylloceratina. The deep water limestones of Jurassic age around the
western Mediterranean are particularly rich in ammonites of the

above: Evolute Lower Jurassic shell of

Lytoceras firnbriaturn.

left: Lower Jurassic Lytoceratid

q.3 suture line.

 A M M O N I T E TAXONOMY A N D CLASSIFICATION 1 125

Phylloceratina and Lytoceratina groups. The Lytoceratina seem to have

been specially adapted to life in deeper water than most other ammonites.
They have closely packed septa which are quite thick, indicating that the
shell was able to resist the greater hydrostatic pressure of life in deep water.
On the other hand, even the late Cretaceous Lytoceratina have weakly
ribbed or smooth shells, which is odd when compared with the general
trend among the Mesozoic ammonites towards stronger ornamentation.
This may indicate that the diversification of predators like crabs and bony
fish during the Jurassic and Cretaceous was not a major influence on the
evolution of the Lytoceratina.

One particular characteristic of the Lytoceratina, especially Lytocerataceae

such as Pictetia, is the tendency towards uncoiling, a trend which reaches
its greatest expression among the Ancyloceratina, an order of ammonites
which evolved from the Lytoceratina during the late Jurassic and went on to
become one of the most diverse and successful of all the ammonites.

ANCYLOCERATINA-THE H E T E R O M O R P H S
The Ancyloceratina included some of the most widespread, and some of
the most common, of all ammonites and they are an important group for
biostratigraph~.They remained widespread throughout the late Cretaceous,
in contrast to the Ammonitina, which were in a marked decline. The
Ancyloceratina are commonly known as the 'heteromorph ammonites' on
account of their uncoiled shells (see plates 15-17). Although rarely used, the
term 'homomorph ammonites' exists for ammonites with regular spiral
shells, such as the Ammonitina.

There are five main groups of Ancyloceratina: the Ancylocerataceae,

Deshayesitaceae, Douvilleicerataceae, Scaphitaceae and Turrilitaceae. The
most primitive of the Ancyloceratina, the Ancylocerataceae appeared
during the late Jurassic and typically have shells which are basically spiral
 f4
126 AMMONITES

above: Nipponites rniiabilis from the Upper Cretaceous of Japan, showing

tangled coiling .

but with a protracted hook-shaped living chamber hanging beneath. The

Deshayesitaceae and Douvilleicerataceae are two groups of heteromorphs
which revert to regular spiral coiling and tend to have evolute, strongly
ribbed, and often quite spiny, shells. Both groups were most common and
widespread during the Cretaceous, where they provide some of the most
biostratigraphically useful ammonite species.

The Ancylocerataceae, Deshayesitaceae and Douvilleicerataceae became

extinct during the Cretaceous, when the advanced heteromorphs, the
Turrilitaceae and Scaphitaceae, diversified. The Turrilitaceae are the older
 A M M O N I T E TAXONOMY A N D CLASSIFICATION 1 127

of these two groups, and radiated explosively in the Cretaceous into an

extraordinary array of shapes. The Scaphitaceae, like the Deshayesitaceae
and Douvilleicerataceae, are characterised as a group by the reversal of
'heteromorph-ness' and have closed, often quite involute, spiral shells.
Unlike the Deshayesitaceae and Douvilleicerataceae, most Scaphitaceae
have a slightly uncoiled living chamber resulting in a distinctive scoop-like
shallow living chamber. While it is now generally accepted that the
Scaphitaceae were derived from the Turrilitaceae during the Cretaceous,
the relationship between the Ancylocerataceae and Turrilitaceae is obscure.
It is vossible that rather than the
Ancylocerataceae evolving steadily
through the early Cretaceous and
culminating in the first of the
Turrilitaceae, the Turrilitaceae
and the bulk of the
Ancylocerataceae share a
common ancestor.

However they may differ

in coiling mode, all
Ancyloceratina share a
quadrilobate suture line
similar to those seen in the
Lytoceratina. The suture line is
divided into external, lateral,
umbilical and internal lobes, at least
during the juvenile stages of growth. In
many cases the suture lines of later chambers
show subdivisions of some lobes, particularly above: Douvilleiceras
mammilatum from the Lower
the umbilical lobe, into what are called Cretaceous, showing ribs
'pseudolobes'. with many spine bases.
128 AMMONITES

above: Fragments of Hamires sp. from the Lower Cretaceous

AMMONITINA-THE T R U E A M M O N I T E S
The Ammonitina are the largest ammonite group, containing many more
species than any of the other groups. They appeared very early in the
Jurassic, but whether the first Ammonitina were most closely related to the
Ceratitina, Lytoceratina or Phylloceratina is not clear (see plates 18-20).
The Ammonitina were especially common and diverse in shallow and
moderate depth environments, and if their shell morphology is any
reflection, they occupied a variety of ecological niches.

Ammonitina have complex suture lines. The earliest chambers have five
lobes but as growth progressed some of the lobes, commonly the umbilical
lobes, became further subdivided. The lobes and saddles are almost always
deeply incised but are never leaf-shaped like the Phylloceratina, and are
more like the same features of the Lytoceratina. Current estimates suggest
that there are 15 superfamilies within the Ammonitina, within which there
are approximately 1000known genera.
130 " AMMONITES

right: The first Jurassic

ammonite to appear in thc
U K, Psiloceras planorbis,
from near the base of the
Lower Jurassic.

Although many of the Ammonitina are quite disparate in size and shape,
they do all share a number of features in common. Coiling is generally that
of a regular spiral, though a few are heteromorphic. Dimorphism is very
common, many species being divided into the smaller microconch and
larger macroconch, presumed to be the male and female of the species
respectively. The microconch often has secondary sexual attributes such as
lappets, while the macroconch lacks these but may have other distinctive
features such as apertural collars or constrictions. The ammonitella is
usually small, the initial chamber being less than 0.7 mm (0.03 in) in
diameter, with a long and straight prosiphon followed by an approximately
central initial siphuncle and ornamented with round tubercles.
 A M M O N I T E TAXONOMY A N D CLASSIFICATION ! 131

Among the Jurassic forms evolute, smooth shells are common, while the
Cretaceous ammonites tend to be much more involute and strongly
ornamented with ribs and spines. This has been explained as a response to
an increase in the diversity and efficiency of predators such as fish and
crustaceans. Though ribs and spines may have made these ammonites
better able to survive the attacks of their enemies, the increased drag they
produced would have made swimming more difficult. A few of the
Ammonitina, such as Oxynonticeras and Amaltheus, had smooth oxyconic
shells, and may have been adapted for swimming in the open sea, but most
of the Ammonitina preferred to live on or near the sea floor.
132 AMMONITES

Two particular features of the Ammonitina are the short lifespan, and the
tendency of many species or families to have a limited geographic
distribution. Short lived species of ammonites, in some cases estimated to
have lasted only a few hundred thousand years, which are also widely
distributed, can be used to correlate different rock formations if the same

above: Kosmoceras duncaniwith the suture line clearly visible.

