CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND

METHODOLOGY 299 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH

DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 5.1
INTRODUCTION In Chapter One an
orientation of the research was provided.
This study focuses on the needs and
competencies of school sport managers.
These are required for the sport
management training of educators, in
accordance with the diverse needs of South
African schools (cf. par. 1.3.2, p. 12). As a
result of the problem statement referred to
in Chapter One, the all-encompassing aim of
this study is to develop a sport management
programme for educator training. It is
essential to analyse the existing knowledge,
as a background to the current study. In this
way, the researcher endeavours to generate
new knowledge, which could make sport
management and educator training more
purposeful, efficient and sustainable.
Consequently, this chapter strives to
operationalise the theme of the research
design and methodology in the current
study, as well as to substantiate the choices
made in the study. The research design is
applied so that suitable research methods
are used to ensure the attainment of the
goals and objectives set out in Chapter One.
Hence the reason (rationale) for a discussion
of the research design and methodology:
Firstly, this is to provide the plan or
blueprint for the research. Secondly, this
should enable the researcher to anticipate
the appropriate research design, to ensure
the validity of the final results. Nevertheless,
it is important that different views are
analysed; thereafter, the methodology will
be discussed. However, first it is important
to consider a theoretical framework for the
research design. 5.2 THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK FOR THE RESEARCH DESIGN
AND METHODOLOGY One of the challenges
facing the researcher is the difficulty in
relating to and understanding the role and
importance of theory in research.
Consequently, the concept of theory
necessitates some clarification. In this
regard, Verma and Malick (1999:6) as well
as Blumberg, Cooper and Schindler
(2011:36) are of the opinion that the main
role of theory is to help to guide the
researcher. In the social sciences, it usually
implies a set of statements describing and
explaining the relationship between human
behaviour and the factors that affect or
explain it. Paraphrasing Best and Khan
(2006:10), a theory could best be described
as an attempt to develop a general
explanation for some phenomenon. More
specifically, a theory, according to these
authors, defines nonobservable constructs
that are inferred from observable facts and
events, and are thought to have an effect on
the phenomenon under study. It further
implies that a theory describes the
relationship among key variables for
explaining a current state or predicting
future concurrences. CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH
DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 300 Thus, one
could easily come to the conclusion that a
theory is primarily concerned with providing
an explanation; and that it therefore focuses
on determining cause-and-effect
relationships. On the whole a theoretical
framework, consequently, helps the
researcher summarise any previous
information and to guide the future course
of action. Simultaneously, the formulation of
a theory may indicate missing ideas or links
and the additional data required to fully
understand how things are connected, and
to establish sets of propositions or
generalisations (Henning et al., 2004:14). A
theory is thus an essential tool of research
for stimulating the advancement of
knowledge (Inglis & Maclean, 2005:17;
Kawulich, 2009:37). Theory should,
consequently, drive the research process
and should provide a framework for action
and for understanding. The view of authors
and researchers can provide the impetus,
and endorse the view and rationale for a
discussion of the research design and
methodology chapter. Apart from a proper
understanding of the concept of theory, the
researcher also requires an understanding
and knowledge of the related research
philosophies that underpin the different
principles of the research. In this study, the
research philosophy that underpins the
study is reflected in different principles, as
outlined by different research paradigms.
Thereafter, the different research paradigms
are presented. 5.2.1 Research Paradigms
Paradigms play a fundamental role in
science. The origin of the term paradigm is
to be found in Thomas Kuhns book called:
The structure of scientific revolutions first
published in 1962 (Mouton, 1996:203). 74
When Kuhn published the second edition of
his book in 1970, the idea of a paradigm
was already extant; and it drew particular
attention to the role of paradigms in the
history of the natural sciences. Researchers
and authors, like Mouton and Marais
(1990:150), Mouton (1996:203), Creswell
(2007:19), Collis and Hussey (2009:55),
Babbie (2010:33; 2011:34), De Vos and
Strydom (2011:40), as well as Neuman
(2011:94), were already using the term; and
the supporting theory of paradigms has had
a major impact on the philosophy and
methodology of the social sciences. In
general, a paradigm is best described as a
whole system of thinking (Neuman,
2011:94). In this sense, a paradigm refers to
the established research traditions in a
particular discipline (Mouton, 74 For a
detailed discussion, understanding and
history of the development thoughts and
problems addressed see: Kuhn, T (1962):
The structure of scientific revolutions.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 172 p;
Kuhn, T. (1970): The structure of scientific
revolutions (2nd Enlarged Edition). Chicago:
University of Chicago Press 210 p and also
Kuhn, T. (1996): The structure of scientific
revolutions (3rd Edition). Chicago: University
of Chicago Press. 212 p. CHAPTER 5:
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 301
1996:203), or a philosophical framework, as
Collis and Hussey (2009:55) opine. More
specifically, a paradigm would include the
accepted theories, traditions, approaches,
models, frame of reference, body of
research and methodologies; and it could be
seen as a model or framework for
observation and understanding (Creswell,
2007:19; Babbie, 2010:33; Rubin & Babbie,
2010:15; Babbie, 2011:32). A paradigm is
thus a basic set of beliefs that guide action.
Thus, paradigms play a vital role in the
social sciences. Nevertheless, different
authors and researchers assign different
meanings to the concept of paradigms [(cf.
Creswell (2009) and Livesey, (2011a)].
Creswell (2009:6) has chosen to use the
term as a worldview. Hence, the use of the
concept paradigm is metaphorical when
applied to the social sciences, as opposed to
the natural sciences. In the natural sciences
paradigms remain largely hidden in
research work. But they affect the practice
of research; and therefore, they need to be
stated (Creswell, 2009:5). The roots of the
qualitative (cf. par. 5.8, p. 328) and
quantitative approaches (cf. par. 5.9, p. 333)
extend into different philosophical research
paradigms, namely those of positivism and
post-positivism (Curtner-Smith, 2002:37;
Rocco et al., 2003a:20; Henning et al.,
2004:17,23; Druckman, 2005:5-8 ; Neuman,
2006:81; Cohen et al., 2007:16; Flick,
2007:11; Gall et al., 2007:16,31; Wisker,
2008:68; Collis & Hussey, 2009:55; Creswell,
2009:6,16; Gratton & Jones, 2010:23,26;
Rubin & Babbie, 2010:37; Blumberg et al.,
2011:16; Denzin & Lincoln, 2011a:1; Lincoln
et al., 2011:117; Muijs, 2011:3,5). Post-
positivism (post-modernism) is
characterized by two sub-paradigms,
namely interpretivism (constructivism) and
critical theory (critical post-modernism),
while realism is seen as a bridge between
positivism and post-positivism (Blumberg et
al., 2011:18; 6 & Bellamy, 2012:60). 5.2.1.1
Positivism Human beings are seen
objectively, and as a result, social scientists
look to different avenues to study human
society (De Vos et al., 2011b:5). Babbie
(2011:35) states that the roots of positivism
can be traced to Auguste Comte, who saw
human beings as a phenomenon to be
studied scientifically. Thus, positivism may
be seen as an approach to social research
that seeks to apply the natural science
model of research as the point of departure
for investigations of social phenomena and
explanations of the social world
(Denscombe, 2008:14; 2010b:120). The
natural sciences are suitable for the study of
the social world; and hence, many
researchers assume that the positivist
approach is scientific. Naturally, one would
ask the question: What is positivism
supposed to comprise? In response, Glicken
(2003:20); Denscombe (2010a:324) and
Lincoln et al. (2011:107-108, 122) answer as
follows: Positivism firstly entails a belief
based on the assumption that patterns
(trends), CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN
AND METHODOLOGY 302 generalisations,
methods, procedures, cause-and-effect
issues are also applicable to the social
sciences. This view of positivism maintains
that the objects of the social sciences,
namely people, are suitable for the
implementation of scientific methods.
Welman et al. (2009:6) also link positivism
directly to the scientific model. This model
or approach strives to formulate laws
applicable to populations. These said laws
explain the causes of observable and
measurable behaviour. The positivist
researcher prefers working with an
observable social reality; and such research
would produce generalisations similar to
those produced by the natural scientists.
Positivists also believe that an objective
reality exists outside personal experiences
with its own cause-and-effect relationships
(Remenyi et al., 1998:32; Saunders et al.,
2000:85; Riege, 2003:77; Neuman, 2006:82;
Babbie & Mouton, 2008:23; Saunders et al.,
2009:113; Muijs, 2011:4). The positivist
researcher maintains that it is possible to
adopt a distant, detached, neutral and
noninteractive position (Morris, 2006:3). A
position such as this would enable the
researcher to assume the role of an
objective analyst, making detached
interpretations about those data that have
been collected in an apparently value-free
manner. For the same reason, positivists
prefer an analytical interpretation of
quantifiable data (Druckman, 2005:5). The
abstract ideas of the social relationship
should, consequently, be linked to the
precise measurements of the social world.
Secondly, positivism entails a belief that
valid knowledge can only be produced on
the basis of direct observation by the
senses; and this would include the ability to
measure and record what would be seen as
knowledge. Observation in this sense means
accepting only empirical evidence as valid
evidence. Valid evidence is thus produced
through the senses of sight, smell, touch,
taste and hearing. It would clearly mean
that there is no place for phenomena which
cannot be observed either directly, through
experience and observation, or indirectly,
with the aid of instruments. Moreover, it
should be quite obvious that things that
cannot be seen (observed), for instance
peoples thoughts and attitudes, cannot be
accepted as valid evidence and knowledge.
