CE 374

Water Resources Engineering Sessional -I

(Lab Manual)

Department of Civil Engineering

Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology
Version 1; November, 2015
 Preface

Flow in rivers and canals are the examples of open channel flow. In water resources
engineering, in designing any structure on the river or canal or for flood mitigation process
discharge is the primary information needed. Discharge measurement in open channel is
different from closed conduit. So the main objective of this course is to teach the student how
to measure discharge in an open channel and also to give an idea about some terms and
phenomena of an open channel flow which will be used by them in future in practical field.

Md. Munirul Islam

Rishat Sabrin
Wahid Hassan
Department of Civil Engineering
Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology
 INDEX

Exp.No. Experiment Name Page

1 Determination of state of flow and critical depth in open channel 1

2 Flow over a broad-crested weir 6

3 Flow through a Venturi flume 14

4 Flow through a Parshall flume 23

5 Flow through a cut throat flume 32

6 Flow beneath a sluice gate 39

7 Study on hydraulic jump 46

8 Development of generalized specific energy and specific force curves 54

9 Velocity distribution in open channel 61

10 Determination of discharge and mean velocity of an open channel 69

Appendix-1: Lab report format 75

 Experiment No. 1

DETERMINATION OF STATE OF FLOW AND

CRITICAL DEPTH IN OPEN CHANNEL

Page | 1
1.1 General
The state of open channel flow is mainly governed by the combined effect of viscous
and gravity forces relative to the inertial forces. This experiment mainly deals with
determination of the state of flow in an open channel at a particular section. The state of flow
is very important, as the flow behavior depends on it. In order to construct different structures
in rivers and canals and to predict the river response, the state of flow must be known. The
experiment also deals with determination of critical depth, which is very useful in
determining the types of flow in practice.

1.2 Theory

1.2.1State of flow
Depending on the effect of viscosity relative to inertia, the flow may be laminar,
turbulent or transitional. The effect of viscosity relative to the inertia is expressed by the
Reynolds number, given by

VR
Re = (1.1)

where, V is the mean velocity of flow, R is the hydraulic radius (=A/P), A is the wetted
cross-sectional area, P is the wetted perimeter and is the kinemetic viscosity of water.
Kinematic viscosity varies with temperature. The values of kinematic viscosity of water at
different temperatures are given in Table 1.1. The value of at 200C (=1.003x10-6 m2/s) is
normally used to compute the Reynolds number of open channel flow.

When, Re <500 the flow is laminar

500 Re 12,500 the flow is transitional
Re > 12,500 the flow is turbulent.

Most open channel flows including those in rivers and canals are turbulent. The
Reynolds number of most open channel flows is high, of the order of 10 6, indicating that the
viscous forces are weak relative to the inertia forces and do not play a significant role in
determining the flow behavior.
When the flow is dominated by the gravity, then the type of flow can be identified by
a dimensionless number, known as Froude Number. Given by

V
Fr = (1.2)
gD

where, V is the mean velocity of flow, D is the hydraulic depth (= A/T), A is the cross-
sectional area, T is the top width and g is the acceleration due to gravity (= 9.81 m/s2).
Depending on the effect of gravity relative to inertia, the flow may be subcritical, critical or
supercritical-

When, Fr<1 the flow is subcritical

Fr =1 the flow is critical
Fr>1 the flow is supercritical.

The flow in most rivers and canals is subcritical. Supercritical flow normally occurs
downstream of a sluice gate and at the foot of drops and spillways. The Froude number of
Page | 2
open channel flow varies over a wide range covering both subcritical and supercritical flows
and the state or behavior of open channel flow is primarily governed by the gravity force
relative to the inertia force. Therefore, the Froude number is the most important parameter to
indicate the state or behavior of open channel flow.
Depending on the numerical values of Reynolds and Froude numbers, the following
four states of flow are possible in an open channel:

i) Subcritical laminar Fr<1, Re<500

ii) Supercritical laminar Fr>1, Re<500
iii) Subcritical turbulent Fr<1, Re>12500
iv) Supercritical turbulent Fr>1, Re>12500

The first two states of flow, subcritical laminar and supercritical laminar, are not commonly
encountered in applied open channel hydraulics. Since the flow is generally turbulent is open
channel, the last two states of flow are encountered is engineering problems.

Table 1.1 Kinematic viscosity of water at different temperatures

Temperature, 0C Kinematic viscosity, 10-6, m2/s

0 1.781
5 1.518
10 1.307
15 1.139
20 1.003
25 0.890
30 0.798
40 0.653
50 0.547
60 0.466
70 0.404
80 0.354
90 0.315
100 0.282

1.2.2 Critical depth

Flow in an open channel is critical when the Froude number of the flow is equal to
unity. Critical flow in a channel depends on the discharge and the geometry of channel
section. For a rectangular section, the critical depth is given by

Q2
yc 3 (1.3)
gB 2

where, ycis the critical depth, Q is the discharge and B is the width of the channel.
When the depth is greater than the critical depth, the flow is subcritical. When the
depth is less than the critical depth, the flow is supercritical.

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1.3 Objectives of the experiment
1) To measure water depth both upstream and downstream of a weir.
2) To determine the Reynolds number (Re) and the Froude number (Fr).
3) To determine the state of flow.
4) To determine critical depth (yc).
5) To observe the subcritical and the supercritical flows.

1.4 Experimental setup

To develop different states of flow, the following laboratory setup is used.

1 2

In flow Tail gate

Broad crested weir
Flow measuring unit (Water meter)
Out flow
Reservoir
Pump

Fig. 1.1 Schematic diagram of experimental setup

1.5 Procedure
i) Measure the depth of flow at sections 1 and 2 by a point gage.
ii) Take the reading of discharge.
iii) Calculate the velocity at both the sections.
iv) Calculate Re and Fr for both the sections using Eqs.(1.1) and (1.2) and
determine the state of flow.
v) Calculate the critical depth yc using Eq.(1.3).

1.6 Assignment
1. Why the state of flow and the critical depth of a river or canal need to be
determined?
2. How can you determine that the flow in a river is subcritical, critical or
supercritical without taking any measurement?
3. State why the Froude number is more significant than the Reynolds number to
determine the state of open channel flow.

1.7 References

1. Chow, V. T (1957): Open Channel Hydraulics, Chapter 1 (Open channel flow and its
classification) & Chapter 4 (Critical flow: its computation and applications).

2. French, R.H (1980): Open channel Hydraulics, Chapter 1(Concept of fluid flow).

Page | 4
 DATA SHEET
Experiment Name :
Experiment Date :

Students Name :
Students ID :
Year/ Semester :
Section/ Group :

Discharge, Q = m3/s Flume width, B = m

Critical depth, yc= m Temperature = C

Kinematic viscosity, = m2/s

Depth of Perimeter Hydraulic Hydraulic Velocity Froude Reynolds State of

flow Area P=(B+2y) Radius Depth V=Q/(By) number number flow
Section

y A=B R=A/P D=A/T Fr Re

(m) y (m) (m) (m) (m/s)
(m2)

Course Teacher :
Designation :

Signature

Page | 5
 Experiment No. 2

FLOW OVER A BROAD-CRESTED WEIR

Page | 6
2.1 General
A broad-crested weir is an overflow structure with a truly level and horizontal crest. It
is widely used in irrigation canals for the purpose of flow measurement as it is rugged and
can stand up well under field conditions. But practically some problems arise with the weir,
as there exists a dead water zone at the upstream of the weir and the head loss is more
comparable to other devices. By virtue of being a critical depth meter, the broad crested weir
has the advantage that it operates effectively with higher downstream water levels than a
sharp crested weir. This experiment deals with measurement of discharge using the broad-
crested weir and also calibration of the weir

2.2 Theory

2.2.1 Description of the weir

The broad-crested weir has a definite crest length in the direction of flow. In order to
maintain a hydrostatic pressure distribution above the weir crest, i.e. to maintain the
streamlines straight and parallel, the length of the weir is designed such that
0.07 H1/L 0.50 where H1 is the head above the crest and L is the length of the weir
(Fig. 2.1). Under this condition, critical flow occurs over the weir at section A-A and the weir
provides an excellent means of measuring discharge in open channels based on the principle
of critical flow. The upstream corner of the weir is rounded in such a manner that flow
separation does not occur.