 A M M O N I T E TAXONOMY A N D CLASSIFICATION 133

above: Lateral and ventral view of the sharp keeled involute Oxynoticeras
iymense.

species occurs in both. Also, groups of abundant species of ammonites

which only occur in a limited area can be used to define 'faunal provinces'.
These are most useful where continental drift has distributed the roclts
bearing these ammonites widely, since it demonstrates that at one time
they must have been part of a distinct and continuous marine basin. The
Hoplitidae, a family of Cretaceous ammonites including the familiar spiky
ammonite Hoplites, defines a region covering much of northern and
western Europe which lay under an isolated sea during the mid-Cretaceous.
Eon Era Period Epoch Terrestrial Marine Microfossils

Recent
Quaternary
Ple~stocene
> -.

LULCI IC

Paleocene

Precambrian
4560
 Chapter S i x

THE E X T I N C T I O N
O F THE A M M O N I T E S

THE entire history of ammonites can be summarised as a series of

radiations and extinctions. Indeed, soon after their appearance in the
Devonian, a mass extinction event wiped out many of the most primitive
groups, including the Anarcestina and Clymeniina. This event is known as
the Frasnian-Fammenian boundary event (after the two geological stages
that bound it) and the ammonites were not the only victims, many
brachiopods, nautiloids and trilobites also became extinct. The few
ammonites that did survive, such as the Goniatitina and Prolecanitina,
found themselves in a world devoid of competition and radiated explosively
into a range of new and ever more successful types.

PERIODIC EXTINCTIONS T H R O U G H O U T THE

PALAEOZOIC AND MESOZOIC
This Palaeozoic paradise was not to last. An
left The main divisions of
even greater mass extinction at the end of the
geolonical
- - -
time tfinures are
in million years). The Permian killed off virtually all the ammonites.
geological timescale was
originally
This extinction event also signalled the end for
- .established from
the relative ages of the rocks, many typically Palaeozoic invertebrate groups
based On fossils. Some
such as the trilobites, while relegating many
of the important fossils for
dating are shown. others to the minor roles they occupy today, as
136 AMMONITES

with the brachiopods and nautiluses. After the Permian mass extinction,
the animal groups that became dominant included many that remain
important today, including the reptiles, bivalve molluscs, and crustaceans.
A few ammonite groups did survive, notably the Phylloceratina and the
Ceratitina, and these diversified throughout the Triassic.

By the end of the Triassic the Earth was passing through yet another period
of mass extinction. This time the Ceratitina failed to survive, but the
Phylloceratina made it through, and the succeeding geological periods (the
Jurassic and Cretaceous) saw a diversity and abundance of ammonites that
had never been seen before. The Lytoceratina, Ancyloceratina and
Ammonitina all have their roots in those few species of Phylloceratina that
made it through the Triassic-Jurassic boundary extinctions. There were
further extinctions in the Jurassic and Cretaceous, but they were not so
severe as the preceding ones, and all four ammonite groups lasted until the
end of the Mesozoic.

During the 1g8os, two American scientists - Raup and Sepkoski -

observed that from the Permian extinctions onwards, each extinction event
happened at an interval of about 26 million years. They hypothesised that
this was because the extinctions were caused by some periodic
astronomical event. What this event might be is open to speculation. One
idea is that the Sun has a companion star (nicknamed Nemesis, after the
Greek goddess of righteous vengeance) that every 26 million years passes
close enough to the Solar System to fling comets from beyond the orbit of
Pluto crashing in on the planets, including Earth. Such impacts would be
catastrophic, the celestial equivalent of a nuclear war. Another suggestion
is that the Sun is not as constant as it has been through human history, with
a cycle of lethal periods of variability between long intervals of benign
constancy. Yet another idea concerns the orbit of the Sun, and thus the
Solar System itself, through the Galaxy. Might the Solar System periodically
pass through regions of the Galaxy where conditions are more hazardous,
exposing the Earth to cosmic rays or other deadly forms of energy?

Fascinating as all this might seem, other scientists are far from convinced.
Closer inspection of the fossil record has shown that the various extinctions
do not perfectly match the 26 million year cycle, and that before the
Permian none of the extinctions match it. Moreover, in seeking evidence for
extinctions some scientists exaggerated the scale of the events, while other
events, including the Permian extinction, clearly took many millions of
years to work through. One of the most contentious examples of all was the
end-Cretaceous mass extinction at which the ammonites became extinct.

LATE CRETACEOUS DECLINE A N D EXTINCTION

The end of the Cretaceous saw the complete extinction of many animal
groups, and is probably the best known of all mass extinctions. The
dinosaurs were the most dramatic victims. After virtual dominance of the
land for over IOO million years, they vanished, geologically speaking, over
night. The ammonites, too, took their final bow around this time, as did the
belemnites. This period of mass extinction as been named the
Cretaceous-Tertiary, or KIT, boundary extinction event (I< is the geological
symbol for the Cretaceous - from the German 'kreide' meaning chalk -
and T is used for the Tertiary). While geologists argue about the celestial
causes of some of the mass extinctions, there is excellent evidence for an
astronomical event on Earth at the end of the Cretaceous period: the
C h i d u b crater on the Yucat6n Peninsula in Mexico. The Chionilub crater
is now more or less submerged beneath younger rocks, but it can be
revealed using special devices sensitive to magnetic fields - the geological
equivalent of an x-ray machine. The crater is vast, perhaps as much as zoo
krn (125 miles) in diameter, and it is believed to have been caused by a
meteoritic impact. In comparison, the famous Meteor Crater in Arizona is
only 1.2 km (0.75 miles) across.
138 AMMONITES