Thirdly, many accounts of positivism
suggest that scientific knowledge is arrived
at through the accumulation of verified
facts. These facts feed into the theoretical
edifice pertaining to a particular domain of
knowledge. Thus, theory expresses and
reflects the empirical research. Such
findings are often referred to as laws
pertaining to a particular field, namely
empirically established regularities (Bryman,
2005:15). CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN
AND METHODOLOGY 303 Fourthly, as De
Vos et al. (2011b:6) remind us, scientific
theories are seen by positivists as providing
hypotheses, which are then submitted to
empirical testing. This implies that science
is deductive, as it seeks to extract specific
propositions from general accounts of
reality. Logically, this would entail the
construction of a specific theory to explain
the laws in a particular field. A hypothesis is
thereby derived to enable the researcher to
submit the hypothesis to rigorous empirical
examination before rejecting, revising or
accepting the hypothesis. Finally, positivism
is also taken to entail a particular stance in
relation to values. Consequently, the
researcher would need to be purged of
values, since these could impair the
objectivity and so undermine the validity of
knowledge. Positivisms position on values
is to draw a sharp distinction between
issues, statements and norms (Flick,
2007:12). While positivists recognize that
they can investigate the implications of a
particular normative position, they are
unable to verify or disprove the position
itself. In conclusion, regarding scientific
theories, it may then be stated that the
positivist is concerned first and foremost
with the creation of laws applicable to all
people at all times (Welman et al.,
2009:192). Collis and Hussey (2009:58, 61-
62) proceed from the previous argument
when they clearly state that the purpose of
positivism is to seek generalisations
(theories). The said generalisations are,
however, based on and grounded in the
natural science laws, which are not
necessarily applicable to social structures. In
sum, positivism equates legitimacy with
science and scientific methods (Scott &
Usher, 2011:13); and as such, it involves a
number of assumptions, (cf. paragraph
5.2.1.1, p. 301). In this thesis,
generalisations are sought in Chapter Four,
where the core contents of different sport
management and educator training
programmes are analysed to determine
their common content. The positivist
tradition however, has not met with
approval and support by all scientists, since
it has produced some serious problems as
well as some questionable assumptions.
Henning et al. (2004:17), Babbie (2010:41),
Rubin and Babbie (2010:15) as well as
Denzin and Lincoln (2011a:8) point out that
early positivist social scientists assumed
that social reality can be explained in
rational terms, because people always act
rationally. Babbie (2010:41) in particular
states that people do not always act
rationally. Nonetheless, even non-rational
behaviour could be rationally understood
and predicted. Babbie (2010:42) further
alleges that everybody acts, thinks and
interprets subjectively to a certain extent.
This subjectivity is unique to any individual;
and the endeavour for objectivity could best
be obtained through the discovery of
intersubjective interests between
individuals. Inevitably, the positivist view
would not agree with this approach.
CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND
METHODOLOGY 304 Following Babbie
(2010:44; 2011:44), it was rather difficult to
choose the best suitable paradigm among
those presented in this chapter.
Nonetheless, because this study does not
focus on the natural sciences, it cannot be
aligned entirely with the positivist paradigm
(approach), as will become evident in the
ensuing paragraphs of this chapter. It is
nevertheless important to pay careful
attention to Babbie (2011:44) when he
implicitly warns against the total negation of
the positivist paradigm, because each
paradigm compensates for the other by
suggesting complementary perspectives.
The different paradigms should be seen as
different arrows that could be used as the
situation demands or requires. There are
two more important principles of positivism:
to isolate, analyse and understand the
causes of human behaviour. For Livesey
(2011b:3) the basic thought is that
behaviour is caused (initiated) by
something, which if understood, could be
applied to explain and predict human
behaviour. The second principle is
concerned with objectivity. Gratton and
Jones (2010:25) firmly believe that for the
positivist, there would be an emphasis on
methodology to facilitate replication and
quantifiable observations for statistical
analysis. Here, the researcher is
independent of and neither affects nor is
affected by the subject of the research.
Welman et al. (2009:6) clearly state that the
positivist approach underlies the natural
scientific method in human behavioural
research and holds that research should be
limited to what can be observed and
measured objectively. In relation to the
current study, this implies that the
generation of data should be independent of
human opinions and judgment. The
researcher distributed a questionnaire to
school sport managers at selected schools
in a diversity of South African schools, and
he assumed the role as observer of
phenomena in a natural setting. Qualitative
methods of data generation would not fit
easily within the positivist approach to
research (cf. par. 5.8, p. 328). For this very
reason, Curtner-Smith (2002:38) states that
positivist sport pedagogy researchers
specifically tend to use quantitative
methods to gather measurable numerical
data. In this way, their work is aimed at the
provision of numerical illustrations of
teaching or coaching (descriptive studies),
discovering relationships between
components of teaching or coaching
(correlation studies), or attempting to
change some aspect of teaching or coaching
(experimental studies). Wisker (2008:65);
Welman et al. (2009:9), as well Gratton and
Jones (2010:25), also propose the use of
quantitative methods, where control groups
could be used, for the positivist approach.
Muijs CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND
METHODOLOGY 305 (2011:3), as well as
Thomas et al. (2011:19,21) also mention the
use of experimental and survey methods to
collect data; but they indicate that the use
of these methods would not necessarily
produce understanding, explanations and
interpretations. Concurring with Gratton and
Jones (2010:25), one could say that the
positivist approach undeniably has
strengths, notably in terms of precision,
control and objectivity. Such sport-related
theories naturally would be the result of
statistical analysis, which removes the need
for more individualistic or intuitive
interpretation. Positivist research is also
generally more straightforward in terms of
planning, simply because the data are
collected in one go, and the analysis of all
the data takes place at the same time.
Finally, it emerged during the literature
review that in the early years of sport-
related research, such research was
dominated by the positivist approach. For
reasons, which will be outlined below,
alternative approaches are now becoming
more widespread. One of these approaches
is known as post-positivism. 5.2.1.2 Post-
positivism Dissatisfaction with positivism
became increasingly widespread, thereby
increasing the appeal of post-positivism
(Teddlie & Johnson, 2009:68). Because of
the increasing appeal of post-positivism,
post-positivistic works gained credibility
throughout the social science community.
Teddlie and Johnson (2009:68) cite the
works of post-positivists: Popper (1934;
1959), Hanson (1958), Toulmin (1960),
Campbell and Stanley (1963), Hempel
(1965), Kuhn (1962; 1970; 1996), Phillips
(1987; 1990), as well as Phillips and
Burbules (2000). Post-positivism will not be
considered a distinct philosophical tradition
in its own right. Creswell (2009:6) sees post-
positivism as an extension of positivism,
since it represents the thinking after
positivism, challenging the traditional notion
of the absolute and objective truth of
knowledge in the social sciences. Gratton
and Jones (2010:26-27) hold the view of
post-positivism that in reality, it is not
possible to gain understanding merely
through measurement. Post-positivist
approaches show a much greater openness
to different methodological approaches, and
often include qualitative, as well as
quantitative methods. This allows for the
development of alternative research
strategies to find information in unlikely and
creative ways (Glicken, 2003:28).
Additionally, researchers in this paradigm
normally believe in multiple perspectives
from participants rather than a single reality
(Creswell, 2007:20; 2009:7). Positivism
contends that there is an objective reality
out there to be studied, captured and
understood, whereas post-positivists argue
that reality can never be fully apprehended,
only CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND
METHODOLOGY 306 approximated (De Vos
et al., 2011b:7). According to Denzin and
Lincoln (2011a:8), postpositivism relies on
multiple methods for capturing as much of
reality as possible. At the same time,
emphasis is placed on the discovery and
verification of theories. Traditional
evaluation criteria, such as internal validity,
are stressed, as is the use of qualitative
procedures that lend themselves to
structured (sometimes statistical) analysis.
Computer-assisted methods of analysis that
permit frequency counts, tabulations and
low-level statistical analyses may also be
employed. The post-positivist researcher
focuses on the understanding of the study
as it evolves during the investigation. The
study begins with an area of study. A
question and a hypothesis are conjectured
before starting the study (Morris, 2006:77).
Post-positivists believe that positivist
research is often difficult and impractical for
many forms of social research (Glicken,
2003:27). Emanating from any research,
there are tendencies towards a specific
notion which can by repetition bring
valuable data to light. Post-positivists accept
that the natural sciences do not provide the
only model for social research. However,
they do believe in an objective reality.
Rather than focusing on certainty and
absolute truth, the post-positivist will focus
on confidence: How much can the
researcher rely on his/her findings? How well
can one predict certain outcomes? The
proponents of post-positivistic research
argue that research, even scientific
research, is frequently a product of
historically located practices. Post-positivism
reflects a distrust of absolutes and
foundational truths; following the correct
method can no longer guarantee true
results. Instead of only one truth, there are
many. Truth is fundamentally dependent on
language; and it is a socially constructed
phenomenon. This distorts the reality on
which positivism is built. Post-positivism
provides the researcher with more
subjective measures for gathering
information. The degree of honesty of the
researcher could be a problem in this kind of
research. Could the subjectivity in a post-
positivistic study influence the data
negatively? Glicken (2003:29) is convinced
that post-positivist research offers the social
scientist the ability to do research on a
small scale by using very creative
methodologies. Thus, a mixed method of
research was used (cf. par. 5.7, p. 321). The
researcher employed in-depth interviews
and questionnaires to collect the data for
the investigation. The limitations of
positivism have led to the development of
an alternative perspective a collection of
related perspectives those of
interpretivism. CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH
DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 307 5.2.1.3
Interpretivism The interpretive paradigm is
also called the phenomenological approach.
This is an approach that aims to understand
people (Babbie & Mouton, 2008:28).
According to De Vos et al. (2011b:8) and
Neuman (2011:101), interpretive social
science can be traced to Max Weber (1864-
1920) and Wilhelm Dilthey (1833-1911).
Dilthey argues that there are two
fundamentally different types of science:
the natural sciences and the human
sciences. The former is based on Erklrung,
or abstract explanation. The latter is rooted
in an understanding, or Verstehen, of the
lived experiences of people (De Vos et al.,
2011b:8; Neuman, 2011:101). Weber
maintains that all humans are attempting to
make sense of their worlds. In so doing, they
continuously interpret, create, give
meaning, define, justify and rationalise daily
actions (Babbie & Mouton, 2008:28).