Fig. 2.1 Flow over a broad-crested weir

2.2.2 Theoretical discharge

Consider a rectangular broad-crested weir shown in Fig. 2.1. Based on the principle of
critical flow (Fr = 1), the theoretical discharge Q t over the weir is given by

Qt g By c1.5 (2.1)
where B is the width of the weir, yc is the critical depth and g is the acceleration due to
gravity.
The usual difficulty in using Eq.(2.1) for computing discharge lies in locating the
critical flow section and measuring the critical depth accurately. This difficulty is, however,
overcome by measuring the depth of flow upstream of the weir where the flow is not affected

Page | 7
by the presence of the weir. With reference to Fig. 2.1, neglecting the frictional losses and
applying the energy equation between the upstream section and the critical flow section, we
obtain
V2
H1 yc c
2g
whereVc is the critical velocity. Since at the critical state of flow, the velocity head is equal to
one-half of the hydraulic depth (D) and for a rectangular channel D = y, the above equation
gives
V2 D y 3
H1 yc c yc c yc c yc
2g 2 2 2
so that
2
yc H1
3

and Eq.(2.1) becomes

1.5
Qt = (2/3 ) g BH 1.5
1
(2.2)

2.2.3 Coefficient of discharge

Due to the assumptions made in the derivation of the governing equation, the
theoretical discharge and the actual discharge always vary from each other. So, the
coefficient of discharge is introduced. If Qa is the actual discharge, then the coefficient of
discharge, Cd, is given by

Cd = Qa/Qt (2.3)
Then
1.5
Qa = C d (2/3 ) g BH 1.5
1
(2.4)

The coefficient of discharge for a broad-crested weir depends on the length of the
weir and whether the upstream corner of the weir is rounded or not. Normally, in a field
installation it is not possible to measure the energy head H1 directly and therefore the
discharge is related to the upstream depth of flow over the crest, y1, by the equation

1.5
Qa = C v C d (2/3 ) g By1.5
1
(2.5)

whereCv is the correction coefficient for neglecting the velocity head in the approach channel.
Generally the effect of Cv is considered in Cd and finally the governing equation becomes

1.5
Qa = C d (2/3 ) g By1.5
1
(2.6)
and

Qt = (2/3 )1.5 g By1.5

1
(2.7)

Page | 8
2.2.4 Calibration
Calibration is the act of obtaining a definite relationship for the measuring device
using the sets of known data. For a broad-crested weir, the Eq.2.7 can be expressed as a
relationship between the upstream depth and the discharge, i.e. Q = ky1n. This relation is
known as stage discharge equation for discharge measurement. So calibration deals with
determination of coefficient k and exponent n using the sets of experimental data and develop
the equation Q = ky1n so that the equation can be useful for flow estimation. The plotting of
the calibrated equation is known as calibration curve for the measuring device. There are two
different ways to develop a calibration equation. These are

i) Plotting best fit line by eye estimation.

ii) Developing best fit line by regression.

By eye estimation
As log Q = log k + n log y1, so if Q and y1 are plotted in a log log paper, the line will
represent a straight line. Different sets of Q and y1 are plotted in a log log paper keeping y1
along the x axis and Q along the y axis. The best fit line is drawn by eye estimation. The
slope of the line gives the value of n. Then for any value of y the corresponding value of Q is
found from the best fit line. Using these values of y, Q and n, the value of k can be found
form the equation Q = ky1n.

By regression
From Q = ky1n, we have

log Q = log k + n log y1

Putting log Q = Y, log k = K and log y1 = X, we obtain

Y = K + nX

Then
N( XY) ( X)( Y)
n
N( X 2 ) ( X) 2

K=
Y n X
N

k = antilog K

where N is the number of sets of Q and y1 plotted. The correlation coefficient r is given by

N XY X Y
r
N X 2 X 2 N Y 2 Y 2



For a perfect correlation, r = 1.0. If r is between 0.6 and 1.0, it is generally taken as a good
correlation.
Page | 9
2.3 Objectives of the experiment
i) To determine the theoretical discharge of the weir.
ii) To measure the actual discharge and hence to find out the coefficient of
discharge.
iii) To calibrate the weir.

2.4 Experimental setup

The experimental setup for this experiment is given below.

In flow
Broad crested weir Tail gate
Flow measuring unit (Water Meter)

Out flow
Reservoir
Pump

Fig. 2.2 Setup for flow over a broad-crested weir

2.5 Procedure
To determine the theoretical and the actual discharges and the coefficient of discharge
i) Measure the upstream water level over the weir y1 at three points, then find the
average depth and determine the theoretical discharge using Eq. (2.7).
ii) Take the reading of actual discharge and hence find the coefficient of
discharge using Eq. (2.3).

To calibrate the weir by eye estimation (should be done by students having odd
student number)
i) Plot the actual discharges against the corresponding upstream depths in
a log log paper and find the value of n and k as discussed in Art. 2.2.4.
ii) Develop the relationship Q = ky1 n.

To calibrate the weir by regression (should be done by students having even student
number)
i) Form a table having columns for Q, y1,X , Y, XY, X2 as discussed in
Art. 2.2.4 and find the value of n, k and r .
ii) Compare the equation with that obtained by the eye estimation method.

Page | 10
2.6 Shape of Q vs y graph
In a plain graph paper the plot of Q = kyn is non-linear. But in a log log paper Q = kyn
plots as a straight line since log Q = log k + n log y which is an equation of a straight line (of
the form y = mx + c).

Q vsy graph
Q vsy graph
(in plain paper)
(in log log paper)
Q
Q

y
y

2.7 Assignment
1. What are the advantage, disadvantage and use of a broad-crested weir?
2. Why is it necessary to calibrate a broad-crested weir?
3. A broad-crested weir is designed so that 0.07 H1/L 0.50. What do the upper and
lower limits of H1/L signify?

2.8 References

1.Richard H. French: Open Channel Hydraulics, Chapter 8 (Flow measurement).

2. Robert L. Daugherty and Joseph B. Franzini: Fluid Mechanics with Engineering

Applications, Chapter 12 (Flow measurement).

Page | 11
 DATA SHEET
Experiment Name :
Experiment Date :

Students Name :
Students ID :
Year/ Semester :
Section/ Group :

Length of the weir, L = m Width of the weir (or flume), B = m

Depth of water over Theoretical discharge Actual discharge Coefficient of

weir crest Qt Qa discharge
(m) (m3/s) (m3/s) Cd

Calibration of the weir

i) By eye estimation (should be done by students having odd student number)

Depth of water above weir crest, y1

Actual discharge ,Qa
(m)
(m3/s)

Page | 12
 ii) By regression (should be done by students having even student number)

y1 Qa X=log y1 Y=log Q XY X2 Y2

X= Y= XY= X2= Y2=

Course Teacher :
Designation :

Signature

Page | 13
 Experiment No. 3

FLOW THROUGH A VENTURI FLUME

Page | 14
3.1 General
Although weirs are an effective method of artificially creating a critical section at
which the flow rate can be determined, a weir installation has at least two disadvantages.
First, the use of weirs results in relatively high head loss. Second, most weirs create a dead
water zone upstream of it which can serve as a settling basin for sediment and other debris
present in the flow. Both of these disadvantages can be overcome with an open flume having
a contraction in width which is sufficient to cause the flow to pass through a critical depth.
Venturi flume is an open flume used widely in irrigation canals for measuring discharge and
also as a outlet of canal to supply water in the field or distributary canal. But Venturi flumes
have a disadvantage that there is relatively small head difference between the upstream
section and the critical section, especially at low Froude numbers. This experiment deals with
measurement of discharge using a Venturi flume and also calibration of the flume.

3.2 Theory

3.2.1 Description of the flume

Venturi flume has a converging section, a throat section and a diverging section. The
bed level is kept horizontal. The streamlines run parallel to each other at least over a short
distance upstream of the flume.

Fig. 3.1 Flow through a Venturi flume

3.2.2 Theoretical discharge at free flow condition

Considering that critical flow occurs at the throat section of the flume, the theoretical
discharge at free flow is given by

Qtf= AV = AcVc

where Ac and Vc are the area and velocity at the critical flow section of the flume. At the
critical state of flow

Fr 1
or
Vc2
1
gDc
or
Vc gDc

Page | 15
 Fig. 3.2 Free flow condition

Now, for a rectangular flume, Ac = byc and Dc = yc, where b is the width of the Venturi flume
at the throat section. Hence, the theoretical discharge at free flow given by

Q tf A c Vc by c gy c (3.1)

For a rectangular channel at critical condition there exists a relationship between total head
and the critical depth as

3
H yc
2

Hence, putting

2
yc H
3

in Eq.(3.1), we obtain

1.5
Qtf = (2/3 ) g bH1.5 (3.2)

where H is the head measured sufficiently upstream of the flume.

3.2.3 Theoretical discharge at submerged flow condition

1 2

1 2

Fig. 3.3 Submerged flow condition

Page | 16
No critical flow section exists at submerged flow condition. Considering Fig 3.3, applying the
energy equation between sections 1and 2, we obtain

V12 V2
y1 y2 2
2g 2g
which gives
V12
V22 (1 ) 2 g ( y1 y 2 )
V22
If A and a are the wetted areas at sections 1 and 2, respectively, then using the continuity
equation
AV1 = aV2
we obtain
V1 a

V2 A
If we assume
V a
M 1
V2 A
Then
V22 (1 M 2 ) 2 g ( y1 y 2 )
so that
2 g ( y1 y 2 )
V2
1 M 2
Hence, the theoretical discharge at submerged flow condition
2 g ( y1 y 2 )
Qts aV2 a (3.3)
1 M 2

3.2.4 Coefficient of discharge

Due to the assumptions made in the derivation of the governing equation, the
theoretical discharge and the actual discharge always vary from each other. So, the
coefficient of discharge Cd is introduced. If Qa is the actual discharge, then the coefficient of
discharge at free flow condition, Cdf, is given by

Cdf = Qa/Qtf (3.4)

Normally, in a field installation it is not possible to measure the energy head H directly and
therefore the discharge is related to the upstream depth of flow y1 by the equation

1.5
Qa = Cv Cdf (2/3 ) g by1.5
1
(3.5)

Where Cv is the correction coefficient for neglecting the velocity head in the approach
channel. Generally the effect of C v is considered in Cd and finally the governing equations
become
1.5
Qa = Cdf (2/3 ) g By1.5
1
(3.6)
and
1.5
Qtf = (2/3 ) g By1.5
1
(3.7)

Page | 17
The coefficient of discharge at submerged flow condition, Cds is given by

Cds = Qa/Qts (3.8)

3.2.5 Calibration
Calibration is the act of obtaining a definite relationship for the measuring device
using the sets of known data. For a broad-crested weir there is a definite relationship between
the upstream depth and the discharge, i.e. Q = ky1 n. This relation is known as the calibration
equation for the device. So calibration deals with determination of k and n and develop the
equation Q = ky1n. The plotting of the calibration equation is known as calibration curve.
There are two different ways to develop a calibration equation. These are

i) Plotting best fit line by eye estimation.

ii) Developing best fit line by regression.