The Earth is continuously being bombarded with dust and rock. Most of
this material is small and burns up in the atmosphere. These are meteors,
or shooting stars, of which on any given night a careful observer is likely to
see a few every hour. As these pieces of dust fly into the atmosphere they
are incinerated, producing a brief flash. Meteorites are much larger rocks
which are not burned up by their descent, and such rocks can be found all
over the Earth's surface. Where they hit the ground they produce craters.
Several large meteorites are known, weighing up to Go tonnes (55 tons) and
measuring up to about 10m (32.5 ft) across. In comparison the meteorite
that produced the C h i m l u b crater is estimated to have been over 10 km
(6.2 miles) in diameter and must have weighed thousands of tonnes.
Something this big smashing into the Earth would have had a devastating
effect. Some of the debris from the impact would have been hot enough to
start fires, and layers of ash found in many places around the world at about
this time do seem to indicate that some parts of the Earth were indeed
ravaged by forest fires. On top of this, it seems to have crashed into the
worst possible place. Beneath the crater are layers of sulphur rich rocks,
and the combination of the heat from the meteorite and the shock of the
impact could have vaporised this sulphur to produce clouds of acid rain.

Some scientists agree that there is a good argument for p n g the KIT
extinctions to the impact of this meteorite. The problem is that for the
ammonites, and many other animal groups, the K/T boundary did not
mark a sudden extinction of diverse groups. The ammonites were a group
in steep decline long before the K/T boundary. Over zo families of
ammonites are known from the mid-Cretaceous, but by the late Cretaceous
there were only half as many, and only a few of these persisted to the end
of the late Cretaceous. A similar decline in numbers can be observed as
well, with late Cretaceous ammonite fossils being quite scarce. Unless the
ammonites knew 'their end was near' and decided to retire gracefully, it is
very difficult to see how the meteoritic impact could have been the
 T H E EXTINCTION OF THE A M M O N I T E S 139

immediate cause of ammonite decline and extinction. Many other animal

groups show a similar pattern. The great marine reptiles, the mosasaurs,
ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs, had either declined severely or become
extinct long before the end of the Cretaceous, as had flying pterosaurs. One
very distinctive group of molluscs known as the mdists, which were very
diverse through much of the Cretaceous, had also become extinct well
before the end of the late Cretaceous. Even the dinosaurs were a shadow of
their former glory by this time, and the latest dinosaur bones known to
science still pre-date the K/T mass extinction by tens of thousands of years.
For these reasons many palaeontologists have turned to slower
mechanisms as explanations for the KIT mass extinctions, such as long
term climate change or large scale volcanic activity. While not as dramatic
as a meteoritic impact, such phenomena would have acted over the millions
of years needed to cause the gradual extinction of so many groups.

T H E AMMONITES' SUCCESSORS-THE COLEOIDEA

Although most palaeontologists have traditionally made comparisons
between the living nautiluses and the extinct ammonites, more recently the
coleoids have become just as important. The coleoids include the familiar
squids, cuttlefish and the octopuses, as well as a number of more obscure
living and fossil cephalopods. Also numbered among the coleoids are the
belemnites, extinct squid-like animals with abundant fossils in sediments
of Jurassic and Cretaceous age, which like ammonites have become useful
for biostratigraphy.

Modern cephalopods are diverse in external appearance, but are more or

less similar to belemnites in basic anatomy, and so their close affinity is not
questioned. Squids are perhaps the most obviously belemnite-like
cephalopods. From the outside, the most apparent difference is that
whereas belemnites had ten arms of similar size and shape, the arms of
squids are differentiated into two sorts. There are eight short arms, which
140 AMMONITES

like belemnites might be covered in hooks, but may alternatively have

suckers, or in some cases a mixture of both. In addition there are two very
long arms, each ending in a club-shaped region bristling with spines or
suckers. Usually these tentacles are hidden within the arms, and only
emerge when feeding. They can be extended with incredible speed, and are
used to snatch the small fish and shrimps that squids enjoy eating. Like
belemnites, squids have internal shells, but these shells are much less well
developed. There is no rostrum or phragmocone, and the entire shell is
more like a long, thin feather; indeed, the squid shell is ofien called a 'pen',
as the shell resembles the old-fashioned writing quills, made from the
feathers of large birds like geese. The shell is not calcified, but is instead
made from a flexible organic material (partly calcified chitin).

Externally very similar to the squids, cuttlefish have much more complex
internal shells. Whereas the shell of the squid is nothing more than a
flexible 'backbone' keeping the body straight and stiff, the shell of the
cuttlefish is more like that of a belemnite. There is a true phragmocone,
though it is highly modified, and instead of a series of more or less
cylindrical chambers like those of belemnites, the shell is divided into
thousands of tiny compartments. This arrangement allows the animal to
adjust its density quickly and efficiently. Both squids and cuttlefish have a
streamlined shape much like a belemnite, although cuttlefish tend to be
somewhat stocky. They also have strong, muscular fins, which they use to
swim with when they are in no particular hurry, reserving jet propulsion for
emergencies.

The octopus is probably the best known living cephalopod. It has a body
shaped like a bag, and from the inside of the bag extend the eight arms that
give it its name. There are no fins. Between the arms and the opening of
the bag is the 'head' region, perched on top of which are two strikingly well-
developed eyes. Although the entire animal can be quite large, octopuses
 THE EXTINCTION OF THE A M M O N I T E S 1 141

are famous for being able to squeeze through the smallest openings. They
can do this because they really only have two 'hard parts', the jaws and the
brain-case. The jaws are much like those of other cephalopods, and the
brain-case is small. The rest of the body is soft, and so long as it can squeeze
the jaws and the brain-case through a hole, it can get its entire body
through.