Interpretivism thus focuses on exploring the
complexity of social phenomena with a view
to gaining understanding. The purpose of
research in interpretivism is understanding
and interpreting everyday happenings
(events), experiences and social structures
as well as the values people attach to these
phenomena (Collis & Hussey, 2009:56-57;
Rubin & Babbie, 2010:37). Interpretivists
believe that social reality is subjective and
nuanced, because it is shaped by the
perceptions of the participants, as well as
the values and aims of the researcher.
Gephart (1999:5) describes interpretivism
as being directed on meaning, and
understanding the social interactions
between humans. Consequently, the mind
interprets experience and events, and
constructs meanings from them. Meaning
does not exist outside the mind. Willis
(2007:6), as well as Fouch and Schurink
(2011:309) agree with Gephart (1999:5)
when they reject the notion that the social
sciences should apply research principles
adopted from the natural sciences.
Interpretivists believe that the subject
matter of the social sciences is
fundamentally different from that of the
natural sciences. Consequently, a different
methodology is required to reach an
interpretive understanding or verstehen
and an explanation that would enable the
social researcher to appreciate the
subjective meaning of social actions. Reality
should rather be interpreted through the
meanings that people give to their life
world. This meaning can only be discovered
through language, and not exclusively
through quantitative analysis (Schwandt,
2007:314-317). Interpretivists further hold
the view that the social world cannot be
understood by applying research principles
adopted from the natural sciences. The
social sciences require a different research
CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND
METHODOLOGY 308 philosophy. The three
basic principles of interpretivism are
(Wisker, 2008:69; Blumberg et al., 2011:17):
The social world is constructed and given
meaning subjectively by people. Human
beings are subjects that have
consciousness, or a mind; while human
behaviour is affected by knowledge of the
social world, which exists only in relation to
human beings; The researcher is part of
what is observed; and Research is driven
by interests. Interpretivists argue that
simple fundamental laws cannot explain the
complexity of social phenomena (Blumberg
et al., 2011:17). Interpretivists claim that an
objective observation of the social world is
impossible, as it has meaning for humans
only, and is constructed by intentional
behaviour and actions. Livesey (2011b:4)
explains interpretivism as a method that
sees the social world as something that can
only be produced and reproduced on a daily
basis by people. Something that holds true
for the moment (now) might not necessarily
hold true tomorrow, or in another society
(social environment). Knowledge is
developed and theory is built through
developing ideas from observed and
interpreted social constructions. As such,
the researcher seeks to make sense of what
is happening. This can even generate
findings beyond the common scientific
knowledge (Rubin & Babbie, 2010:37;
Blumberg et al., 2011:17). So, interpretivists
attempt to understand subjective realities
and to offer explanations, which are
meaningful for the participants in the
research. The cause-and-effect relationship
of positivism is rejected; since social
circumstances and conditions continuously
change. A third principle identified by
Livesey (2011b:4), takes possession of the
relativity of happenings (events) and
experiences. The social world of people is
understood differently in different situations
and in different ways. Livesey believes
that everything in the social world is relative
to all other happenings (events) and
experiences. The views of Gephart (1999:5);
Schwandt (2007:314-317); Blumberg et al
(2011:17) as well as Fouch and Schurink
(2011:309) reiterate the view of Norbert
Elias (1986:20) who argued, that positivist
natural scientists believe that the method of
natural sciences is the only legitimate
method for scientific discovery. Elias
(1986:20) states that it is possible to
advance knowledge and to make
discoveries in the field of sociology via
methods very different from those of the
natural sciences. In fact, it is the discovery,
not the method that legitimizes research as
being scientific. CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH
DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 309
Interpretivists reject the notion that
research is value-free; since the
researchers interpretation is also socially
constructed, reflecting his/her motives and
believes. Human interests not only channel
our thinking, but also impact how the world
is investigated, and how knowledge is
constructed (Blumberg et al., 2011:18).
Hence, the approach to social phenomena
for the current study should also reflect the
currently common construction of
knowledge; it thus implies the following
assumptions: The social world is observed
by seeing what meanings people give to it
and interpreting these meanings from their
viewpoint; and Social phenomena can only
be understood by looking at the reality.
Gathering and measuring facts would
consequently not disclose the essence of
social phenomena; rather one would need to
explore why different school sport managers
and subject specialists (experts) have
different experiences, and to understand
how these differences result in the different
constructions and meanings that people
give to the social world. In this way, the
researcher would be able to make sense of
how different sport managers and other
people interpret their social world. Thus, the
researcher is required to dig into the
processes of subjective interpretation,
acknowledging the motivations, interests,
intentions, beliefs, values and reasons,
meaning-making and the self-understanding
of the participants (Henning et al., 2004:20;
Blumberg et al., 2011:18). In so far as
research methodology is concerned,
Henning et al. (2004:20) hold that the
interpretive understanding is grounded in an
interactive, field-based inductive
methodology, which in turn is intertwined in
the practice within a specific context.
Livesey (2011b:4) proposes that the best
methods within the interpretive research
paradigm are those of observation and
interpretation. As a reason, he advances
that the researcher should understand how
human beings experience and interpret their
world. De Vos et al. (2011b:8) suggest the
use of participant observation and field
research techniques, where many hours and
days are spent in direct contact with the
participants. Transcripts, conversations and
video-tapes may be studied, in order to gain
a sense of subtle non-verbal communication
or to understand the interaction in its real
context (Neuman, 2011:101). The
researcher engages in active collaboration
with the participants to address real-life
problems in a specific context; these are
directed towards the offering and
implementation of feasible solutions to the
problem (Blumberg et al., 2011:17).
CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND
METHODOLOGY 310 Gephart (1999:5)
mentions that interpretivistic views tend to
show a preference for methods, which do
not only produce facts, but analyse and
describe the meaning of the social world
(situation). He proceeds to indicate that the
primary analytical methods used in
interpretative research are grounded theory
and expansion analysis. The use of these
methods points to the use of qualitative
data-gathering methods, which suggest that
the data are generated mainly through
interactions like conversations and
interviews. Regular (constant) comparative
analysis provides an alternative for
statistical analysis, which bears closer
relation to the positivist views. According to
Gephart (1999:6-7), interpretivists mainly
use comparative analysis as an analytical
process to examine all the data in different
steps, namely: Comparison of incidents
relevant to the theoretical category;
Integration of different categories and their
properties; Delimiting the theory range;
and Formulation of theory. For many years
the interpretive approach existed as the
opposition to positivism (Neuman, 2006:94).
Although some positivist social researchers
accept the interpretive approach as useful in
exploratory research, few positivists
consider it to be fully scientific. Positivists
place their emphasis on the individuals
interpretation of social interaction (Gephart,
1999:5). The interpretivist research accepts
the notion that knowledge and meaning are
the results of interpretations. There is no
objective knowledge which is independent
of human thinking and reasoning. Central to
all interpretivists is the concern with
subjectivity, which in a sense seeks to show
how variations in human meanings and
sense-making generate and reflect
differences in reified or objective realities,
that is when one becomes detached from
and lose sight of connections or relationship
to something created by researchers
(Neuman, 2006:97). In other words, the idea
of subjectivity is acceptable to
interpretivists, and is supported and
endorsed amongst others by Gephart,
(1999:5). In addition, the interpretive
approach is the foundation of social
research techniques that are sensitive to
context, that get inside the ways others see
the world, and that are more concerned with
achieving an emphatic understanding than
with testing legalistic theories of human
behaviour. The conclusion could be drawn
that quantitative methods of generating
data are more suitable for the positivist
paradigm, while qualitative methods are
more suitable for the interpretive paradigm.
CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND
METHODOLOGY 311 The paradigm of
realism also contributes significantly
towards an understanding of the world of
science, and more specifically the
methodology and research design for the
current study. 5.2.1.4 Realism Realism is a
research philosophy sharing the principles of
positivism and interpretivism (Blumberg et
al., 2011:19). More specifically, realism
accepts the existence of reality independent
of human beliefs and behaviour. However, it
also concedes that understanding people
and their behaviour requires
acknowledgement of the subjectivity
inherent to humans. In the realists view,
there are social processes and forces
beyond the control of humans, which affect
their beliefs and behaviour (Saunders et al.,
2009:114). These processes and forces
operate at the macro-level. At the
microlevel (i.e. at the level of individual
human beings), subjective individual
interpretations of reality are important for a
full understanding of what is happening.
These subjective interpretations are not
unique, and people share similar
interpretations, partly because the external
forces at the macro-level influence
everyone. Hence, research requires the
identification of external factors, as well as
the investigation of how people interpret
and give meaning to their situations.
Livesey (2011c:1-3) explains the social
world in relation to three important
interrelated, philosophical assumptions that
underpin the different paradigms, namely:
ontology (what do we believe);
epistemology (the science of knowing) and
methodology (the science of finding out).
Firstly, according to Livesey (2011c:1),
researchers who view their world
realistically generally accept the basic
principles of the natural and the social
sciences to be the same. Empirical evidence
serves as proof for valid knowledge, but in
itself it is not sufficient. The main objective
of realism is thus to go beyond a description
of relationships and to discover how such
relationships came to being. Realists believe
and are convinced that the social world has
to be understood in its totality. That is to
say, all parts of the social world are affected
by the other parts. In conclusion, Livesey
(2011c:4) proposes the use of focus groups
or in-depth interviews to collect reliable and
valid data for a study, in accordance with
the realism paradigm. What needs to be
looked at more closely now is the Critical
Approach. 5.2.1.5 The Critical Approach In
Chapter Two, the critical approach (theory)
was discussed in more detail (cf. par.