By eye estimation
As log Q = log k + n log y1, so if Q and y1 are plotted in a log log paper, the line will
represent a straight line. Different sets of Q and y1 are plotted in a log log paper keeping y1
along the x axis and Q along the y axis. The best fit line is drawn by eye estimation. The
slope of the line gives the value of n. Then for any value of y the corresponding value of Q is
found from the best fit line. Using these values of y, Q and n, the value of k can be found
form the equation Q = ky1n.

By regression
From Q = ky1n, we have

log Q = log k + n log y1

Putting log Q = Y, log k = K and log y1 = X, we obtain

Y = K + nX

Then
N( XY) ( X)( Y)
n
N( X 2 ) ( X) 2

K=
Y n X
N

k = antilog K

where N is the number of sets of Q and y1 plotted. The correlation coefficient r is given by

N XY X Y
r
N X 2 X 2 N Y 2 Y 2



For a perfect correlation, r = 1.0. If r is between 0.6 and 1.0, it is generally taken as a good
correlation.
Page | 18
3.3 Objectives of the experiment
i) To determine the theoretical discharge of the flume at free flow and
submerged flow conditions.
ii) To measure the actual discharge and hence to find out the coefficient of
discharge at free flow and submerged flow conditions.
iii) To calibrate the flume.

3.4 Experimental setup

The experimental setup for this experiment is given below.

Water Meter
In flow
Venturi Flume
Flow measuring unit
Out flow
Reservoir
Pump

Fig. 3.4 Setup for flow through a Venturi flume

3.5 Procedure
To determine the theoretical and the actual discharges and the coefficient of discharge
at free flow condition
i) Measure the depth of flow sufficiently upstream of the flume and determine
the theoretical discharge using Eq.(3.7).
ii) Take the reading of actual discharge and hence find the coefficient of
discharge using Eq. (3.4).

To determine the theoretical and the actual discharges and the coefficient of discharge
in submerged flow condition
i) Measure the flow depths at sections 1 and 2 shown in Fig. 3.3 and determine
the theoretical discharge using Eq.(3.3).
ii) Take the reading of actual discharge and hence find the coefficient of
discharge using Eq. (3.8).

To calibrate the flume (for free flow condition only) by eye estimation (should be
done by students having even student number)
i) Plot the actual discharge against the corresponding upstream depth in a log log
paper and find the values of n and k as discussed in Art. 3.2.5.
ii) Develop the relationship Q =ky1 n.

To calibrate the flume (for free flow condition only) by regression (should be done by
students having odd student number)
i) Form a table having columns for Q, y1, X, Y, XY, X2 as discussed in Art.3.2.5
and find the values of n, k and r.
ii) Compare the equation with that obtained by the eye estimation method.

Page | 19
3.6 Shape of Q vs y graph
In a plain graph paper the plot of Q = kyn is non-linear. But in a log log paper Q =
kynplots as a straight line since log Q = log k + n log y which is an equation of a straight line
(of the form y = mx + c).

Q vsygraph
Q vsygraph
(inplain paper)
(in loglogpaper)
Q
Q

y
y

3.7 Assignment
1. What are the advantage, disadvantage and use of a Venturi flume?
2. What is the difference between free and submerged flows? How can you produce
submerged flow in a laboratory flume? What is the effect of submergence on the
flow?

3.8 Reference

1. Richard H. French : Open Channel Hydraulics , Chapter 8 (Flow Measurement)

Page | 20
 DATA SHEET

Experiment Name :
Experiment Date :

Students Name :
Students ID :
Year/ Semester :
Section/ Group :

Length of the weir, L = m Width of the weir (or flume), B = m

Depth of water over Theoretical discharge Actual discharge Coefficient of

weir crest Qt Qa discharge
Cd
(m) (m3/s) (m3/s)

Calibration of the weir

i) By eye estimation (should be done by students having odd student number)

Depth of water above weir crest, y1

Actual discharge, Qa
(m)
(m3/s)

Page | 21
 ii) By regression (should be done by students having even student number)

y1 Qa X=log y1 Y=log Q XY X2 Y2

X= Y= XY= X2= Y2=

Course Teacher :
Designation :

Signature

Page | 22
 Experiment No. 4

FLOW THROUGH A PARSHALL FLUME

Page | 23
4.1 General

The problem with a Venturi flume is that there is a relatively small head difference
between the upstream section and the critical section. This problem can be overcome by
designing a flume which has a contracted throat section in which critical flow occurs
followed by a short length of supercritical flow and a hydraulic jump at the exit section. A
flume of this type was designed by R.L. Parshall and is widely known as the Parshall flume.
Practically this type of flume is used in small irrigation canals for flow measurement purpose.
It is better than all other devices discussed before as it is more accurate, can withstand a
relatively high degree of submergence over a wide range of backwater condition downstream
from the structure and it acts as a self-cleaning device due to the fact that high velocity
washes out the debris and sediments present in the flow. However, when a heavy burden of
erosion debris is present in the stream, the Parshall flume becomes invalid like weir, because
deposition of debris will produce undesirable result. Another problem which arises with this
flume is that the fabrication is complicated and also fabrication should be done as per
requirement. This experiment deals with the measurement of discharge using a Parshall
flume.

4.2 Theory

4.2.1 Description of the flume

A Parshall flume consists of a broad flat converging section, a narrow downward

sloping throat section and an upward sloping diverging section. The reason of downward
sloping throat section is to increase the head difference between the upstream section and the
critical section. The upward slope in the diverging section is given to produce a high tailwater
depth which reduces the length of the supercritical flow region.

4.2.2 Theoretical discharge

The Parshall flume is a calibrated device i.e. there exists a definite depth-discharge
relationship for the flume. So analytic determination of theoretical discharge is not required
for this flume.Similar to other types of device, the discharge through a Parshall flume is given
by

Qt = KHan (4.1)

where K is a constant which depends on the system of units used, n is an exponent and H a is
the upstream depth measured at the location shown in Fig. 4.1.

Page | 24
 Fig. 4.1 Flow through Parshall flume

The values of K and n depend on the throat width and are given in Table 4.1.
According to this table, for free flow condition, the depth-discharge relationship of a Parshall
flume of throat width which is normally used in the laboratory, as calibrated empirically,
is given by

Qtf = 0.3812 Ha1.58 (4.2)

whereQt is in m3/s and Ha is in meter.

Table 4.1 Values of K and n for different throat widths

Throat width,W (ft) K n

0.1771 1.550
0.3812 1.580
1 0.6909 1.522
2 1.4280 1.550
4 2.9530 1.578
8 6.1120 1.607
20 14.450 1.600
50 35.410 1.600

Page | 25
4.2.3 Coefficient of discharge

The actual discharge always varies with the theoretical discharge of the flume. So the
introduction of a coefficient of discharge is necessary. If the actual discharge Q a is measured
by the water meter, the coefficient of discharge is given by

Cdf= Qa/Qtf (at free flow condition) (4.3)

Cds= Qa/Qts (at submerged flow condition) (4.4)

4.2.4 Percentage of submergence

The percentage of submergence for the Parshall flume is given by 100H b/Ha, where
Hb is the downstream depth measured from the invert datum. When the percentage of
submergence exceeds 0.6, the discharge through the Parshall flume is reduced. The discharge
of Parshall flume then equals

Qts = Qtf - QE (4.5)

whereQts is the corrected discharge due to submergence, Qtf is the theoretical free flow
discharge and QE is the correction of discharge. The correction of discharge for a Parshall
flume is given in Fig 4.3.

4.3 Objectives of the experiment

i. To determine the theoretical discharge at the free flow condition.
ii. To determine the theoretical discharge at the submerged flow condition.
iii. To determine the coefficient of discharge C d for both the free and submerged
flow conditions.
iv. To verify the values of K and n.

4.4 Experiment setup

The experiment setup is given below.

Fig.4.2 Setup for flow through a Parshall flume

Page | 26
The depth-discharge relationships of Parshall flumes of various sizes, as calibrated
empirically, are represented by the following equation shown in table 4.2.