Why the ammonites became extinct at the end of the Cretaceous, while the
nautiluses and coleoids survived, will probably never be fully understood. It
remains a mystery not only because the ammonites survived other
extinctions earlier in their history, but also because some groups,
particularly the heteromorphs, showed little sign of being an obsolete or
unadaptable group. Quite the reverse in fact, the heteromorphs seemed to
be occupying new ecological niches that ammonites had hitherto not
exploited. Whatever the reason for their extinction, the cephalopods never
again held the pre-eminence in the world's oceans that the ammonites had.
Though coleoids are diverse, and successful up to a point, they are
overshadowed by the vertebrates in virtually every case, the bony fish in
particular far exceed the coleoids in diversity and abundance. Compared
with the long heyday of the ammonites, the coleoids enjoy only an echo of
that success.
 Collecting a m m o n i t e s a n d
ammonite collections

Being widely distributed and frequently abundant, it is not difficult to build

up a good collection of ammonites. The pre-requisite to a successful
collecting trip is planning. Ammonites are normally only found in
Devonian to Cretaceous marine sediments. Geological maps are useful in
finding likely exposures of these sediments. Amateur geological societies
often run field trips to localities with particularly fossil-rich sediments, and
inexperienced collectors will find these very rewarding. Ammonites can be
extracted and cleaned in many different ways, depending on the sediments
that the fossil was interred in, and so exactly how a fossil should be
removed from the sediment will vary. Generally it is best not to use force,
and not to try and clean the fossil too much in the field. It is much easier
to remove unwanted bits of rock or clay at home where you can be more
careful not to damage the fossil. Ensure that a note is made of where the
fossil was collected from. Once at home the fossils can be cleaned and a
labels written with all the collecting data recorded. Fresh fossils are often
damp and should be allowed to dry off slowly. After they are dry, they
should be quite durable and can be displayed, the main exception being
fossils preserved in iron pyrites (fool's gold). If such a fossil was collected
from a coastal exposure, soaking the fossil for a few days in water to remove
salt helps slow down its decay, but otherwise pyritic fossils should be kept
in a dry, airtight container. No fossil should ever be painted with varnish;
not only does it obscure the surface detail but it also prevents the natural
movement of moisture out of the fossil.
 Further information

Aspects of ammonite biology, biogeography, and biostratigraphy. W. J .Kennedy

& W. A. Cobban. Special Papers in Palaeontology, 17,1976 [Although rather
dry, the quality of the information included in this review of ammonite
palaeontology is very high.]

Treatise on invertebrate palaeontology Part L. Mollusca 4. W. J .Arkell, W. M.

Furnish, A. K. Miller, R. C. Moore, 0. H. Schindewolf, P. C. Sylvester-
Bradley & M. K. Howarth. Geological Society of America and the University
of Kansas Press, 1957. [The series from which this book is a part is more
commonly known simply as the 'Treatise'. It is the first reference book most
professional palaeontologists turn to when they need information on the
classification of fossil invertebrates. This particular volume includes some
detailed summaries on the anatomy and ecology of ammonites at the time
of publishing.]

Treatise on invertebrate palaeontology Part L. Mollusca 4 (Revised). C. W.

Wright, J. H. Callomon & M. K. Howarth. Geological Society of America
and the University of Kansas Press, 1996. [This is a recently revised section
of the 1957 'Treatise' concerning the classification of Cretaceous
ammonites, and now published as a separate volume.]
 146 1 AMMONITES

BOOKS ON AMMONITES AND OTHER CEPHALOPODS

Ammonites. Patrice Lebrun. MinQaux et Fossiles, Hors SCrie 4, December

1996. [Written in French, this is an excellent semi-popular review of the
origins of the Ammonoidea and the anatomy of the ammonite shell and soft
body parts, and includes many very useful diagrams and charts.]

Ammonites 2. Patrice Lebrun. MinCraux et Fossiles, Hors Skrie 6, December

1997. [The companion volume to Ammonites, and concentrates on the
ecology, evolution and extinction of the Ammonoidea.]

The ammonites: Tneir lije and their world. Ulrich Lehmann. Cambridge
University Press, 1981. [The English language translation of Lehmann's
classic book on ammonites. This is now out of print.]

Kingdom of the Octopus. Frank W. Lane. Jarrolds, 1957. [Probably the best-
known account of the cephalopods. Although out of print for many years, it is
well worth scouring the shelves of second-hand book stores for. Still a good
read after over 40 years, the author displays a contagious enthusiasm for the
cephalopods, and offers a wealth of interesting information and keen
observations which will fascinate all readers.]

GENERAL TOPICS

Archimedes @ the Fulcrum. Paul Strathern. Arrow Books, 1998. [A short but
delightfd biography of the mathematician Archimedes, including simple
explanations of his most important contributions to science.]

Cat's Paws and Catapults. Steven Vogel. Penguin Books, 1998. [A detailed but
easy to read account of the fimctional morphology of animals and plants,
 FURTHER INFORMATION 8 147

particularly the engineering of systems such as the skeleton and locomotion

devices. The attractive twist to this book is the comparison between natural
'living machines' and the devices built by engineers and architects.]

From the Beginning. Brian Rosen and Katie Edwards. Natural ist tory
Museum, London, 2 0 0 0 . [A general introduction to geology and the history
of life on Earth.]

The Hidden Landscape. Richard Fortey. Jonathan Cape, 1993. [Richly

illustrated and an easy read, this book is a good introduction to the geology
and fossils of the British Isles.]

The Natural History ofshells. Geerat Verrneij. Princeton University Press, 1993.
[A beautifully illustrated review of the way animals, primarily molluscs, make
their shells and the way the design of the shell is adapted to its lifestyle.]