2.3.3.3, p. 56). In the following discussion,
only the most important aspects of this
approach will be touched on. CHAPTER 5:
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 312
Critical theoretical approaches place a
strong emphasis on historical and social
contexts, in order to make sense of social
phenomena (Lincoln et al., 2011:99). This
approach agrees with many of the criticisms
that the interpretive approach levels at
positivism, but it agrees with interpretive
social science on some points. The main
point of criticism levelled at positivism by
the critical approach is the absolutising and
idolisation of the objectivity principle. Cohen
et al. (2007:26) and Neuman (2011:108)
maintain that positivists are status-quo
bound. Criticism against interpretivism
centres around the emphasis placed on the
feelings (opinion) at the expense of
broader trends. Critical researchers find
interpretivism too subjective and relativistic
(Neuman, 2011:108). The critical approach
stresses that reason is the highest potential
of human beings, and by using reasoning it
is possible to criticize and challenge the
nature of existing societies (Blaikie,
2007:135). Consequently, the critical theory
admits to bias being present in every action
of a human being and expects the findings
to support that bias (Glicken, 2003:23). The
researcher should continue to be as
objective as possible, and must scrupulously
conduct the undertaken research in a
manner so that bias does not affect the
findings. Patton (2002:130-131) adds that
one of the most influential orientation
frameworks is Critical theory. Critical theory
seeks not merely to study and understand
society, but rather to critique and change
society. In other words, critical theorists, in
questioning communal knowledge becoming
a fetish, examine the process of gaining,
maintaining and circulating existing power
relationships. Influenced by Marxism, Critical
theory provides a framework of both
philosophy and method for approaching
research and evaluation as fundamentally
and explicitly political, and as
changeoriented forms of engagement
(Cohen et al., 2007:26-27; De Vos et al.,
2011b:9). Critical theoretical views see the
current community (society) as a specific
phase in a long, continuous process
(Henning et al., 2004:23; Lincoln et al.,
2011:98,100; Neuman, 2011:109).
Supporters (followers) of the critical
approach consider facts as being
continuously influenced and affected by
social, political and cultural factors. Babbie
and Mouton (2008:36) refer to the critical
theory as the exposure or liberation from
historical, structural and a value-basis of
social phenomena. For them, the critical
approach emphasises becoming part and
parcel of the everyday life-worlds of the
people to be studied. Participants should
feel free and encouraged to give their own
view of their own situation and the world in
which they live. The focus of the critical
paradigm is thus on an understanding and
practical transformation of social
circumstances for emancipation and
reinforcement. Consequently, one needs to
look at the early work of Jrgen Habermas,
who CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND
METHODOLOGY 313 influenced the
paradigm of critical theory, but was also the
first to spell out the transformative and
emancipatory motive in critical theory
(Babbie & Mouton, 2008:34). The intention
of the critical theorists is not merely to
understand situations and phenomena, but
rather to bring about change in
understanding situations and phenomena by
being personally involved. The purpose of
research should be to emancipate people
through a critique of ideologies that
reinforce inequality, while a clear activist
approach is detected in their approach to
research. Some supporters (Skinner &
Edwards, 2005:404-405) of the critical
paradigm, prefer to support action research,
but not all forms thereof. It may be said that
for supporters of the critical paradigm, all
research starts with a specific view; and to
deny that a researcher has a point of view is
in itself a point of view (Neuman, 2006:101;
2011:114). This study indeed makes use of
empirical data yielded, arise from a
questionnaire, but individual interviews
were used to generate non-empirical data,
which fall outside the scope of positivism (cf.
par. 5.2.1.1, p. 301). Thus aspects of both
the positivist and post-positivist views are
present. It is also important to state that the
critical theory cannot be disregarded. The
purpose of the critical theory is to bring
about a more just, egalitarian society in
which individual and collective freedoms are
practised. On the whole, the difference in
philosophical paradigms raises the question
of whether the research should be
addressed by a single research approach or
by more than one approach. The research
problem, accompanying research questions
and related research aims are of a
multifaceted nature (cf. par. 1.1, p. 1; 1.3, p.
12). For this reason, both qualitative and
quantitative approaches were selected for
this research (cf. par. 5.8, p. 328; 5.9, p.
333). The combination of research
approaches has led to the adoption of a
pragmatic position in this research (Rocco et
al., 2003b:596; Creswell, 2007:22-23;
Creswell & Garrett, 2008:327; Creswell,
2009:10-11; Teddlie & Johnson, 2009:73-74;
Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009:7-8; 15; 86-88;
90-93; Creswell & Plano Clarke, 2011:26;40-
44;78). The research design will be
described in detail in paragraph 5.4 (cf. p.
315). The fact that some of the other
paradigms are also taken possession of, is
acceptable for modern researchers
(Gephart, 1999:5; Morgan, 2007:57,59,63).
The reason for choosing a pragmatic
research paradigm is because this particular
position is regarded as the philosophic
partner of mixed methods research,
provides a workable solution to multifaceted
research problems and offers a practical,
middle ground orientation in relation to
post positivism and interpretivism (Johnson
& Onwuegbuzie, 2004:17,18). Hence
following this, the research design CHAPTER
5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
314 will be described in detail in paragraph
5.4 (cf. p. 316). The fact that some of the
other paradigms are also taken possession
of, is acceptable for modern researchers
(Gephart, 1999:5; Morgan, 2007:57,59,63).
Mouton (2001:137) mentions that research
problems are usually formulated in order to
address real-life problems. These are
problems related to everyday life in the
social and physical world, like stress,
unemployment, transformation,
discrimination in sport, commercialization of
school sport, violence, behaviour of sport
fans, and many more. The next paragraph
will analyse, describe and clarify the process
of translating real life problems into
research problems by means of a simple
structure - The Three Worlds Framework. 5.3
THE THREE-WORLDS FRAMEWORK
Contemporary problems formulated as
research problems, can be described by
means of the Three-Worlds Framework
developed in 1996 by Mouton (Babbie &
Mouton, 2008:6). Subscribing to the view of
De Villiers (2003:24), who applied the model
specifically to sport management, the
researcher will also apply the model of
Mouton to sport management in the current
study. The current study will use the model
more specifically in relation to the
management of school sport. In the Three-
Worlds model, the first distinction is made
between the world of everyday life and
knowledge (World 1); and the world of
science and the search for truth by means
of scientific research (World 2); while the
final and last world is concerned with meta-
science (World 3). 5.3.1 World 1: The world
of everyday life and lay knowledge Botes
(2002:8) and Thomas et al. (2011:5)
mention that the first world is directed to
the world of everyday life. Botes specifically
cites examples to be applied to sport
management. In the current study, the focus
is on sport management; this is the terrain
of school sport management. The way
(method or approach) in which research
should be conducted acts as catalyst or
determinant for research decisions and
knowledge. In the management of school
sport, lay knowledge would thus be seen as
knowledge acquired through learning,
experience, self-reflection, insight and
wisdom and applied to solve problems,
reach consensus, gain insight in everyday
life at school and sport participation.
Therefore the idea is essentially for the
researcher to analyse, evaluate and test
interpretations. The researcher needs to
adopt a pragmatic interest that underlies
knowledge production and utilisation in
everyday life. CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH
DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 315 5.3.2
World 2: The world of science and the
search for truth by means of scientific
research The second world of Moutons
framework is the world of science and
scientific research. The second level is the
level whereby the researcher actively
functions (Second Order). The researcher is
thus co-responsible for the school sport
management practice. Mouton (2001:138)
and Thomas et al. (2011:5;16-17) quite
clearly distinguish between different
levels. In short, the first world focuses or
adopts a pragmatic approach, while the
second world focuses on and is directed
towards the epistemology (truthful
knowledge). So far a clear distinction has
been made between the world of everyday
life (World 1) and the world of science
(World 2). There is one more world, the
world of meta-science that should be added
to the picture. 5.3.3 World 3: The world of
meta-science In the previous paragraph, it
was hinted that the third world introduces
the concept of metascience. This third world
(meta-science) then has its origin in the
prevalence and application of critical
interest and reflection by scientists
(practitioners). Scientists (researchers)
constantly submit their decisions to quality
checks, in order to attain to truthful and
valid results. This has led to the formation of
various meta disciplines (Mouton,
2001:138). Meta-disciplines developed over
time include aspects like philosophy, ethics,
methodology, sociology and history. Botes
(2002:8) refers to this development of meta-
sciences as a paradigmatic perspective.
According to her, it implies a commitment to
a collection of convictions or beliefs which
are meta-theoretical (ontological),
theoretical (epistemological) as well as
methodological. Mouton (2001:141) offers a
schematic presentation. To apply this Three-
World Framework specifically to the current
study, it can be said that the three worlds
are interactive and interrelated. The first
worlds real-life actions are internally
influenced by outsiders. These actions are
influenced by the methodological
approaches or perspectives of the second
world. Ultimately, the methodological
approaches are based on and informed by
the third-worlds (meta-science)
philosophical paradigms or approaches, as
explained and described in paragraph 5.2.1
(cf. p. 300). It is important to realise that
this research cannot be done haphazardly,
but is bound to the actions of all three
worlds. It could be said that the Three-
Worlds Framework illustrates close linkages
between different forms of human
knowledge ordinary, scientific and meta-
scientific knowledge. Over and above the
CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND
METHODOLOGY 316 linkage between
different forms of knowledge the said
framework clearly indicates the close
linkage between the different motives and
interests that underlie the different forms of
knowledge (the pragmatic, the epistemic
and critical interests). It should nevertheless
be stressed that The ThreeWorlds
Framework is a tool that helps one to
organise ones thinking about the practice
of scientific research. In the final analysis,
the framework of Mouton is only as good as
the use one makes of it. 5.4 RESEARCH
DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY Information
obtained from the identification of
management practices in schools should be
used to develop a sport management
programme for educator training in
accordance with the diverse needs of South
African schools. In this regard, Yiannakis
(2000:119) and Thomas et al.
(2011:3,11,17) state that researchers should
be prepared to put their research to the test
outside the academic world. This would
enable the researcher to determine a
possible gap in the sport management
competencies school sport managers should
have (possible) and currently have (actual)
(cf. Ch. 6, 7). For this reason, it is imperative
for the researcher to be absolutely sure as
to which approach or method would provide
the information required (Druckman,
2005:46; Clough & Nutbrown, 2010:29,35).