Table 4.2 Depth-discharge relationships of parshall flume of various sizes

Throat width Equation

3 Q= 0.992 Ha1.547
6 Q= 2.06 Ha1.58
9 Q= 3.07 Ha1.53
0.026
12 to 8 Q = 4WHa1.552W
10 to 50 Q= (3.6875W + 2.5) Ha1.6

In the above equation, Q is the free discharge in cfs, W is the width of the throat in ft and H a
is the gage reading in ft.

Page | 27
Fig.4.3 The corrections of submergence for Parshall flumes of various sizes
Page | 28
4.5 Procedure
To determine the theoretical discharge at the free flow condition
i) Measure the head Ha.
ii) Compute Qtf using Eq.(4.2).

To determine the theoretical discharge at the submerged flow condition

i) Measure the heads Ha and Hb.
ii) Compute Qtf using Eq.(4.2).
iii) Find the % of submergence, 100Hb/Ha.
iv) If the % of submergence exceeds 60%, find the discharge correction
QE using Fig. 4.3.
v) Find Qts using Eq.(4.5).

To determine the coefficient of discharge, measure the actual discharge from the
water meter and calculate Cdf and Cds using Eqs.(4.3) and (4.4).

To verify the values of K and n

i) Plot Qavs Ha in a log log paper.
ii) Slope of the plotted line gives the value of n.
iii) Using the value of n for any set of values of Qa and Ha, find K using
Eq.(4.1).

4.6 Shape of Q vs Ha graph

In a plain graph paper the plot of Q = KHan is a non-linear. But in a log log paper
Q = KHan plots as a straight line since log Q = log K + n log H a which is the equation of a
straight line (of the form y = mx + c).

Page | 29
4.7 Assignment

1. What are the advantage, disadvantage and use of a Parshall flume?

2. Why a downward narrow section and an upward diverging section are provided in a
Parshall flume?

4.8 References

1) French, R.H. (1980): Open Channel Hydraulics, Chapter-8 (Flow measurement).

2) Chow, V.T. (1957): Open Channel Hydraulics, Chapter-4(Critical flow: its

computation and applications).

3) Michael, A.M.: Irrigation Theory and Practices, Chapter-4 (Measurement of

irrigation water).

Page | 30
 DATA SHEET
Experiment Name :
Experiment Date :

Students Name :
Students ID :
Year/ Semester :
Section/ Group :

Throat width, W = m Actual discharge, Qa = m3/s

Free flow condition Submerged flow condition

Ha Qtf Cdf Ha Hb % Qtf QE Qts Cts

Submergence
(m) (m3/s) (m) (m) =100*(Hb/Ha) (m3/s) (m3/s) (m3/s
)

Verification of K and n

Actual discharge ,Qa Ha

(m3/s) (m)

Course Teacher :
Designation :

Signature

Page | 31
 Experiment No. 5

FLOW THROUGH A CUT-THROAT FLUME

Page | 32
5.1 General
Although a Parshall flume gives very accurate measurement of discharge, the problem
of the flume is that the fabrication of such a flume is complicated and also the fabrication
should be done as per requirement. The cut throat flume is an attempt to improve on the
Parshall flume mainly by simplifying the construction details. So the flume is economical and
normally used in straight sections of small irrigation channels for flow measuring purpose.
The angles of divergence and convergence remain same for all flumes. So the size of the
flume can be changed by merely moving the vertical walls in or out. This experiment deals
with the measurement of discharge using a cut throat flume.

5.2 Theory

5.2.1 Description of the flume

The Cut throat flume has a flat bottom, vertical walls and a zero length throat section.
The details of the standard shape of a cut throat flume are shown in Fig 5.1. It can operate
either as a free or submerged flow structure. Under free flow condition critical depth occurs
in the vicinity of the throat. Any flume length from 45 cm to 3 m can be used while throat
widths between 2.5 cm and 1.8 m have been investigated.

Fig. 5.1 Flow through a cut throat flume

5.2.2 Theoretical discharge at free flow condition

The theoretical discharge through a cut throat flume at the free flow condition is given
by

Qtf = CHan (5.1)

where C is the free flow coefficient given by

C = KW1.025 (5.2)

Page | 33
K is the flume length coefficient, W is the width of the throat, n is an exponent and H a is the
upstream flow depth, measured at a distance of 2L/9 form the throat, as shown in Fig. 5.1.
The values of K and n are obtained from Fig.5.2 for a given flume length.

5.2.3 Submergence ratio and submerged flow condition

In order to ensure free flow condition, the ratio between the water depths at the exit
and entrance, i.e. the submergence ratio (Hb/Ha) should not exceed a certain limit, called the
transition submergence, St, which can be determined from Fig. 5.3. If the submergence ratio
exceeds the transition submergence, the flow condition is said to be submerged flow
condition.

5.2.4 Coefficient of discharge

The actual discharge always varies with the theoretical discharge of the flume. So the
introduction of a coefficient of discharge is necessary. If the actual discharge Qa is measured
by the water meter, the coefficient of discharge is given by

Cdf= Qa/Qtf (at free flow condition) (5.3)

5.3 Objectives of the experiment

i) To determine the theoretical discharge at the free flow condition.
ii) To determine the submergence ratio and to check the effect of submergence.
iii) To determine the coefficient of discharge Cd.
iv) To verify the values of coefficient C and exponent n.

5.4 Experiment setup

The experiment setup is given below.

Fig. 5.2 Setup for flow through a cut throat flume

Page | 34
Fig. 5.3 Generalized free flow coefficients and exponents and S t for cut-throat flumes

Page | 35
5.5 Procedure
To determine the theoretical discharge at the free flow condition
i) Measure the head Ha.
ii) Determine the values of K and n from Fig. 5.2.
iii) Determine the value of C using Eq. (5.2).
iv) Determine the theoretical discharge using Eq. (5.1).

To determine the submergence ratio and check the effect of submergence

i) Measure the heads Ha and Hb and determine the submergence ratio
Hb/Ha.
ii) Determine the transition submergence St from Fig. (5.2).
iii) If submergence ratio exceeds St, the flow is submerged.

To determine the coefficient of discharge, measure the actual discharge from the
water meter and calculate Cdf using Eq. (5.3).

To verify the values of C and n

i) Plot Qavs Ha in a log log paper.
ii) Slope of the plotted line gives the value of n.
iii) Using the value of n for any set of values of Qa and Ha, find C using
Eq. (5.1).

5.6 Shape of Q vs Ha graph

In a plain graph paper the plot of Q = CHan is a non-linear. But in a log -log paper Q =
n
CHa plots as a straight line since log Q = log C + n log H a which is the equation of a straight
line (of the form y = mx + c).

Page | 36
5.7 Assignment

1. What are the advantage, disadvantage and use of a cut throat flume?
2. Which one of the four flow measuring devices, viz. broad-crested weir, Venturi
flume, Parshall flume and cut throat flume, seems to be the best in an irrigation
project of Bangladesh? Justify your answer.

5.8 References

1. Michael, A.M.: Irrigation Theory and Practices, Chapter 4 (Measurement of

irrigation water).
2. Kraatz,D.B. &Mahajan,I.K.: Small Hydraulic Structures (FAO Irrigation and
Drainage paper), Chapter-7 (Structures and devices for water measurement).

Page | 37
 DATA SHEET
Experiment Name :
Experiment Date :

Students Name :
Students ID :
Year/ Semester :
Section/ Group :

Throat width, W = m Actual discharge, Qa = m3/s

Flume length, L = m K= n= St =

Ha Qtf Cdf Hb Submergence Comments

Ratio on
(m) (m3/s) (m) Hb/Ha submergence

Verification of C and n

Actual discharge ,Qa Ha

(m3/s) (m)

Course Teacher :
Designation :

Signature

Page | 38
 Experiment No. 6

FLOW BENEATH A SLUICE GATE

Page | 39
6.1 General
Sluice gate is a classical example of the application energy and momentum principle.
Sluice gate is used in open channel to control and regulate the flow as well as to measure the
discharge in the channel. Sometimes it is used to raise the water level and maintain a constant
operating level in irrigation canals. Sluice gate is also used for draining the excess water for
both urban areas and rural agricultural areas. This experiment deals with the measurement of
discharge beneath a sluice gate.

6.2 Theory

6.2.1 Description of the sluice gate

The simple form of a sluice gate consists of a horizontal channel bed having a vertical
gate which can be lifted vertically up and down.

Fig. 6.1 Flow beneath a sluice gate

6.2.2 Theoretical discharge

The Bernoulli equation may be applied in those cases where there is a negligible loss
of total head from one section to another or where the magnitude of the head loss is already
known. Flow under a sluice gate is an example of converging flow where the correct form of
the equation for discharge may be obtained by equating the energies at sections 1 and 2 as
shown in Fig. 6.1. As the energy loss between the sections is negligible, we have

H1 = H2 (6.1)

and therefore

(6.2)

Expressing the velocities in terms of Q, the above equation becomes

(6.3)

where b is the width of the sluice gate. Simplifying and rearranging the terms, we obtain

Page | 40
 (6.4)

or alternatively

(6.5)

The small reduction in flow velocity due to viscous resistance between sections 1 and 2 may
be allowed for by a coefficient Cv. Then

(6.6)

The coefficient of velocity, C v, varies in the range 0.95 <Cv< 1.0, depending on the geometry
of the flow pattern (expressed by the ratio yg/y1) and friction.
The downstream depth y2 may be expressed as a function of the gate opening, yg, i.e.

y2 = Ccyg (6.7)

where Cc is the coefficient of contraction whose commonly accepted value of 0.61 is nearly
independent of the ratio yg/y1. The maximum contraction of the jet occurs approximately at a
distance equal to the gate opening. Thus, Eq.(6.6) becomes

(6.8)

The above equation can also be written as

(6.9)

where Cd is the coefficient of discharge and is a function of C v, Cc, b, yg, and y1. Therefore

(6.10)

Equation (6.9) may also be written as

Qa= CdQt (6.11)

So that
(6.12)

whereQt and Qa are the theoretical and actual discharges, respectively.