WEBSITES

NB. Website addresses are subject to change.

http://is.dal.ca/'ceph/TCP/index.html
[Gives an overview of the Cephalopods with information on forthcoming
conferences, photographs, and links to databases.]

http://perso.wanadoo.fr/jean-ours.filippi/anglais/
[General introduction to ammonites, with specific pages dedicated to the
host's French Jurassic collections.]

http://www.humboldt.edu/-natmus/Exhibits/FossilTypes/Ammonites/
WhatAmm.htrn1
[Hosted by Humboldt State University, California, this site gives a general
introduction to ammonites, their forms, suture patterns and abundance
with beautiful photographic examples.]
 Glossary

Ammonite In general usage, this is the common name for all the
Ammonoidea (see below). As used by palaeontologists, however, this name
is used to describe only the most highly evolved members of the
Ammonoidea, namely the Phylloceratina, Lytoceratina, Ammonitina, and
Ancyloceratina. The more primitive Ammonoidea are instead referred to as
goniatites or ceratites.
Ammonoidea One of the three major groups of cephalopods, but extinct
since the end of the Cretaceous period. Ammonoidea are in general
characterised by having much more complex suture lines than either the
Nautiloidea or Coleoidea.
Anaptychus A single semicircular shaped structure associated with the
aperture in some species of ammonite, thought to be made of an organic
material called conchiolin. The plural is 'anaptychi'. The function of these
structures is uncertain. The anaptychus may have been part of the jaw of
the ammonite, or alternatively some sort of 'door' for sealing off the shell
(see aptychus below).
Aperture The opening at the front of the body chamber. This is the hole
through which the head, arms and the hyponome (if present) emerged
from. A peculiarity of many species of ammonite was the constriction or
ornamentation of the aperture when they became fully grown. Sometimes
within a single species such modifications differed between the two
dimorphs. The aperture is sometimes called the 'mouth' of the shell,
although it is obviously not the mouth of the actual ammonite animal.
 GLOSSARY ( 149

Aptychus A structure made of calcite associated with the aperture of the

shell. Commonly, the Mesozoic ammonites had a pair of these structures
(the plural is 'aptychi'). In some fossils the aptychi fit snugly in the aperture
and so look to have sewed as 'doors', perhaps sealing off the animal from
the outside when it was threatened. On the other hand, like the anaptychus,
the paired aptychi do resemble the jaws of living cephalopods, and may
have served the same purpose.
Aragonite A form of crystalline calcium carbonate (CaCO3) used by
most cephalopods, including ammonites, as the basic material for the shell.
Aragonite is also used by other molluscs including many gastropods, ixsk-
shells, and some bivalves. Aragonite is relatively unstable, that is it tends to
decay over time, commonly to a more stable form of calcium carbonate
known as calcite. Consequently, fossil ammonites rarely have this original
shell material intact.

Bactritina Commonly, bactritids. An obscure group of straight-shelled

nautiloid-like cephalopods that had their heyday in the Silurian and Devonian.
Virtually nothing is known about their biology and ecology, but they seem to
have been the ancestors of both the Ammonoidea and the Coleoidea.
Body chamber Also known as the living chamber. This was the chamber
within which the soft body of the ammonite resided. It was the largest
chamber, and always the final and outermost one of the entire whorl. It was
connected to the buoyancy chambers via the siphuncle, and opened to the
surrounding sea water at the aperture.

Cephalopoda The cephalopods. The third largest group of molluscs and

the group within which the ammonites belong. Living cephalopods include
a few species of pearly nautilus, dozens of species of cuttlefish, hundreds
of species of squids and the octopus. There are even more species of
cephalopods known only from the fossil record, including the ammonites
and the belemnites.
150 1 AMMONITES

Chamber The ammonite shell is divided up into a series of chambers by

dividing walls called septa. Most of the chambers were used to maintain
neutral buoyancy, but the largest and final chamber was the body chamber.
Chitin A tough but flexible organic material used by many organisms
for parts of their skeletons. Insects, for example, have skeletons largely
made up of chitin. Among cephalopods chitin is used extensively, for
example the beaks and claws of living species are chitinous.
Coleoidea One of the three major groups of cephalopods and the one
with the most species alive today. Cuttlefish, squids and octopuses are all
coleoids, as are the extinct belemnites.

Dimorphism Some ammonite species show dimorphism, with two

distinct forms being present, known as dimorphs. Commonly the main
distinction is size, but they may also have different ornamentation on the
shell or additional structures such as lappets. Sexual dimorphism is
common among those animal species in which the males and females have
radically different roles. Among ammonites many species show strong
dimorphism (see macroconch and microconch below).
Dimorphs Literally, 'the two forms' of a single ammonite species.
Generally the dimorphs differ in size, one being smaller (the microconch),
than the other (the macroconch).The smaller is assumed to have been the
male and the other female, although this is pure speculation.
Dorsal The back surface of an object. In the case of an ammonite the
shell generally coils over the dorsal surface, though in heteromorphs this is
difficult to see sometimes. Consequently, the dorsal surface of a single
whorl of the shell is the surface towards the centre of the spiral.

Endogastric Coiling over the dorsal surface of an animal. Nautilus and

ammonite shells usually coil endogastrically.
Exogastric Coiling under the ventral surface of an animal. The shells of
coleoids such as cuttlefish commonly coil in an exogastric manner.
 GLOSSARY 1; 151

Haemocyanin A respiratory compound containing copper found in the

blood of many invertebrates, including cephalopods, and similar to the
iron-basedhaemoglobin in human blood. Haemocyanin has a bluish colour.
In cephalopods, the haemocyanin is not found in corpuscles but is dissolved
in the blood plasma. Its main purpose is to bind with oxygen from the sea
water as it passes through the gills, and then to yield that oxygen to tissues
elsewhere in the body where required. Compared with haemoglobin,
haemocyanin is less efficient and carries less oxygen. This may be one
reason that cephalopods lack the stamina of similar sized fishes.
Heteromorph Most ammonites have spiral shells which are basically
the same shape throughout growth. Such ammonites are termed
homomorphs (meaning 'the same-shaped shell'). A major group of
ammonites appeared during the late Jurassic, the Ancyloceratina, which
instead had uncoiled shells. These were the so-called heteromorph
ammonites ('different-shaped shells'). Common shapes among the
heteromorphs included helically coiled shells, long and straight ones like
elephant's tusks, and even ones which looked like tightly folded paper clips.
Hyponome A pair of overlapping, muscular flaps extending from the
mantle which are held tightly together to produce a short and flexible tube.
Only present among the living cephalopods, and used to direct the jet of
water expelled from the mantle cavity. Often called the 'funnel'.

Lappets Lateral extensions of the shell on either side of the aperture.

These are generally found in the microconch only, and may have served as
markers of sexual maturity and virility, similar to the peacock's tail.
Lobe The posterior-pointing folds in the septum where it meets the
inner surface of the shell. An important part of the suture line and used in
classifying ammonites.