The research design should be scientifically
grounded, as well as trustworthy and
reliable (Churchill & Iacobucci,
2002:410,710,796,812-814; Bassey,
2003:116-119; Churchill & Iacobucci,
2005:410,710,796,812-814; Moss,
2007:470,475; Drew et al., 2008:158;
Iacobucci & Churchill, 2010:58,254; Cooper
& Schindler, 2011:138-139). 5.4.1 Research
Design A research design focuses on the
end-product and all the steps in the process
to achieve that outcome. In this sense, a
research design is viewed as the functional
plan in which certain research methods and
procedures are linked together to acquire a
reliable and valid body of data for
empirically grounded analyses, conclusions
and theory formulation. The research design
thus provides the researcher with a clear
research framework; it guides the methods,
decisions and sets the basis for
interpretation. Bless, Higson-Smith and
Kagee (2006:71) define research design as
operations to be performed, in order to
test a specific hypothesis under a given
condition. Research design, according to
Welman et al. (2009:46), is best described
as the overall plan, according to which the
respondents of a proposed study are
selected, as well as the means of data
collection or generation, while Babbie and
Mouton (2008:74) describe research design
as a plan or CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN
AND METHODOLOGY 317 blueprint for
conducting the research. The research
design also entails a detailed plan,
according to which research is undertaken.
According to Mouton (1996:107), the main
function of a research design is to enable
the researcher to anticipate what the
appropriate research decisions are likely to
be, and to maximise the validity of the
eventual results. The relevant data are
collected, which in the context of the
current study focus on the management
competencies of the school sport manager
and the implications thereof for educator
training, in accordance with the diverse
needs of South African schools (cf. par.
1.3.2, p. 12). The research design should be
seen as a mixed-bag approach that implies
choosing from different alternatives and
options to ensure that the research purpose
and perspective are clarified and achieved.
The research problem will determine the
methods and procedures: the types of
measurement, the sampling, the data
collection and the data analysis to be
employed for the proposed research
(Zikmund et al., 2010:66). For the purposes
of this study, the researcher will use an
empirical study, involving a survey,
interviews and phenomenology to gain
insight into the typical experiences of the
participants in order to arrive at sound
conclusions. Leedy and Ormrod (2010:141)
reveal that a phenomenological study is one
that attempts to understand peoples
perceptions, perspectives and views of a
particular situation. By looking at multiple
perspectives on the same situation, the
researcher can then make some kind of
generalisation on what something is like
from an insiders perspective. The
phenomenological approach aims to
understand and interpret the meaning that
participants give to their everyday life.
Creswell (2007:57) regards a
phenomenological study as one that
describes the meanings that the lived
experiences of a phenomenon, topic or
concept have for various individuals. In the
current study, the research was conducted
by means of a literature study and empirical
research. The nature and complexity of the
research problem, research questions and
related research aims called for a purposeful
research design to meet the requirements of
these research intentions. For this reason, a
mixed methods research design was chosen
to conduct this research. A mixed methods
research design was adopted to increase the
scope and range of the research, in order to
address the research problem and the
related research questions. The research
design utilised for the current study is
illustrated in Fig. 16. CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH
DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 318 (Adapted
from Sekaran & Baglie, 2010:99-100) Figure
16: Research Design 5.4.2 Research
methodology Leedy and Ormrod (2010:12)
agree with Babbie and Mouton (2008:74)
that research methodology refers to the
researchers general approach in carrying
out the research project. Mouton (2001:56)
views research methodology as focusing on
the research process and the kind of tools
and procedures to be used. The point of
departure would be the specific task (data
collection) at hand, the individual steps in
the research process, and the most
objective procedures to be employed. In
essence, as Carter and Little
(2007:1317,1320) express, methodologies
justify methods, which produces data and
analyses, and methods produce knowledge,
so methodologies have epistemic content.
Put simply, the research methodology in this
research thus refers to the approach
adopted to follow in gathering (cf. par. 5.
8.4, p. 330; 5.9.3, p. 339) and analysing
data (cf. par. 6.2, p. 355; 6.3, p. 431).
CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND
METHODOLOGY 319 This research was
conducted by means of a literature study
(cf. par. 1.4.3, p. 14; 5.5, p. 319) and
empirical research (cf. par.1.4.4, p. 14; 5.6,
p. 320). In this study it was assumed that
programme development was a process and
as such different programme development
models were looked, before an integrated,
adapted programme development process
structure that consisted of five stages
(phases) was selected (cf. par. 7.3.2, p. 537;
7.4, p. 545; Fig. 17, p. 326). In this thesis an
explorative mixed method was therefore
used in order to determine the needs and
competencies required by educators to
manage school sport effectively in
accordance with the diverse needs of South
African schools (cf. par. 1.3.2, p. 12). For this
purpose a semi-structured interview
(qualitative method; cf. par. 5.8, p. 328) and
a questionnaire (quantitative method; cf.
par. 5.9.3, p. 339) were used to collect data.
Data were connected in that the results of
the qualitative section in coherence with the
literature review (cf. Ch. 2-4) were used to
develop a measurement instrument, namely
a questionnaire (quantitative method) to
determine the needs and competencies
required by educators to manage school
sport. In this way an attempt was also made
to ensure triangulation of data. 75 In the
following paragraph the literature study will
be introduced and the role thereof explained
to gather information and form a contextual
and theoretical framework for the empirical
section of the current research.
Subsequently the empirical research will
come to the attention (cf. par 5.6, p. 320).
5.5 THE LITERATURE STUDY (REVIEW)
Primary and secondary literature resources
were studied to gather information to
provide a theoretical overview (framework)
in Chapters Two, Three and Four. Chapter
Two is primarily concerned with school sport
in the South African education system; while
Chapter Three deals with sport management
for educator training; and Chapter Four
provides a literature overview of some
current sport management-training
programmes both locally and globally.
Particular attention has been given to the
history of South African sport in general, but
also school sport in particular to provide
the impetus and to contextualize the current
role of school sport, given South Africas
past. 75 Although the design of the
measurement instrument was not seen as
the all- encompassing aim of this study, it
can also be regarded as a significant
contribution the body of knowledge in sport
management and can be used for
subsequent studies in a similar context as
school sport. Cf. also footnote 71, p. 288
CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND
METHODOLOGY 320 5.6 THE EMPIRICAL
RESEARCH An empirical investigation was
undertaken for the current study, using
qualitative and quantitative methods to
obtain data that would strengthen the
trustworthiness and validity of the research.
The term empirical refers to knowledge
derived by the process of practical and
scientific experience, experiments and
inquiries (Skager & Weinberg, 1971:4). An
empirical investigation involves a planned
process of collecting and analysing data in
a way that is systematic, purposeful and
accountable (Isaac & Michael, 1997:2). The
purpose of this empirical investigation is,
therefore, to obtain reliable and valid data,
in accordance with the research problem (cf.
par.1.1, p. 1) and the accompanying
research aims (cf. par.1.3.2, p. 12). It would
seem appropriate to deduce that the
empirical research section of any research
would play an important role; and as such, it
would go a long way to provide appropriate,
reliable and valid data to support the
research problem and the accompanying
research questions (Gorin, 2007:456;
Mislevy, 2007:463). Hence, turning the
focus to the current study, the purpose of
the empirical section of this research report
is to describe an applicable research design
as a scientific process to obtain reliable and
valid data concerning the research problem
and the accompanying research questions
(cf. par. 1.3.2, p. 12). The information
obtained from the empirical research of a
study serves to support and provide
evidence for the stated problem and the
accompanying research questions. The
research problem involved the development
of a sport management programme for
educator training, in accordance with the
diverse needs of South African schools (cf.
par. 1.1, p. 1), while the research questions
included inquiries about the context of
school sport within the educational system,
the current role of the school sport manager
within the education system, and to
determine the extent of the use and
application of sport management
programmes used as part of international
and national educator training (cf. par. 1.3.2,
p. 12). The following research aims are
required: An understanding of the nature of
school sport within the educational system;
A conceptual framework for the
management of school sport;
Preconditions for the implementation of a
school sports-management programme for
educator training; A sport management
model for managing school sport; and
Related review aspects. CHAPTER 5:
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 321
An analysis of the data, as well as
information from the extensive literature
overview, led to the development of a sport
management programme for educator
training, in accordance with the diverse
needs of South African schools (cf. par. 7.5,
p. 547). For any research process to be
complete, an applicable research design to
obtain reliable and valid data has to be
described. Hence, the relevant research
design for the study that would meet the
expectations and requirements of the
researcher, as well as the research
intentions related to the research problem,
research questions and related research
aims, is called for. The research design
should enable the researcher to justify that
the research was undertaken only after
careful considerations regarding the enquiry.
Based on the scope and complexity of the
research problem, the researcher decided
on a mixed methods research design to
conduct this research. A mixed methods
research design will be explained and
examined further in the next section. 5.7
MIXED METHODS RESEARCH Mouton and
Marais (1990:59;164-165 ); Kumar
(2005:12); Creswell (2007:37-39; 2009:4);
Leedy and Ormrod (2010:96), as well as
Kumar (2011:13,20), are of the opinion that
the quantitative approach is highly
formalized, as well as more explicitly
controlled than the qualitative, with a range
that is more exactly defined, and that is
relatively close to the social sciences. In
contrast, qualitative approaches are those in
which the procedures are not as strictly
formalized, while the scope is more likely to
be undefined, and a more philosophical
mode of operation is adopted (Mouton &
Marais, 1990:59;164-165; McRoy,
1995:2009-2015; Delport & De Vos,
2011:266). Prospective researchers should
orientate themselves to the differences
between these approaches, and decide
whether a combined quantitative/qualitative
approach, also known as the mixed methods
approach (Bergman, 2008a:1; Bryman,
2009:15) might be appropriate. Both
approaches (quantitative and qualitative)
have apparent strengths, but also
weaknesses. Human sciences research often
utilises both qualitative and quantitative
methodologies (Fouche & Delport,
2011a:66). The following paragraphs review
several preliminary considerations before
designing a mixed methods study. The next
section addresses: Understanding what
mixed methods research means; Rationale
and purpose; Value; and Specific mixed
methods research designs. CHAPTER 5:
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 322
5.7.1 Definition Creswell and Plano Clarke
(2011:5) feel that a definition for mixed
methods should incorporate many diverse
viewpoints, which in this spirit according to
the authors rely on a definition of core
characteristics of mixed methods research.