Page | 41
6.2.3 Forces on a sluice gate
The momentum equation may be applied to the fluid within any chosen control
volume where the external forces are known or can be estimated to a sufficient degree of
accuracy. The horizontal components of these forces acting on the fluid within the control
volume shown in Fig. 6.1 are the resultants of the hydrostatic pressure distributions at
sections 1 and 2, the viscous shear force on the bed and the thrust of the gate. It should be
noted that the equation permits the resultant gate thrust (Fg) to be determined even though the
pressure distribution along its surface is not hydrostatic. Over a short length of smooth bed
the contribution of the shear force may be neglected. The resultant force applied to the fluid
within the control volume in the downstream direction is given by

(6.13)

The effect of this force is to accelerate the fluid within the control volume in the downstream
direction. Hence

(6.14)

Substituting for Fx and gathering terms, we obtain

(6.15)

Simplifying and eliminating Qa, we get

(6.16)

The pressure distribution on the gate cannot be hydrostatic, as the pressure must be
atmospheric at both the upstream water level and at the point where the jet springs clear of
the gate.
Note that the thrust on the gate, FH, for a hydrostatic pressure distribution is given by

(6.17)

6.3 Objectives
i) To determine the discharge beneath the sluice gate.
ii) To determine Cv, Cc and Cd.
iii) To plot y1vsQa for different values of yg in a plain graph paper.
iv) To determine Fg and FH and hence to find the ratio Fg/FH.

Page | 42
6.4 Experimental setup
The experimental setup is given below.

In flow
Sluice gate

Out flow
Reservoir
Pump

Fig. 6.2 Setup for flow beneath a sluice gate

6.5 Procedure
To determining the discharge beneath the sluice gate
i) Measure y1 and yg.
ii) Calculate the theoretical discharge using Eq. (6.12).
iii) Take the reading of actual discharge from the water meter.

To determine Cv, Cc and Cd

i) Calculate Cc using Eq.(6.7).
ii) Using the value of Cc, calculate Cv using Eq.(6.8).
iii) Using the values of Cc and Cv, determine Cd using Eq. (6.10).

Plot y1 vsQa for different values of yg in a plain graph paper.

To determine Fg and FH and hence to find the ratio Fg/FH

i) Determine y2.
ii) Determine Fgusing Eq.(6.16).
iii) Determine FH using Eq.(6.17) and calculate the ratio Fg/FH

6.6 Shape of Qavs y1 graph

In a plain graph paper the plot of Qa = ky1 n is a parabola. Now, if yg increases, for
same value of y1, Q increases. So, the y1 vsQa graph for a higher value of yg lies below the
same graph for a lower value of yg.

Page | 43
6.7 Assignment
1. Explain why the pressure distribution along the surface of the gate is not
hydrostatic.
2. What does happen when the gate opening is more than the critical depth?
3. When does the submergence occur and what is its effect on flow beneath a sluice
gate?

6.8 References

1. Henderson, F.M. Open Channel Flow:Chapter-6 (Channel controls)

2. Sutradhar, S.C.: Principles of Design of Drainage Sluice, Chapter-1 (Introduction)

Page | 44
 DATA SHEET
Experiment Name :
Experiment Date :

Students Name :
Students ID :
Year/ Semester :
Section/ Group :

6.9 Data sheet

Width of the sluice gate , b = m Gate opening, yg = m

y1 y2 Qt Qa Cv Cc Cd Fg FH Fg/FH
(m) (m) (m3/s) (m3/s) (N) (N)

y1vs Q graph

yg (m) y1 (m) Qa (m)

Course Teacher :
Designation :

Signature

Page | 45
 Experiment No. 7

STUDY ON HYDRAULIC JUMP

Page | 46
7.1 General
In an open channel when a supercritical flow is made to change abruptly to subcritical
flow, the result is usually an abrupt rise of the water surface. This feature is known as the
hydraulic jump. It results when there is a conflict between upstream and downstream controls
which influence the same reach of the channel. For example, if the upstream control causes
supercritical flow and downstream control dictates subcritical flow, then this conflict can be
resolved by a hydraulic jump, which passes the flow from one flow regime to other.

This experiment deals with observation of hydraulic jump in a horizontal rectangular

channel and development of different relationships between height, length, efficiency and
energy loss of a jump. Hydraulic jump is useful in dissipation of excess energy in flows over
dams, weirs, spillways and other hydraulic structures to prevent scouring downstream,
maintaining high water levels in channels for irrigation and other water distribution purposes,
increasing discharge of a sluice gate and thus increasing the effective head across the gate,
mixing chemicals for water purification or wastewater treatment, increasing aeration of flows
and dechlorination of waste water, identification of special flow conditions, etc.

Fig. 7.1 Hydraulic Jump in a horizontal rectangular channel

7.2 Theory

7.2.1 Types of hydraulic jump

Depending on the Froude number before the jump (F1), the United States Bureau of
Reclamation (USBR) classified the hydraulic jumps in horizontal rectangular channels into the
following five categories:
Type 1: F1 = 1 ~1.7 Undular jump
Type 2: F1 = 1.7 ~2.5 Weak jump
Type 3: F1 = 2.5 ~4.5 Oscillating jump
Type 4: F1 = 4.5 ~9.0 Steady jump
Type 5: F1>9.0 Strong jump

7.2.2 Initial and sequent depths

The depth of flow before the jump is known as the initial depth (y1 ) and the depth after
the jump is known as the sequent depth (y2 ). Consider a hydraulic jump occurring in a
Page | 47
horizontal rectangular channel (Fig. 7.1). Since the jump takes place in a short reach of the
channel, Ff 0 and since the channel is prismatic, we can assume that 1 = 2 = 1. The
hydrostatic forces Fp1 and Fp2 may be expressed as

Fp1 z1 A1 and Fp 2 z 2 A2

where z1 and z 2 are the vertical distances of the centroids of the respective water areas A1 and
A2 from the free surface. Now applying momentum equation between sections 1 and 2, we
obtain
Q2 Q2
z1 A1 z 2 A2 (7.1)
gA1 gA2
Since for a rectangular channel Q = A1V1 = A2V2, A1 = By1, A2 = By2, z1 y1 / 2 and
z 2 y 2 / 2 , Eq.(7.1) gives
q2 1 1 1
( ) ( y 22 y 12 ) (7.2)
g y1 y 2 2
where q (= Q/B) is the discharge per unit width. Using q = y1V1 = y2V2, Eq. (7.2) may be
recast as
V12 1 y2 y2
F1
2
1 (7.3)
gy1 2 y1 y1
Equation (7.3) may be solved to yield
y2 1
y1 2

1 8F12 1 (7.4)

where y2/y1 is known as the ratio between the sequent and the initial depths.

7.2.3 Length of the jump (L)

The length of a hydraulic jump is the horizontal distance from the front face of the jump
to a point immediately downstream from the roller. This length cannot be determined by theory.
Silvester (1964) demonstrated that for free hydraulic jumps in horizontal rectangular channels
L
9.75( F1 1) 1.01 (7.5)
y1

7.2.4 Energy loss in the jump

The total loss of energy in the jump is equal to the difference in specific energies before
and after the jump. It can be shown that the total energy loss involved in a hydraulic jump in a
horizontal rectangular channel is given by
( y - y )3
H Total = ETotal = E1 - E 2 = 2 1 (7.6)
4 y1 y 2
where E1 is the specific energy before the jump and E2 is the specific energy after the jump.
The kinetic energy loss in the jump is given by the difference in velocity head before and
after the jump. Thus
1
E K. E. = ( V12 V22 ) (7.7)
2g
whereV1 is the velocity before the jump and V2 is the velocity after the jump.

Page | 48
7.2.5 Efficiency of the jump
The ratio of the specific energy after the jump to that before the jump (E2/E1) is known
as the efficiency of the jump. It can be shown that the efficiency of the jump is given by

2 3/ 2 2
E 2 (8 F 1 +1 ) - 4 F 1 +1
= (7.8)
E1 8 F 12 (2+ F 12 )

7.2.6 Height of the jump

The difference between the depths after and before the jump is known as the height of
the jump. It is given by

h j h2 h1 (7.9)

The ratio of the height of jump to the specific energy before jump is known as the relative height
of the jump and is given by

hj 1 + 8 F 12 - 3
= 2
(7.10)
E1 F1 + 2

7.3 Objectives of the experiment

i) To determine the type of the jump according to USBR classification.
ii) To measure the initial depth (y1), sequent depth (y2), length (L) and height (hj) of
the jump and compare them with the theoretical values.
iii) To determine the total energy loss, kinetic energy loss and efficiency of the jump
and compare them with the theoretical values.
iv) To develop the theoretical characteristic curves of the hydraulic jump.