Macroconch Within a dimorphic species, the larger of the two forms. By

comparison with other strongly dimorphic cephalopods such as the paper
152 ! AMMONITES

nautiloid (Argonauta) it is thought that these were the females. Compared

with the production of sperm it is the production of eggs or live young
which requires the greatest energy reserves and largest body size, providing
a strong selection pressure in favour of large females.
Mandibles The jaws of an animal; in cephalopods often similar in shape
to the bill of a parrot or predatory bird, and so commonly called the 'beak'.
In ammonites the anaptychus and aptychi have been considered by some
to be part of the mandibles.
Mantle The outer layer of the body of a mollusc which secretes the shell.
Microconch Within a dimorphic species, the smaller of the two forms.
In many sexually dimorphic invertebrates the smaller of the two sexes is the
male. Since production of sperm places few demands on body size and
energy reserves, there is selection in favour of small but numerous males.

Nautiloidea The earliest and most primitive of the three major groups
of cephalopods, of which only a few species are alive today, such as the
pearly nautiloid Nautilus pompilius.
Neutral buoyancy The property of an object that neither sinks nor rises
when placed in water. Many cephalopods have chambered shells which are
partially emptied so reducing their overall weight and thereby making their
density close to that of sea water. In this way they become neutrally
buoyant, which reduces the energy needed to swim and gives them great
control over poise and stability.

Phragmocone The chambered part of the shell of a cephalopod, which

by reducing overall density provides neutral buoyancy.
Plankton The animals (zooplankton) and plants (phytoplankton) which
drift in the open sea. Juvenile ammonites were probably planktonic and
may have fed on other planktonic animals. A few ammonites may have
been plankton throughout their entire lives, notably the heteromorphs.
Prosiphon The beginning of the siphuncle. The prosiphon is located
 GLOSSARY 1 153

within the first chamber of the shell.

Protoconch Literally the 'first shell'. This is the initial chamber of the
phragmocone and in living cephalopods is produced before the animal
hatches from the shell. The shape and size of the protoconch is important
in classifying ammonites.

Radula Row of rasping teeth on a tongue-like structure behind the

mandibles of many molluscs including cephalopods. They are made of chitin.

Saddle Anterior-pointing folds in the septum where it meets the inner

surface of the shell.
Septa The walls dividing the shell into chambers. The singular is 'septum'.
Siphon A muscular nozzle present in most coleoid cephalopods used to
direct the jet of water while swimming. Similar to the hyponome of the
nautilus.
Siphuncle A thin tubular extension of the back of living Nautilus to the
origin of the shell. It regulates the buoyancy of the whole animal. It is
present in fossil nautiloids and ammonites, and is believed to serve the
same function.
Suture line The pattern made by the lobes and saddles of a single
septum around its entire edge. Generally the suture line is simple for the
first few septae, and becomes more complex with successive ones. Groups
of closely related ammonite species often have similar suture lines, and so
the suture line is useful in classifying ammonites.

Umbilicus The recessed centre of the shell of an ammonite or nautilus

as viewed from the side.

Ventral The underside of an object. The ventral surface of a single whorl

of an ammonite shell is the outside edge of the spiral.
 Index
... .....

Page numbers in italic refer to captions, aragonite 13,27,jj,3657, (g)149

those in bold to colour plates. Page see also mother-of-pearl
numbers prefixed by (g) refer to an Archimedes' Principle 56
entry in the glossary. architecture, ammonite-inspired g
Architeuthis 48
Argonauta 21
abyssal plain 60-1 A. hians 22
adhesion force 84-5 argonauts (paper 'nautiluses') 21-2, 25
Aegocrioceras quadratus 38 sexual dimorphism 95
age IOI Aristotle 24
lifespan 103-4 anns
Agoniatites sp. 110 ammonites 35, 48
Allonautilus 23 coleoids g5
Amaltheus 131 nautiluses 28. 6 6
A. gloriosus 40 squids 139-40
ammonitellas 14, 100-1, 115, 117, 120, see also hectocotylus
123,130 Aspidoceras 45
ammonites (g)148 Asteroceras gj
reconstruction 49 A . stellare 38
Ammonitina (true ammonites) 109, 128-33 Aturia 71
Ammonoidea 12-13,18-20,(g)148 Aulacostephanus autissiodarensis 72-3
Anahoplites 38 Australiceras 89
anaptychus 45.48. (g)148
Anarcestes 114 Bactrites carinatus lg
A. lateseptatus 110 Bactritina 18, (g)qg
Anarcestina 108, 109-11 Baculites 76, 93
anatomy beak 35
ammonites 48-51 nautiluses 28
nautiluses 25-31 see also mandibles
'ancient ammonites' see palaeoammonoids belemnites I Z , I ~ ,21,36, 92,137, 139
Ancylocerataceae 125-6, 127 Belemnoteuthis antiquus 20
Ancyloceratina 109, 125-8 bifurcate ribbing jg
see also heteromorphs biostratigraphy 15, 113, 125, 126, 135, 139
apertural constrictions see rostra blood 51
aperture 35.37,39. 64. (g)148 see also haemocyanin
dextral/sinistral75 body (living)chamber 79, (g)149
aptychi 14~45-7.48,(g)149 nautiluses 27, 65
 INDEX 1 155