The authors continue to say that it combines
methods, a philosophy, and a research
design orientation, which ultimately seems
to highlight the key components that go into
designing and conducting a mixed methods
study. An analysis of descriptions about
mixed methods research in literature clearly
reveals an agreement, irrespective of the
focus of the definition, to a great extent
among proponents of this particular type of
research (Hunter & Brewer, 2003:577; Rocco
et al., 2003a:19; Tashakkori & Teddlie,
2003:711; Johnson & Onwuegbuzie,
2004:17; Collins et al., 2006:69; Creswell &
Plano Clarke, 2007:5; Ivankova et al.,
2007:261; Johnson et al., 2007:123; Teddlie
& Tashakkori, 2009:7-8; Creswell & Plano
Clarke, 2011:5). So, the following definition
of mixed method research can be
formulated, according to the descriptions
from literature. Mixed methods research is
the kind of research where the researcher
combines quantitative and qualitative
techniques, methods and concepts in a
single study or series of related studies
during single or multiple phases within a
pragmatic philosophical worldview
(paradigm) and theoretical lenses that direct
the plan for conducting the study (cf. par.
5.2.1, 300; 5.3, p. 314). De Bosscher, Shibli,
Van Bottenburg, De Knop and Truyens
(2010) used a mixed method design to
develop a method for comparing the elite
sport systems and the policies of nations.
5.7.2 Rationale and purpose According to
Johnson and Onwuegbuzie (2004:14), the
goal of mixed methods research is not to
replace either the quantitative or qualitative
approaches to research, but rather to draw
from the strengths of these approaches and
to minimise possible weaknesses. Nau
(1995:1) suggests that blending qualitative
and quantitative methods of research can
produce a final product which can highlight
the significant contributions of both.
Henderson et al. (1999:253) note with
reference to their study of physical activity
and culture that the linking of data provides
a way to use statistics, the traditional
language of research. The driving
motivation behind mixed methods is the
desire to get the whole story (picture), as
much as possible. Saunders, Lewis and
Thornhill (2003:99) and Saunders et al.
(2009:153) state that there are two major
advantages to employing multi methods in
the same study. Firstly, different methods
can be used for different purposes in a
study. This would give the researcher
confidence having CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH
DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 323 addressed
the most important issues. The second
advantage of using multi-methods approach
is that it enables triangulation to take place.
Thus, it may be concluded that the
combination of quantitative and qualitative
research methods offers the advantage of
the respective qualities of both approaches
(Shank & Brown, 2007:190; Thitart,
2007:82). The rationale for choosing a
mixed methods research design for this
research was to: Gain data about a wider
range of interests; Understand more fully
and thus get a fuller research picture;
Generate deeper and broader insights;
Enhance the significance of interpretation;
Enhance the convergence and collaboration
of findings; Allow for unexpected
developments; Clarify underlying logic;
Facilitate both outsider and insider
perspectives, thereby improving research;
Facilitate a better understanding of the
relationship between variables; Allow
appropriate emphases at different stages of
the research process; and to Explain
idiosyncratic circumstances, approaches,
opinions and practices of different
respondents. Additionally, Scott and
Morrison (2007:158) share the belief of
advocates of mixed method research, who
argue that: A combination of methods
enhances triangulation; A combination
facilitates both outsider and insider
perspectives; and the research is thus
improved; A combination may facilitate a
better understanding of the relationship
between variables; and A combination
allows appropriate emphases at different
stages of the research process. Advocates
of mixed methods research also argue that
quantitative and qualitative methods of
measurement and accompanying analyses
are compatible, and complementary to each
other in a mixed method research design.
The purpose of the mixed

hods research design in the context of this

research is to (Mingers, 2001:244; Rocco et
al., 2003a:22,23; Johnson, 2004:264,265):
CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND
METHODOLOGY 324 Increase the validity of
the research by the convergence of the
different methods of research, because
mixed methods research is regarded as a
form of triangulation; Widen the scope of
the research in that expansion calls for the
use of mixed methods research to increase
both the breadth and range of a study;
and to Complement different facets of the
inquiry because of the overlapping that
occurs between the different methods.
5.7.3 Value (Advantages) The value
(advantages) of employing a mixed methods
design for this research can be summarised
(enumerated) as follows (Creswell & Plano
Clarke, 2011:12-13): An apparent weakness
of quantitative research is that it is often
perceived and seen to be weak in
understanding the context or setting in
which people talk and the voices of
respondents are accordingly not directly
(verbally) heard. On the other hand,
qualitative research is seen as deficient,
because of the personal interpretations and
the involvement of the researcher that may
lead to bias. Mixed method research
provides more comprehensive evidence for
studying a research problem than either
qualitative or quantitative research alone.
Mixed method research helps to answer
questions that cannot otherwise be
answered. Mixed method research is
practical, as the researcher is free to use
relevant methods, skills and thinking to
address a research problem. Mixed method
research enables the use of an all-
encompassing paradigm, such as
pragmatism. It is imperative for the
researcher to decide on the specific mixed
methods design that best addresses the
research problem. Hence, the specific mixed
methods for this research will be elaborated
upon. 5.7.4 Specific design Once a mixed
methods approach has been decided on, the
next step is to decide on the specific mixed
methods research design that best
addresses the research problem (cf. par.
5.7.4.2, p. 325). CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH
DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 325 5.7.4.1
Procedural consideration Three strategies
for mixing qualitative and quantitative
methods are identified by Creswell
(2009:207-208), namely merging,
embedding and connecting the datasets. For
the current study the researcher made use
of the mixing strategy proposed by Creswell
and Plano Clarke (2011:67) to connect the
qualitative data, in order to build or
develop the subsequent quantitative data.
76 More specifically, the data are connected
in that the qualitative results (cf. par. 6. 2, p.
355) were used in collaboration with the
literature review to design a measurement
instrument, namely a questionnaire (cf. Fig.
16, p. 318; 18, 327; par. 6.2.3, p. 372;
Annexure D, on CD). 5.7.4.2 The mixed
method exploratory research design The
mixed methods exploratory research design
or exploratory sequential research design
consists of two distinct phases (Creswell et
al., 2003:227; Creswell & Plano Clarke,
2011:86). In the research design, a
researcher collects and analyses the
qualitative data as phase one. In the second
quantitative phase (cf. par. 5.9, p. 333; Fig.
16, p. 318; 18, 327; par 6.3, p. 431), the
researcher builds on the results of the
qualitative data. The established theoretical
framework subsequently presented the
researcher with the opportunity to identify
topic-specific themes and variables for
further investigation. The exploratory
research design has become a widely
accepted and efficient tool for use in multi-
phase research (Creswell, 2009:212).
Despite typically emphasising the
qualitative aspect, the inclusion of a
quantitative component seems to satisfy
and convince quantitative biased audiences
of the relative value and advantages of the
use of the exploratory sequential mixed
methods research design (Creswell & Plano
Clarke, 2011:89). Challenges associated
with this research design involve the
requirement of considerable time. 77 The
next step is to decide on the specific model
or variant of the chosen mixed methods
research design as proposed by Creswell
and Plano Clarke (2007:77; 2011:90). Based
on the preceding, the instrument
development model78 was selected as
described by Creswell and Plano Clarke
(2011:77). The instrument development
model is illustrated in Figure 17 (cf. p. 326
below). 76 Although the purpose of this
research was not to develop a questionnaire
for school sport management, the
developed measurement instrument,
namely the questionnaire, can also be seen
as a valuable contribution to the existing
body of knowledge to school sport
management and future research 77 The
researcher can attest to challenge
concerning time, in the sense that the
questionnaires could only be finalised after
the interview schedule was completed, an
analysis of the interviews was done and an
extensive literature review was completed
to develop a theoretical framework. 78 Cf.
also note, 71, p. 288 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH
DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 326 Creswell
and Plano Clarke, 2007:77 Figure 17: The
instrument development model of the
exploratory sequential mixed methods
research design The combination of
research approaches led to the adoption of
a pragmatic position (cf. par. 5.2.1.5, p. 311;
5.3.1, p. 314) to conduct this research, as
this provided a workable solution to the
multifaceted research problem (Tashakkori &
Teddlie, 2003:696; Johnson & Onwuegbuzie,
2004:17-18; Creswell, 2009:11-12; Thomas
et al., 2011:375). 79 The results provided
the researcher with a clear and complete
picture of the current sport management
programmes for the training of educators,
according to the diverse needs of schools in
South Africa (cf. par. 1.3.2, p. 12, research
aim 5). 5.7.4.3 A mixed methods research
model A model of the instrument-
development variant of the exploratory
sequential-mixed methods research design
is depicted in Figure 18 (cf. p. 327 below).
79Cf. also par. 5.2.1.5, p. 311 CHAPTER 5:
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 327
Figure 18: The mixed methods research
model CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND
METHODOLOGY 328 5.8 QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH Qualitative writing tends to be
rich with quotation, description and
narration, as researchers attempt to capture
conversations, experiences, perspectives,
voices and meanings. This is research with
words instead of numbers (Willis, 2008:40).
As such, a qualitative study is concerned
with nonstatistical methods and small
samples, often purposively selected (Delport
& De Vos, 2011:65). The characteristics of
qualitative research are (Kumar, 2005:12;
Jones & Kottler, 2006:83; Bogdan & Biklen,
2007:3-8;40-41; Ivankova et al., 2007:257;
Creswell, 2009:175-177; Leedy & Ormrod,
2010:94-97; Kumar, 2011:13,20,104-105):
It is usually conducted in natural settings.