7.4 Experimental setup

In this experiment the hydraulic jump is produced by introducing a sluice gate in the
flume. The experimental setup is given below.

In flow
Sluice gate

Flow measuring unit

Out flow
Reservoir
Pump

Fig. 7.2 Setup for hydraulic jump

Page | 49
7.5 Procedure
i) Measure the depth of flow before the jump at three points and average them to
get the initial depth y1.
ii) Measure the depth of flow after the jump at three points and average them to get
the sequent depth y2.
iii) Determine the velocity before the jump (V1), then calculate F1 and find the type
of jump.
iv) Measure the length of the jump (L), then find L/y1 and verify Eq.(7.5).
v) Compute the height of the jump (hj) from Eq.(7.9), then find the value of hj/E1
and verify Eq.(7.10).
vi) Compute E1 and E2, then find the total energy loss E1- E2 and verify Eq.(7.6).
vii) Compute the kinetic energy loss in the jump using Eq.(7.7).
viii) Compute the efficiency of the jump E2/E1 and verify Eq.(7.8).
hj y y
ix) Plot E 2 , , 1 and 2 vs F1 to get the characteristic curves.
E1 E1 E1 E1

7.6 Typical shapes of graphs

Characteristic graphs of hydraulic jumps are a combination of four graphs shown in Fig.
7.3.

E2 E
(i) vs F1 graph: From Eq.(7.8), at F1=1, 2 =1. So the curve starts from (1,1) and decreases
E1 E1
with the increase in F1.

hj hj
(ii) vs F1 graph: From Eq.(7.10), at F1=1, = 0. So the curve will start from (1,0) and
E1 E1
hj
increases up to a value of = 0.507 at F1= 2.77 and then decreases with F1.
E1

y1 y2
(iii) & (iv) and vs F1 graphs: At critical state, i.e. at F1 =1, y1 = y2 from Eq.(7.4) . So both
E1 E1
y1 y2 2
curves will start from a common point at F1=1. Now, at critical state, E =1.5 y. So,
E1 E1 3
y1
at this state. Hence, both the curves will start from (1, 2/3). The vs F1 curve decreases with
E1
y2
higher F1 but vs F1 curve increases up to a value of 0.8 at F1 =1.73 and then decreases with
E1
higher F1.

Page | 50
 Fig. 7.3 Characteristics curves of hydraulic jumps in horizontal rectangular channels

7.7 Assignment
1. What are the different types of jumps according to USBR classification?
2. Why does the energy loss occur in hydraulic jumps? Is it really an energy loss?
3. What is tailwater depth? Explain why a hydraulic jump moves upstream when the
tailwater depth is greater than the sequent depth and vice versa.

7.8 Reference
1. Chow, V.T. (1957): Open Channel Hydraulics, Chapter-15 (Hydraulic jump and its
use as energy dissipater).

Page | 51
 DATA SHEET

Experiment Name :
Experiment Date :

Students Name :
Students ID :
Year/ Semester :
Section/ Group :

7.9 Data sheet

Flume width, B = m Discharge, Q = m3/s

Depth Velocity
y1 y2 V1 V2 F1 Type of jump
(m) (m) (m/s) (m/s)

Verification of total energy loss Verification of efficiency

Kinetic
RHS of energy loss
E1 E2 E2-E1 E2/E1 RHS of
Eq.(7.6) Comment (m) Comment
(m) (m) (m) Eq.(7.8)
(m)

Verification of length of jump Verification of height of jump

L RHS of hj RHS of
L/y1 Comment hj/E1 Comment
(m) Eq.(7.5) (m) Eq.(7.10)

Page | 52
Characteristic curve

F1 E2 hj y1 y2
E1 E1 E1 E1

Course Teacher :
Designation :

Signature

Page | 53
 Experiment No. 8

DEVELOPMENT OF GENERALIZED SPECIFIC

ENERGY AND SPECIFIC FORCE CURVES

Page | 54
8.1 General
The concept of specific energy and specific force is extremely useful in the solution of
many problems in open channel flow. This experiment deals with the development of
generalized specific energy and specific force curves. These curves are useful in determining the
state of flow in a channel, i.e. whether the flow is critical, subcritical or supercritical. Flow is
critical when the Froude number is equal to unity. When the depth of flow is above the critical
depth, the subcritical state of flow exists in the channel. When the depth of flow is below the
critical depth, the supercritical state of flow exists. Also, the critical state of flow gives us several
important conditions, such as, the specific energy and specific force are minimum for a given
discharge, the discharge is maximum for a given specific energy and so on. All these conditions
are used in designing the various types of transitions and in controlling the flow using different
control structures, for example, in determining the height of a weir, the width of a flume,
opening of sluice gate, etc.

8.2 Theory

8.2.1 Specific energy

Specific energy is defined as the energy per unit weight of water at any section of a
channel measured with respect to the channel bottom. If the total energy at any section is given
by
2
v
H = zy+ (8.1)
2g
then the specific energy at any section of a channel is obtained by putting z = 0 as
2
v
E= y+ (8.2)
2g
Since Q = Av, Eq.(8.2) can be written as
2
Q
E = y+ (8.3)
2gA 2
For a rectangular channel, A = by. So Eq. (8.3) can be written as
2
Q
E y+ (8.4)
2 gb 2 y2

8.2.2 Specific energy curve

For a given channel section and discharge, the specific energy is a function of the depth
of flow. When the depth of flow is plotted against the specific energy, a specific energy curve is
obtained. This curve has two limbs CA and CB (Fig.8.1). From Eq. (8.4), when y 0, E.
So the limb CA approaches the horizontal axis asymptotically towards the right. Also, when y
, A so that v2/2g 0 and E y, which implies that the limb CB approaches the E = y
line (line OD) asymptotically. As the slope of the E = y line is 1, so it has an inclination of 45
with the horizontal axis and passes through the origin.

The specific energy curve (Fig. 8.1) shows that, there are two possible depths for a given
value of E, the low stage y1 and the high stage y2, which are the called alternate depths.

Page | 55
 Fig. 8.1 Specific-energy curve

Differentiating Eq.(8.3) with respect to y and simplifying, we obtain

2
dE v
= 1-
dy gD

where D is the hydraulic depth. At point C, the specific energy is minimum.

2
dE
= 0 so that v = 1 or, Fr 2 = 1 Fr = 1
dy gD

This condition represents the critical state of flow. At this condition, the two alternate depths
apparently become one which is known as the critical depth yc. When the depth of flow is
greater than yc, the velocity of flow is less than the critical velocity for the given discharge and
hence the flow is subcritical. When the depth of flow is less than the critical depth, the flow is
supercritical. Hence, y1 is the depth of supercritical flow and y2 is the depth of subcritical flow.

8.2.3 Generalized specific energy curve

If the discharge changes, the specific energy curve also changes, i.e. the curve moves to
right if the discharge is increased and vice versa. In order to develop a generalized specific
energy curve, i.e. to use one specific energy curve for different discharges, the curve is to be
made dimensionless with respect to the critical depth, as the critical depth yc is constant for a
given discharge. So dividing both sides of Eq. (8.4) by yc and after simplification, we obtain
2
E y 1 yc
(8.5)
y c y c 2 y
Equation (8.5) is the generalized form of the relationship between specific energy and depth of
flow in which each term is dimensionless. The plot of this equation is shown in Fig. 8.2.

Page | 56
 Fig. 8.2 Dimensionless specific energy curve

8.2.4 Specific force

Specific force is defined as the force at any channel section which is equal to the sum of
the hydrostatic force and momentum of the flow passing the section per unit time. For a
rectangular channel, the specific force is given by
2
1 Q
F = g by + 2
(8.6)
2 by

8.2.5 Specific force curve

For a given discharge and section, the specific force F is a function of the depth of flow y
only. Plotting the depth of flow y vs the specific force F produces the specific force curve
(Fig.8.3). This curve has two limbs CA and CB. At y 0 , F . So the limb CA approaches
the horizontal axis asymptotically towards the right. Now, at y , F , but at this
condition F becomes proportional y2. So the limb CB rises upward and extend infinitely
towards the right.

yc

Fig. 8.3 Specific force curve

The specific force curve shows that, for a given specific force, there are two possible
depths, y1 and y2. These two depths constitute the initial and sequent depths of a hydraulic
jump.

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Differentiating Eq. (8.6) with respect to y and simplifying, we get

2
dF Q
= gA -
dy AD

At point C, the specific force is minimum. Therefore

2 2
dF Q Q V2
= 0 or, gA = or, = 1 or , = 1 so that Fr 2 = 1 or, Fr = 1
dy AD gDA2 gD

which is the same criteria developed for the minimum value of specific energy. Therefore, for a
given discharge, minimum specific force occurs at minimum specific energy or at the critical
state of flow.