Borrisiakoceras 104 nautiluses 27,87

Bostrychoceras polyplocuin 75 see also camouflage
brachiopods 67 colour changing
Brasilia bradfordensis 29 coleoids 87
buoyancy cuttlefish 90
centre of 18, 63,64 conchiolin 148
early molluscs 15 countershading
neutral 14,55,58-9. (g)152 nautiluses 27, 87
principle of 56-7 counterweighting 17
Cranchidae 91
cadicone shells 36,37 Cretaceous period ammonites 122,126
calcite 17,3545, 68 Lower Cretaceous 38,41, 88, 127, 128
Cambrian period nautiloids 17 Upper Cretaceous 70,74.75,76,126,
camouflage 129, 131, 125
spiral lines 71 Cretaceous-Tertiary (KIT)boundary
tiger stripe 24, 50, 71, 87 extinction event 137, 138
see also coloration and patterning crinoids 67, 92
Carboniferous period crushing, degrees of 34
Lower Carboniferous ammonites 114, 116 cuttlefish 13,50,55, 85,140
Cephalopoda 11-15, (g)149 buoyancy 20
classification 12 colour changing 90
history 15-23 cuttlebone 61
Ceratites nodosus 118 eyesight 90
Ceratitina (ceratites)108, 117-20 feeding 90
chambers 68, (g)15o reproduction 95
see also body chamber water pressure resistance GI
chitin 36, 140, (@I50 cyrtocone ammonites 37,38
classification see taxonomy and
classification Dactylioceras 81
Clymenia 111, 113 D. commune 9,38
Clyrneniina 108, 111-13 damage scarring 89, 105
coiled nautiloids 18 defence against predation 40,71, 86-7, I31
coiling 36-9 Deshayesitaceae 125, 126
endogastric (g)150 Devonian period ammonites 109
exogastric 25, 34, (g)150 Upper Devonian 111, 115
tangled 126 dimorphism see sexual dimorphism
uncoiling 125 dimorphs (g)150
Coleoidea 13, 20-3, 139-41 displacement,water 56, 57
coleoids 20 disruptive coloration
colour-changing 87 see coloration and patterning
reproduction 95, 99-100 diurnal vertical migrations 92, 93
see also cuttlefish; octopuses and squids dorsal surface (@I50
collecting fossils Douvilleiceras mammilatum 127
bed-by-bed 94 Douvilleicerataceae 125,126
collections 143 drag 84-5
Collignoceras woolgari 70
coloration and patterning echinoderms g j
ammonites 41, 87 egg cases 21, 22
eggs growth rates
ammonites 99, loo nautiluses 103
nautiluses 36 tube worms 103-4
embryonic ammonites loo
embryonic shells 19, j G haemocyanin 51, (g)151
endogastric coiling (g)15o Hamites 81, 128
Eoasianites 45 H. hybridus 4544
Eoderoceras 45 Haploceras 45
epifauna 31 hatchlings
Epiwocklumeria IIZ ammonites zoo
Euaspidoceras 43 nautiluses IOI
Euhoplites armatus 41 see also ammonitellas
evolute shells 37,38, 124 Hayden, F.V. 45
evolution 21 head 49
biological compromises 54 'hearts' 51
exogastric coiling 25, (g)150 hectocotylus 95
extinctions 135-41 Hectocotylus 95
eyes and eyesight jj helical shells 93, 117
cuttlefish 90 heteromorphs 37, (g)151
nautiluses 28. 6 6 feeding 93
see also Ancyloceratina
falcate ribbing jg Hildoceras 10,45
fasciculate ribbing 39 homomorph ammonites 125, 151
faunal provinces 133 hood 6 6
feeding see also operculum
ammonites 92-3 Hoplites 133
cuttlefish 90 Hoplitidae 133
nautiluses 89-90 hyponome 16, (g)151
octopuses 90-1 flexibility III, 113
squids 91-2 nautiluses 30, 6 6
foraminifera 92, 93 see also funnel
Frasnian-Fammenian boundary event 135 hyponomic sinus 16,83
friction force 84-5 nautiluses 27
funnel 35
see also hyponome Ichthyosaurus grendelius 67
internal shells 20, 140
geological timescale 135 involute shells 36, 37, 121, 133
gerontic specimens 105 iron pyrites 33, 68, 143
giant squids 21,48 isotopic shell analysis 104
gills 35, 49-50. 82
Goniatites crenistria 114 jaws 47-8
Goniatitina (goniatites) 108, 113-15 jet propulsion 16, 81-3
Gonioclymenia laevigata 112 Jurassic period ammonites 33, 39, 122,124,
growth 128
influences 104 Lower Jurassic g,38,40, 68-g,7I, 121,
phases loo 124, 130
growth lines Middle Jurassic 29, n, 96, 97, 129
nautiluses 30 Upper Jurassic lo, 38,4G, 47,~~-3.78.102
 INDEX 1 157

keeled shells jg, 40, 131, 133 Mesozoic period extinctions 135-7
Kosmoceras 94 meteoric impacts
K. duncani 132 and mass extinctions 137-8
K phaeinum 96, 97 microconches 23, 72, (@I52
K/T boundary extinction event see see also sexual dimorphism
Cretaceous-Tertiaryboundary extinction 'middle ammonites' see mesoammonoids
event Miocene ~ e r i o dammonites 71
'modern ammonites' see neoammonoids
lappets 39, 72, 94. 98, (g)151 molluscs 11, 67
Late Cretaceous period extinctions 137-9 morphology see shells
Lechites 95 Mortoniceras 95
Lehman, U . 5,47,48 M. inflatum 129
lid see operculum mother-of-pearl IOI
lifespan 103-4 see also aragonite
Liparoceras naptonensis 71 muscle scars 30,35, 105
lirae 115 mythological associations 9
living chamber see body chamber
lobes 43344, (g)151 nacreous 101
adventitious 120 Nautiloidea 12, 15-18,(g)152
diminishing 121 Nautilus 23-5
divided 118 N. pompilius 16,z5, 65,66,79
lateral 129 N. umbilicalis 26
pointed 114 nautiluses
umbilical 116,123 anatomy 25-31
Loligo forbesi 48 feeding 89-90
looped ribbing 39 growth rates 103
Lytoceras 41,45, 123 hatchlings IOI
L. aaleniarum 42 reproduction 98, 99
L.Jimbriatum 124 size 17
Lytocerataceae 123 water pressure resistance 61
Lytoceratina 109, 122-5 neoammonoids ('modem ammonites') 109
Neochetoceras 48
macroconches 23,78, (g)151-2 N. steraspis 47
see also sexual dimorphism nepionic constriction IOI
mandibles 46, (g)152 neutral buoyancy 14, 55, 58-9, (g)152
see also beak Nipponites mirabilis 126
manoeuvrability see steering and
manoeuvrability octopuses 13, 140-1
Mantell, G. g feeding 90-1
mantle 35, (g)152 reproduction 96-7
shaping 51 see also argonauts
mantle cavity 35 operculum (lid)45
nautiluses ?o nautiluses 27
marble, ammonite 80 see also hood
mass, centre of 18, 63, 64 optic notch
maturity see age nautiluses 27
Meek, F.B. 45 Ordovician period nautiloids 15
mesoammonoids ('middle ammonites') 108 orientation 62-4, 81
 158 AMMONITES