Natural settings (such as classrooms,
schools and sports fields) are the
overwhelming preference for qualitative
studies. The extensive use of descriptive
data. Qualitative researchers are likely to
describe a phenomenon with words, rather
than with numbers. The emphasis is on
process rather than on product. It is often
based on inductive logic: going from the
specific to the general. The search for
meaning is often evident. The search for
meaning focuses in qualitative research on
how people try to make sense of their lives.
How it is may be nearly as important in a
qualitative study as how the participants
think it is. 5.8.1 Study population A study
population is the aggregation of elements
from which the sample is actually selected.
For the current research, the researcher
chose topic-specific experts in the field of
study as participants based on their
specialised expertise and close involvement
in school sport management as the study
population for the qualitative phase of the
proposed research. The study population of
the qualitative phase comprised
departmental officials in the position of
Education Specialist: School Sport
(Department of Basic Education) (DBE) and
academics from HEIs presenting sport
management as part of educator training.
5.8.2 Sampling Sampling refers to the
selection of a subset of persons or things
from a larger population, also known as a
sampling frame (Scott & Morrison,
2007:219), with the intention of
representing the particular population (Gall
et al., 2007:166; Neuman, 2011:246). A
non-probability sampling procedure (Cozby,
2009:139,140) was used for the selection of
knowledgeable and experienced CHAPTER
5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
329 participants. For this reason, a
purposive sample was used to select an
Education Specialist: School Sport from each
of the following provinces: a northern
province, with metropolitan areas (Gauteng
Province); a southern province with
metropolitan areas (Western Cape Province);
and a province with mainly rural areas
(North-West Province) (cf. Annexure N, on
CD). The participants of this research phase
were purposefully selected based on their
involvement in sport management in
schools. The number of participants is
further viewed as being sufficient. It is
based on the saturation principle of
diminishing returns the notion that each
additional unit of information would supply
less new information than the preceding
one: until new information dwindles to
nothing (Thitart, 2007:166). In this study
the saturation principle holds true and it can
be confirmed the number of participants
were sufficient and enough information was
provided to enable the researcher to
compile a questionnaire for this study that
was reliable and valid (cf. par. 5.9.4, p. 342;
5.9.5, p. 346). 5.8.3 Reliability and validity
Reliability and validity and implications
thereof will be described in detail in the
quantitative section of this research report
(cf. par. 5.9.4, p. 342 and par. 5.9.5, p. 346).
Some qualitative researchers have begun to
question the relevance of the term validity
in qualitative research. Some suggest that
terminology such as credibility,
dependability, confirmability,
trustworthiness, verification and
transferability be used instead of validity.
Scholars like Huberman and Miles (2002:38)
and Tobin and Begley (2004:388,389) are of
the opinion that it is inappropriate to
transfer terminology across paradigms.
Inevitably, the authors suggest alternative
ways to demonstrate reliability and validity
outside the linguistic confines of a
quantitative paradigm. The trend that rather
emphasises the use of rigour to ensure
reliability and validity in qualitative research
was followed in this section of the research
(Tobin & Begley, 2004:389,390; Twycross &
Shields, 2005:36; Onwuegbuzie & Leech,
2007:239). Rigour refers to the
demonstration of integrity and competence
in qualitative research by adherence to
detail and accuracy to ensure the
authenticity and trustworthiness of the
research process. The rigour of the
qualitative section relates to the overall
planning and implementation to ensure the
authenticity and trustworthiness of
procedures, according to the following
criteria (Tobin & Begley, 2004:391,392;
Onwuegbuzie & Johnson, 2006:49,50;
Roberts et al., 2006:43; Freeman et al.,
2007:28,29): CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH
DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 330
Credibility: Engagement with the data
(recordings, notes and transcripts) was done
intensively to demonstrate clear links
between the data and the interpretations.
Regular discussions were held and
adjustments were made in accordance with
suggestions and recommendations.
Dependability: According to Riege
(2003:81), dependability is analogous to the
notion of reliability in quantitative research
(cf. par. 5.9.4, p. 342). The purpose of this
test was to show indications of stability and
consistency in the process of inquiry. Care
was taken to ensure that the research
process was logical, traceable, and clearly
documented in a reflexive manner by giving
a detailed account of the research process.
Authenticity: The development of the
question items was based on a substantial
theoretical basis as described in Chapters
Two, Three and Four. The interview schedule
was first carried out during the pilot test to
ensure the yielding of reasonable, unbiased
and valid data (cf. par. 5.9.4.1, p. 343).
Confirmation: An audit process was
implemented by working forward, as well as
backward through the research process, to
ensure that the data and interpretations of
the findings were sound and confirmed
findings. The intention during the
interpretation process was not to generalize
findings to a population, but to identify
accepted principles and trends related to
the research topic (cf. par. 5.6, p. 320; 5.8.1,
p. 328). The trustworthiness of this research
phase was ensured by applying the
following criteria: credibility, dependability,
authenticity and confirming. The description
in the qualitative research process of: What
was done; how it was done; and why it was
done as well as adherence to the identified
criteria for qualitative research, ensured the
authenticity and trustworthiness of this
research phase. 5.8.4 Qualitative data
collection To yield data for the qualitative
investigation, different measuring
instruments were employed. Measuring
instruments include different types of
interviews (standardized open-ended,
semistructured and structured),
observations and content analysis or review
of documents (Cooper & Schindler,
2011:183; Thomas et al., 2011:357). Given
the extent and purpose of this research (cf.
par. 1.3.2, p. 12), interviews were used to
collect the data. Hence, an Education
Specialist: School Sport from each of three
different provinces (Gauteng, Western Cape
and North-West Province) (cf. Annexure N,
on CD), in addition to an academic from
each of three HEIs presenting sport
management as part of educator training,
were requested to participate in an
interview to contribute to the achievement
of the stated research aims (cf. par. 1.3.2, p.
12). CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND
METHODOLOGY 331 5.8.4.1 Interviews The
interview is a social relationship designed to
exchange information between the
participant and the researcher. The quantity
and quality of information exchanged would
depend on how astute and creative the
interviewer is at understanding and
managing the relationship (Monette et al.,
2008:178). The interviewers are deeply and
unavoidably implicated in creating
meanings that ostensibly reside within the
participants (Greeff, 2011:342). The goal of
any qualitative research interview is
therefore to see the research topic from the
perspective of the interviewees, and to
understand why they have a particular
perspective (King, 1994:14). To meet this
goal, the author (King) lists the following
general characteristics of a qualitative
research interview: a low degree of structure
imposed by the interviewer; a
preponderance of open questions; a focus
on specific situations and action sequences
in the world of the interviewee as opposed
to mere abstractions and general opinions.
The role of the interviewer is a demanding
one as they have to ask questions, record
answers and try to keep the interview
session interesting and worthwhile for the
interviewees (Powney & Watts, 1987:7,42;
Verma & Mallick, 1999:122). The
circumstances in which a qualitative
research interview takes place are
highlighted below: Where a study focuses
on the meaning of particular phenomena to
the participants; Where individual
perceptions are to be studied
prospectively; Where individual historical
accounts are required of how a particular
phenomenon developed: for instance a new
shift system; Where exploratory work is
required before a quantitative study can be
carried out; and Where a quantitative
study has been carried out, and qualitative
data are required to validate particular
measures or to clarify and illustrate the
meaning of the findings (King, 1994:16).
Research texts typically highlight three
types of interviews used in educational
research: standardised open-ended, semi
structured and structured (Fontana & Frey,
2005:697,698; Erikson & Kovalainen,
2008:80; Scott & Usher, 2011:116,117),
depending on the nature of the event as
determined by the researcher who initiates
the interview (Greeff, 2011:347). For the
purposes of this research, interviews were
conducted according to a semi-structured
interview schedule, as proposed by Greeff
(2011:151,152). This specifies
predetermined questions and sequences for
the interviewer. The interview will, however
be guided by the schedule (cf. Annexure B,
on CD). CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND
METHODOLOGY 332 5.8.4.2 Semi structured
interviews Interviewing as a data-gathering
method was used to: Clarify vague
statements; Permit exploration of topics;
and to Yield a deeply experiential account
of the extent of the management of sport in
a diversity of South African schools.
Interviews can yield rich material
unobtainable in any other way, which can
support or be supported by other data from
questionnaires and standardised test
responses. The interview is wonderfully
adaptable and flexible (Verma & Mallick,
1999:128). The interviews afforded the
researcher the opportunity to obtain
perceptions of role players in school sport
regarding the problems currently being
experienced by educators in the
management of school sport. 5.8.4.3
Observation The following aspects were
included in this section of the research: The
socio-economic situation (status) of the
community; Physical location and
surroundings; Reception at office;
Impression of office setting; and Relevant
comments. The purpose of the observation
list was to provide a brief account of the
context of the source of the data, in order to
facilitate an understanding of the setting in
which the respondents work and to provide
information about the climate in which the
interview took place (Huberman & Miles,
2002:54; Creswell, 2003:8; 2009:177; Scott
& Usher, 2011:106). 5.8.4.4 The Interview
schedule80 For the purposes of this study,
the structured part of the interview was
developed according to the research aims
(cf. par. 1.3.2, p. 12), the theoretical
framework for the management of school
sport 80 Cf. par. 5.8.4.4, p. 332; Annexure B,
on CD CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND
METHODOLOGY 333 (cf. par.4.9, p. 296; Fig.