8.2.6 Generalized specific force curve

If the discharge changes, the specific energy also changes accordingly, i.e. the specific
force curve moves to right if the discharge is increased and vice versa. In order to develop a
generalized specific force curve, i.e. to use one specific force curve for different discharges, the
curve is to be made dimensionless with respect to the critical depth as the critical depth yc is
constant for a given discharge. So dividing both sides of Eq. (8.6) by yc2gb and after
simplification, we obtain
2
F y 1 y
c (8.7)
y c gb
2
y 2 yc
Equation (8.7) is the generalized specific force equation and each term of this equation is
dimensionless. The plot of this equation is shown in Fig. 8.4.

Fig. 8.4 Dimensionless specific force curve

8.3 Objectives of the experiment

i) To observe the flow profile in the experimental setup which depicts the variation
of depth with change in energy?
ii) To plot the generalized specific energy and specific force curves from observed
data.

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8.4 Experimental setup
To plot the generalized specific energy and specific force curves, we have to observe the
response of subcritical (slow) and supercritical (fast) flows to changes in the energy and force of
a stream. For this, the setup as in Fig. 8.5 can be used.

Sluice gate
Broad crested weir

1 2 3 5 7

4 6
Fig. 8.5 Setup for development of generalized specific energy and specific force curves

8.5 Procedure
i) Determine depth of flow at three points as shown in Fig. 8.6 in each of the
sections 1 to 7. Find the average depth for each section.
ii) Determine the actual discharge from the water meter and compute yc.
iii) Compute E/yc and F/(y2cgb) for each of the sections using Eqs.(8.5) and (8.7),
respectively.
iv) Plot y/ycvs E/yc and y/ycvs F/(y2cgb) on plain graph papers to get the
generalized specific energy and specific force curves.

10
6
2

y1 y2
y3

Fig. 8.6 Locations for measuring the depths

8.6 Assignment
1. How can you apply the dimensionless specific energy and specific force curves for
computing specific energy and specific force for different discharges?
2. Can you use the dimensionless specific energy curve to find the specific force and
vice versa? Explain.

8.7 References
1. Chow, V.T. (1957): Open Channel Hydraulics, Chapter-3 (Energy and momentum
principles).
2. Henderson, F.M. ():Open Channel Flow, Chapter-2 (The energy principle in open
channel flow).
3. Henderson, F.M. (): Open Channel Flow, Chapter-3 (The momentum principle in
open channel flow).

Page | 59
 DATA SHEET
Experiment Name :
Experiment Date :

Students Name :
Students ID :
Year/ Semester :
Section/ Group :

8.8 Data sheet

Q= m3/s b= m yc = (Q2/gb2)1/3 = m

Section y1 y2 y3 y1 + y 2 + y 3 y/yc E/yc F

y=
y gb
2
(m) (m) (m) 3 c
(m)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Course Teacher:
Designation:

Signature

Page | 60
 Experiment No. 9

VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN OPEN CHANNEL

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9.1 General
Velocity of flow is an important parameter in open channel. In order to find out the
channel discharge, the velocity distribution need to be known. In an open channel the velocity
is not uniform over the cross-section. The velocity is zero at the channel boundary and
maximum at or near the free surface. This experiment deals with the velocity distribution in
an open channel and determination of the energy and momentum coefficients. Practically the
energy and momentum coefficients are very useful, as the application of energy and
momentum equations requires these coefficients.

9.2 Theory

9.2.1 The boundary layer

When water enters a channel the velocity distribution across the channel section will vary
with distance due to the presence of boundary roughness as shown in Fig. 9.1.

Fig.9.1 Development of boundary layer

The effect on the velocity distribution due to boundary roughness is indicated by the line
ABC. Outside the surface represented by ABC, the velocity distribution is practically
uniform. Near the channel surface and within the region ABC, velocity varies according
to distance from channel surface. The region inside ABC is known as boundary layer. At
the beginning of the flow in the channel, the flow is entirely laminar and a laminar
boundary layer is developed along the channel surface, as shown by the curve AB. The
velocity distribution in this layer is approximately parabolic. As water travels further
along the channel, the flow in the boundary layer will eventually change to turbulent (at
point B). Downstream from B a turbulent boundary layer is developed, as shown by the
curve BC. The velocity distribution in this layer is approximately logarithmic. The
turbulent boundary layer intersects the free water surface at a distance where the flow is
assumed to be fully developed.
Even in a turbulent boundary layer, there is a very thin layer near the boundary in which
the flow is laminar and is known as the laminar sublayer. The thickness of this layer is
given by

Page | 62
 11.6
0 (9.1)
Vf
whereVf is the shear or friction velocity, given by
Vf gRS (9.2)
g is the acceleration due to gravity, R is the hydraulic radius, S is the slope of the energy
line (taken to be equal to the slope of the channel bottom) and is the kinematic
viscosity of water.

9.2.2 Surface roughness

The surface of a channel is composed of irregular peaks and valleys. The effective
height of the irregularities is called the roughness height k. If the roughness height is less than
the thickness of the laminar sublayer, the surface irregularities will be so small that all
roughness elements will be submerged in the laminar sublayer and have no effect upon the
flow outside the layer. Then the channel is said to be hydraulically smooth. For hydraulically
smooth channel
kV f
0 5 and k 0 (9.3)

However, if the roughness height k is greater than the thickness of the laminar sublayer, the
roughness elements extend their effects beyond the laminar sublayer and the channel is said
to be hydraulically rough. For hydraulically rough channel
kV f
70 and k 0 (9.4)

There exists a transition zone in which the channel is neither smooth nor rough. For this zone
kV f
5 70 (9.5)

9.2.3 Velocity distribution in turbulent flow

The flow of water in open channel is turbulent and the bed is normally rough. On the
basis of Prandtl-von Karman logarithmic velocity distribution law, the velocity distribution
in an open channel having hydraulically rough surface is given by
30y
v = 5.75 V f log (9.6)
k
where v is the velocity at any point at a vertical distance of y from the channel bottom.

9.2.4 Cross-sectional mean velocity

The velocity varies in the vertical direction as well as in the lateral direction due to
boundary friction. Cross-sectional mean velocity represents the average velocity over the
cross-section. Using the velocity distribution given by Eq.(9.6), the cross-sectional mean
velocity V is given by
R
V = V f (6.25 5.75 log ) (9.7)
k

9.2.5 Velocity distribution coefficients

As a result of non-uniform distribution of velocity over a channel section, the actual
kinetic energy and momentum of flow passing a given cross-section are normally greater than
those calculated on the basis of average velocity given by Eq.(9.7). So, the energy coefficient
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 and the momentum coefficient are introduced in the energy and the momentum
equations, respectively. The numerical value of the energy coefficient varies from 1.03 to
1.36 and the numerical value of the momentum coefficient varies from 1.01 to 1.12. for fairly
straight prismatic channels. The ratio (-1)/(-1) varies from 2.8 to 3.
The energy and momentum coefficients are given respectively by
v3 dA v A
3

= 3 = 3
(9.8)
V A V A
and
2 dA v A
2

= v2 = 2
(9.9)
V A V A
where v is the velocity of flow in an elementary area A.

For a rectangular channel we can write

v3 y
= 3 (9.10)
V Y
2 y
= v2 (9.11)
V Y
where Y is the total depth of flow and V is the cross-sectional mean velocity.

9.3 Objectives of the experiment

i) To determine the velocity distribution profile in the vertical.
ii) To calculate the channel roughness height k.
iii) To calculate the cross-sectional mean velocity V.
iv) To calculate the velocity distribution coefficients and .

9.4 Experimental setup

The setup for the experiment is given below. The longitudinal slope of the flume is 1
in 840.

Fig. 9.1 Setup for velocity distribution in open channel

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9.5 Procedure
To determine the velocity distribution profile in the vertical
i) Place the current meter at the middle of the flume.
ii) Measure the depth of flow Y.
iii) Place the current meter at water surface, at 0.2Y, 0.4Y, 0.6Y and 0.8Y from
the water surface and near the bottom in the vertical plane and take the reading
of revolution of the current meter (N) and corresponding time (t) at each
depth.
iv) Calculate the point velocities at each depth by using the formula, v = a(N/t)+b,
where a and b are the current meter constants.
v) Plot the point velocity (v) against the distance from the channel bottom (y).

To calculate the channel roughness height k

i) For every set of point velocity (v) and distance from bottom (y), roughness
height (k) can be determined by using Eq.(9.6).
ii) Channel roughness height is obtained by averaging all values of k.

To calculate the cross-sectional mean velocity V

i) By using the average value of k, the cross-sectional mean velocity V is
calculated using Eq.(9.7).

To calculate the velocity distribution coefficients and

i) Divide the width of the channel (flume) into 5 horizontal strips of equal width
y.
ii) Find the average velocity (v) in each strip.
iii) Calculate v3y and v2y for each strip and sum them up.
iv) Using the cross-sectional mean velocity V, calculate and using Eqs.(9.10)
and (9.11).