ornamentation 39-41. 94, 102 Promicroceras 53

orthocone shells 16,37 propulsion see jet propulsion
ostracods 92, 93 prosiphon (g)152-3
Owen, R. 24 protoconches 36, roo, ( g ) ~ g j
oxycone shells 36,37,38, 68-9,131 pseudolobes 127
Oxynonticeras 121, 131 Psiloceras 45
0. lymense 133 P. planorbis 130
0. oxynotum 68-9
quadrilobate suture lines 120,127
palaeoammonoids ('ancient ammonites') quinquelobate suture lines 123
108
Palaeozoic period radula ( g ) r ~ j
extinctions 135-7 nautiluses 28
Upper Palaeozoic ammonites I I O Raup, D.M. 136
paper 'nautiluses' see argonauts religious associations 10
Paraceratites elegans 118 reproduction
Parkinsonia dorsetensis 77, 129 ammonites 99-101
pathology 104-5 coleoids 95, 99-100
patterning see coloration and patterning nautiluses 9 8 , 9 9
and suture lines octopuses 96-7
Peltoceras dorsetensis 102 squids 9 6
pens 140 retractor muscles 35
Perisphinctes 45 nautiluses 27, 30
Permian period extinctions 119,135 retrochoanitic septal neck 36,109
phragmacone 35, 5557, 64,71,76, (g)152 rhyncholites 28
nautiluses 28 ribbing 39,131
Phylloceras 45 types 39,102
P. heterophyllum 121 with spine bases 127
Phyllocerataceae 120 see also lirae
Phylloceratitina 109, 120-2 rostra 39, 83, 95
Physodoceras 47 rudists 139
Pictetia 123, 125
pimples IOO saddles 43, (g1153
Placenticeras 105, 121 diminishing 121
P. meeki 131 rounded 114,118
plankton (g)152 Scaphitaceae 125,127
Plectronoceras 15, 17 Scaphites 45, 46
Pleuroceras 47 S. nodosus 74
point force distribution 62 scarring 30, 89, 105
predation Schindewolf, O.H. 47,103
damage by predators 105 Schlotheimia 103
defence against 62,71, 86-7 sea urchins 67
preservation, modes of 34 Sepia oficianalis 50
pressure, water 59-62 Sepkoski, J.J. 136
primary constriction roo septa 35,43,62,65,68,79, (g)153
prochoanitic septal neck 36 see also suture lines
Prolecanites compressus 116 septal neck 35,37
Prolecanitina 108,115-17 prochoanitic jG
 INDEX 1 159

retrochoanitic 36, ~ o g Phylloceratid 121

serpenticone shells 37,38 quadrilobate 120,127
sexual dimorphism 93-9 quinquelobate 123
see also macroconches and microconches swallowing
shells nautiluses 28
form and function 53-64, 81-7 swimming
growth phases loo direction 16-17
morphology 34-41, 100-1 drag 84
oxygen isotopes 104 see also jet propulsion
scarring 30, 89, 105
types 37 taxonomy and classification 12, 107-33
see also internal shells teeth 23
simple ribbing 39, 102 teleology 54
siphon 83, (g)153 Teloceras g
si~huncle13-14.35,36, 58, 65, 79, 111-12, tentacles 49
(g)153 Tetragonitaceae 123
size tiger stripe camouflage 24,50,71, 87
nautiluses 17 see also coloration and patterning
snakestones g Titanites titan (T. anguiformis) 78
soft body anatomy Trachyphyllites 123
ammonites 48-51 Tracyceras 21
nautiluses 28-30 Trauth 46
Solicylmenia 112 Triassic-Jurassicboundary extinctions 136
spadix 98 Triassic ~ e r i o dammonites
spermatophore 95, 98 Lower Triassic 118, 119
spine bases 41 Middle Triassic 118
see also tubercles Upper Triassic 120
spines 39-40, 70,86-7, 13' true ammonites see Ammonitina
spinous ribbing 102 tube worms
spiral lines 71 growth rates 103-4
Spirula 55,57, 61 tubercles 40
squids 13, 21~48,85 see also spine bases
feeding 91-2 Turrilitaceae 125,126-7
reproduction 95, 96 Tumlites 93
stability 18
steering and manoeuvrability 16,18 umbilicus (g)153
Stephanoceras 45 uncoiling 125
straight shells
ammonites 76 vampyromorphs 21
nautiloids 17, 19 varices 86
streamlining 84-6 ventilation cycle
suction force 84,85 nautiluses 30,83
suture 35 ventral surface (g)153
suture lines 41-4, 77, 110,118, Virgatosphinctes sp. lo
- 129, 132, (g)153
ceratitic 117, 119 virgatotone ribbing 39
complex IIG, 123,128
goniatitic 114 water displacement 56,57
Lytoceratid 124 water pressure 59-62
 L T h e L i v i n g P a s t STeries
m

The beautiful spiral shells of these long-extinctmarine invertebrates

are among the most sought after and recognizable of fossils, yet
little has been published about ammonites outside of geological
journals. Neale Monks and Philip Palmer look at the latest ideas on
ammonite biology and ecology to present this detailed picture of a
once diverse and widespread group of animals.
Though an ammonite looks like a nautilus, the animal inside the
shell was most closely related to today's octopus, squid, and
cuttlefish. The authors describe the evolution of ammonites and
their relatives and explain how they created their shells and used
them as flotation devices. All the major groups of ammonites are
described and illustrated (as are many minor ones), and important
material is included on anatomy, feeding, reproduction, and
pathology.
The 300-million-yearexistence of ammonites ended about the same
time that dinosaurs became extinct. Fortunately, ammonites were so
abundant that their fossilized shells can be readily found, and the
authors provide a helpful guide to locating and collecting these
unique fossils.

About the Authors

NEALE MONKS and PHILIPPALMERare both researchers at The
Natural History Museum, London.

The Living Past Series

Copublished with The Natural History Museum,
London, this accessible series brings fossils to life,
furthering an understanding of the origins and
evolution of contemporary plants and animals.

I.
#$. Smithsonian Institution Press
I