9.6 Shape of depth vs velocity graph

As the velocity distribution profile is logarithmic, the y vs v graph is logarithmic as
shown in the following figure. For logarithmic velocity distribution, the maximum velocity
occurs at the free surface. But in practice, the maximum velocity occurs below the free
surface at a distance of 0.05 to 0.25 of the total depth.

y y

v v

Theoretical velocity distribution profile Actual velocity distribution profile

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9.7 Assignment
1. What do you mean by hydraulically smooth and rough channels? What is the
criterion used to determine whether a surface is hydraulically smooth or rough?
2. Explain why the velocity distribution over a channel section is not uniform.
3. State whether the numerical values of the energy and momentum coefficients are
higher or lower for turbulent flow than for laminar flow. Explain the reason.

9.8 Reference
1. Chow, V.T. (1957): Open Channel Hydraulics, Chapter-2(Open channels and their
properties) & Chapter-8 (Theoretical concepts of boundary layer, surface roughness,
velocity distribution, and instability of uniform flow).

Page | 66
 DATA SHEET

Experiment Name :
Experiment Date :

Students Name :
Students ID :
Year/ Semester :
Section/ Group :

9.9 Data sheet

Determination of point velocity and roughness height

Flume width, B = m Total depth of flow, Y = m

Slope of channel, S = Hydraulic radius, R = m

Shear velocity, Vf= m

Current meter constants, a = b=

Vertical location of current meter Current meter reading Point Roughness Average
velocity height k
Location Depth Depth Total no. Time of Revolution v k (m)
from from of observation per second (m)
water bottom revolution t n (m/s)
surface y N (sec) (rev/sec)
(m) (m) (rev)
At free
surface
At 0.2 Y

At 0.4 Y

At 0.6 Y

At 0.8 Y

Near
bottom

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Determination of energy and momentum coefficients

Cross-sectional mean velocity, V=

No of Average Thickness v2y v3y (-1)/

strip velocity in the of the (-1)
strip ,v strip, y
(m/s) (m)

Course Teacher :
Designation :

Signature

Page | 68
 Experiment No. 10

DETERMINATION OF DISCHARGE AND MEAN

VELOCITY OF AN OPEN CHANNEL

Page | 69
10.1 General
Measurement of discharge is a principal work in hydrographic surveying. In order to
design any river engineering work, the discharge and the mean velocity of the river is
required. This experiment mainly deals with the measurement of discharge of a channel by
the area-velocity method. Also, the values of Mannings n and Chezys C are derived which
are required to compute the discharge using a uniform flow formula. The relationship of n
and C with the depth of flow is also developed. The experiment also deals with the
development of depth-discharge relationship of the channel which is very useful to obtain the
discharges of a channel for different depths of flow.

10.2 Theory

10.2.1 Depth-mean velocity

The velocity along a vertical varies from zero at the stream bed to maximum at or
near the water surface (practically the maximum velocity occurs below the water surface at a
distance of 0.05 to 0.25 of the total depth). The average velocity in the vertical is known as
the depth-mean velocity. Generally, the average of the velocities at 0.2 and 0.8 depths below
the water surface is approximately equal to the mean velocity in the vertical. The velocity at
0.6 depth below the water surface is also approximately equal to the mean velocity in the
vertical. Normally, when the depth of flow is greater than 0.61 m (= 2 ft), the depth-mean
velocity is determined by averaging the velocities at 0.2 and 0.8 depths; otherwise, the
velocity at 0.6 depth is taken as the depth-mean velocity. So
v v0.8
Depth-mean velocity, V= 0.2 v0.6 (10.1)
2

10.2.2 Discharge
Measurement of discharge in irregular channels like rivers is a complex one. There
are different methods and of them the area-velocity method is the familiar one. In this method
a channel section is subdivided into a number of segments or strips or pockets by a number of
successive verticals. The procedure for determining the mean velocity in a vertical is given in
Art.10.2.1. If Vi be the mean velocity in a vertical, then discharge through a strip is given by

Qi = ViA (10.2)

whereA is the area of the strip. The sum of the discharges through all the strips is the total
discharge, i.e.

Q = Qi (10.3)

10.2.3 Mean velocity

The mean velocity of the whole section is equal to the total discharge divided by the
total area and is given by
Q
V (10.4)
A
10.2.4 Mannings n and Chezys C
The velocity distribution in an open channel depends on the roughness height k which
is related to Manning's n or Chezy's C. When velocities at 0.2 and 0.8 depths are known,
Manning's n can be determined by the equation

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 (x - 1) R1/6
n= (10.5)
6.78(x + 0.95)
where
v
x 0.2 (10.6)
v0.8
With the value of n known, Chezy's C can be determined by the relation
1
C = R1/6 (10.7)
n
This equation provides an important relationship between Chezy's C and Manning's n. The
variation of n and C with the depth of flow is also significant. The value of n decreases with
the increase in depth of flow. On the other hand, the value of C increases with the increase in
depth of flow.

10.3 Objectives of the experiment

1. To determine the total discharge and mean velocity of the flow.
2. To calculate Mannings n and Chezys C.
3. To plot n and C against depth of flow and observe the relationship between n and
C.

10.4 Experimental setup

The setup for the experimental is given below. The longitudinal slope of the flume is
1 in 840.

Fig.10.1 Setup for determination discharge and mean velocity of an open channel

10.5 Procedure
To determine the total discharge and the mean velocity of the flow
i) Divide the channel section into 3 vertical strips.
ii) Measure the depth of flow at the middle of each strip.
iii) Determine the mean velocity at each vertical using Eq.(10.1).
iv) Calculate the discharge through each strip using Eq.(10.2).
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 v) Calculate the total discharge using Eq.(10.3) and compare it with the actual
discharge.
vi) Calculate the mean velocity using Eq.(10.4).

To calculate Mannings n and Chezys C

ii) Compute the value of x at each vertical using Eq.(10.6) and find the average
value of x.
iii) Using this average value of x, calculate n using Eq.(10.5).
iv) With the value of n, calculate C using Eq.(10.7).

To plot n and C against depth of flow

i) Plot n vs depth of flow in a plain graph paper.
ii) Plot C vs depth of flow in a plain graph paper.

10.6 Shapes of the graphs

Mannings n vs depth of flow y

The exact shape of the curve can not be explained analytically. But experimental
study shows that the value of n decreases with the increase in depth of flow.

Chezys C vs depth of flow y

The exact shape of the curve can not be explained analytically. But experimental
study shows that the value of C increases with the increase in depth of flow.
n C

y
y

Variation of n with y Variation of C with y

10.7 Assignment
1. State the use(s) of the Chezy and the Manning formulas. State the type(s) of flow
for which these formulas are valid.
2. There is a limit to the number of strips or segments in determining the discharge of
a river by the area-velocity method. What is the limit and why is this limit?

10.8 Reference
1. Chow, V.T. (1957): Open Channel Hydraulics Chapter-2 (Open channels and their
properties) & Chapter-8 (Theoretical concepts of boundary layer, surface roughness,
velocity distribution, and instability of uniform flow).

Page | 72
 DATA SHEET
Experiment Name :
Experiment Date :

Students Name :
Students ID :
Year/ Semester :
Section/ Group :

10.9 Data sheet

Determination of total discharge

Flume width, B = m Width of each strip = B/3 = m

Total depth of flow, Y= m Area of each strip, A =(B/3)*Y= m2

Current meter constants, a= b=

Location of Current meter reading Point Discharge Total

current meter velocity Depth- through discharge
Horizontal Vertical Total no. Time of Revolution v mean the strip Q=Qi
of observation per second velocity Qi=A*Vi
revolution t n (m/s) Vi
N (sec) (rev/sec) (m/s) (m3/s) (m3/s)
(rev)
At middle At 0.2 Y
of first
strip At 0.6 Y

At 0.8 Y

At middle At 0.2 Y
of second
strip At 0.6 Y

At 0.8 Y

At middle At 0.2 Y
of third
strip
At 0.6 Y

At 0.8 Y

Q
So, mean velocity of the stream, V =
A
Page | 73
 Calculation of n and C

Strip Point velocity x Average x Mannings n Chezys C

v0.2
1
v0.8
2 v0.2
v0.8
3 v0.2
v0.8

Plotting n and C vs depth of flow

Depth of flow Mannings n Chezys C

Course Teacher:
Designation:

Signature

Page | 74
 Appendix
Lab Report Format
1. All students must have a same colored printed cover page. The design of cover page
is provided with the lab manual. Students have to compose only the course teachers
name and designation ant their information.

2. An index is provided. It should be printed and set after the cover page. Table may be
filling up by pen during each submission after test.

3. Each report must have a common printed top page. Only the experiment name and
no. and the date may be filled up by pen. A top page design is provided.

4. A4 papers have to be used for preparing the lab report. Writing should be done with
pen. Pencil may be used for any kind of sketch.

5. In each experiment of the lab report the following points must have to be present:
Objective, Equipment, Procedure, Data Table (signed), Sample Calculation,
Result and Discussion.

Page | 75
 CE 374
Water Resources Engineering Sessional -I
(Lab Report)

Prepared For Prepared By

Name of Course Teacher Name of Student
Designation of Course Teacher Students ID
& Year/ Semester
Name of Course Teacher Group
Designation of Course Teacher

Page | 76
 Name:
ID:

INDEX

Test Test Name Date of Date of Signature Remarks

no. Performance Submission

Page | 77