15, p. 289) and the current sport
management programmes for educator
training (cf. Chapter 4). The interview
questions included the following topics:
Understanding of school sport
management; Fundamental principles in
managing school sport; Perspectives on
multicultural education; Perspectives on
the current state, status and demands of
school sport; Best practices for managing
school sport; Problems in managing school
sport; Positive experiences in relation to
the management of school sport; Needs to
manage school sport; Views on the current
and future competencies required to
manage school sport;
Importance/necessity of sport management
training for educators; Problems, if any,
encountered during practical training of
students; Shortcomings of sport
management programmes as part of
educator training; and General
comments. A semi-structured interview was
chosen to allow more clarifying, probing and
cross-checking questions. 5.8.4.5 The
Interview procedure In order to ensure that
the responses were recorded, a digital voice
recorder and back-up recorder were used to
record the responses of the participants. All
the interviews took place in the offices of
the education specialist and academics from
HEIs respectively. A copy of the interview
schedule and the contact detail of the
researcher were provided to each
interviewee for possible future enquiries. In
addition to the qualitative component of the
empirical research, quantitative research
methods in the form of a structured
questionnaire were also used in combination
with the semi-structured interviews as part
of the mixed methods research design (cf.
par. 5.7, p. 321). 5.9 QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH The quantitative section deals
with the statistical analysis and numerical
data to provide quantitative information
(Lund, 2005:128; Thitart, 2007).
Quantitative research requires CHAPTER 5:
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 334
objectively evaluating the data which
consist of numbers, trying to exclude bias
from the researchers point of view.
Typically, the quantitative method makes
use of a questionnaire. Quantitative
research always involves the numerical
analysis of data gathered by means of some
kind of structured questionnaire. 5.9.1 The
survey as research method Interviews
require the researcher to elicit information
from respondents and provide the
researcher more insight into the meaning
and significance of what is happening. As
such, it thus substantiates why survey
researchers (Scott & Usher, 2011:93)
choose to concentrate on a group of
seemingly similar cases, such as for
example, secondary schools in a locality or
country. 5.9.1.1 Rationale and purpose An
empirical survey serves as an opportunity to
obtain data on the current and desired
competencies of school sport managers.
5.9.1.2 Strengths and limitations The
following strategies were employed to
minimise the occurrence of possible
shortcomings (Williams, 2004:94,99; Fink,
2006:35; Adams et al., 2007:138; Maree &
Pietersen, 2007c:157; Fowler,
2009:89,108,110,177; Leedy & Ormrod,
2010:223; Rubin & Babbie, 2011:404):
Clear and consistent instructions to
respondents for the completion of
questionnaires; Questionnaire items were
scrutinized for content that promotes bias,
e.g. presupposed and leading items;
Reporting of observational factors that
describe the contextual situation of the
data; and Follow-up actions to non-
respondents of questionnaires. To make a
sound judgment of the content- and
context-specific sport management training
of educators in a diversity of South African
schools, the survey presented a unique
opportunity to obtain data on the
competencies of school sport managers. It is
imperative to define the study population
for the quantitative section of this study
(Babbie & Mouton, 2008:174). CHAPTER 5:
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 335
5.9.2 The Study population In this study, the
total population consists of 24 979 public
and 1086 independent schools, making a
total of 26 065 schools (Department of
Education, 2009:4). 81 The total of 26 065
schools comprised the following: 15 358
primary schools, 5 670 secondary schools,
and 5 037 combined and intermediate
schools. KwaZulu-Natal (6 057, or 23%) and
the Eastern Cape (5 834, or 22%) had the
highest and second highest number of
ordinary schools; while the Northern Cape
(613, or 2%) had the smallest number of
ordinary schools in South Africa. Each
province consists of a number of districts
and each district of a number of areas (cf.
Annexure N, on CD). The reference to study
population in this research refers to the
members of a group of people defined as
respondents to whom the research
measurements refer by reported results,
findings and inferences (Keeves,
1997:427,428; Hittleman & Simon,
2002:91,92; Babbie & Mouton, 2008:174;
Babbie, 2010:199; Rubin & Babbie,
2010:139; 2011:359,361). 5.9.2.1 Selection
and sampling The study population of the
quantitative research consisted of a non-
probability, purposive selection of 108
schools from all nine provinces of South
Africa (cf. Annexure N, on CD). Sampling
refers to the process of selecting a sample
as a small portion or subset from a defined
population with the intention of
representing the particular population
(Black, 2002:48; Gall et al., 2007:166; Hoy,
2010:51; Monette et al., 2011:13; Neuman,
2011:241). However, the purpose of this
research was not to make use of a sample
to generalise the findings to a particular
population, but to develop a sport
management programme for educator
training, in accordance with the diverse
needs of South African schools. A non-
probability sampling procedure was
accordingly selected for the identification of
schools, because the researcher had no
guarantee that these schools were either
representative of the population of schools
(public and independent/private)82 in South
Africa, or that they had an equal chance of
being selected for this particular study. 81
The total number of schools seems to differ
according to the source. The data on
ordinary schools were collected via the 2007
SNAP survey conducted on the 10th school
day, based upon approximately 94% of open
ordinary schools having submitted the
survey forms. The figures provided are final
after the preliminary figures that appeared
in the DoEs report School Realities were
updated (Department of Education, 2009:4).
According to Blaser (2008:341) there were
26 099 public and independent schools in
2007, while in 2009, there were 24 693
public schools and 1 174 private schools,
thus a total of 25 867 (Burger, 2011:149). In
statistics released in February 2012 by the
DBE the number of ordinary schools had
decreased to 25 850. Of these 25 850
schools, 1 397 were independent schools
and 24 453 were ordinary public schools
(Department of Basic Education (DoBE),
2012:3) 82 Cf. also par. 1.2.1.4, p. 4
CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND
METHODOLOGY 336 A purposive sample
was selected from different schools,
because the identified schools were
accepted as the study population (target
population) to determine general trends of
school sport managers together with related
aspects to manage school sport in a
diversity of South African schools
(Fogelman, 2002:99,100; Grinnell & Unrau,
2008:153; Leedy & Ormrod, 2010:206;
Strydom, 2011b:232). According to Welman
et al. (2009:69), purposive sampling is the
most important type of non-probability
sampling. Researchers rely on their
experience, ingenuity and/or previous
research findings to purposely obtain units
of analysis in such a manner that the
sample they obtain may be regarded as
being representative of the relevant
population. The adequacy of this kind of
sampling for quantitative studies depends
on the judgment of the researcher, and is
therefore sometimes even called judgment
sampling. In purposive sampling the
researcher must first think critically about
parameters and then choose the sample
case accordingly. Criteria for the selection of
the participants are therefore, of critical
importance, understood as being dialectical
and symbiotic. The Provincial Education
Specialists: School Sport was involved in the
selection of the schools because of their
knowledge and experience regarding the
sport performance of the schools in their
respective education areas. Based on their
knowledge and experience, these specialists
identified schools within their respective
education areas, and as such, one hundred
and eight (108) schools were purposely
selected on a national basis, according to
criteria related to the diverse context of
South African schools and based on the
schools' sport performances and
achievements. Twelve schools per province
were selected as follows: Eight (8)
secondary schools: boys-only schools (1);
girls only schools (1); ex-model C schools
(1); technical schools (1); independent
schools (1); combined schools83 (1); rural
schools (1); township schools(1). Four (4)
primary schools: ex-model C schools (1);
independent schools (1); rural schools (1);
township schools (1). Schools that met the
following criteria to some extent were
identified by the provincial Education
Specialists: School Sport of the different
provinces: Schools sport accolades;
Representation of learners in regional,
provincial and national sporting codes; 83 A
combined school in this case refers to a
school consisting of learners from both
primary (Grade 1-7) and secondary school
learners (Grade 8-9 or Grade 8-12) CHAPTER
5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
337 The manifestation of the management
of school sport is acknowledged; School
leadership demonstrates an understanding
of the concept of school sport
management; Best practices occur in terms
of the management of school sport;
Qualities to manage school sport are
demonstrated by school sport managers
(educators); The importance of the
management of school sport is
acknowledged by the School Management
team (SMT) and the School Governing Body
(SGB); Proven leading role and involvement
of school sport managers in coaching,
management and officiating in various
positions at school, regional, provincial, and
national level; and Schools that had
implemented a strategic management plan
for the management of school sport. The
list of primary and secondary schools per
province of South Africa (cf. Annexure N, on
CD) was accepted as the sampling frame for
the selection of schools that met the
required criteria for the management of
school sport (Keeves, 1997:428; Cohen et
al., 2007:117; McMillan & Schumacher,
2010:129,141; Monette et al., 2011:136;
Neuman, 2011:246). Five (5) respondents
from each school were purposively selected.
These included the school principal, the
chairperson of the School Governing Body
(SGB), the school sport
manager/coordinator/director, as well as a
female and male sport coach. These
respondents were purposely selected
because of their leadership positions and
their close involvement in school sport. The
researcher identified contact persons at the
different regional offices (cf. Annexure C2,
on CD) who were in a position to assist with
the distribution and collection of
questionnaires from the study population
in particular where access was difficult for
the researcher. This was done by contacting
the identified persons telephonically and by
e mail. Additionally, the provincial Education
Specialists: School Sport of the different
provinces was requested to assist where
possible; and they proved helpful in
providing the researcher with a contact list
and the addresses of schools in their
respective provinces. 5.9.2.2 Return rate84
Irrespective of the sampling method used,
one would have to confront the problem of
nonresponses to the survey. Non-responses
would not matter if one could be certain
that nonrespondents are very similar to
respondents on all relevant variables in that
they would have 84 Cf. par. 5.9.2.2, p. 337
CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND
METHODOLOGY 338 answered the survey
similarly if they had taken part. Welman et
al. (2009:73) further state that non-
responses occur because participants
refused to be involved in the research for
various reasons. Non-responses may thus
occur due to inter-related problems such as:
Refusal to respond; Ineligibility to
respond; Inability to locate participant;
and Participant located, but unable to
make contact. A low response rate limits
the generalisation of the results from the
questionnaires. Based on the perception
that low response rates make the final
sample smaller, meaning less statistical
power to test the hypotheses, a number of
steps to maximize the response rates are
suggested. These include: Keep the
questionnaires sufficiently short and
attractive; Minimise cost and effort to the
respondents; Promise (and provide)
feedback to all the participants in the
study; Provide a reward (book tokens,
vouchers and the like) for completion of
questionnaires; and Follow-up phone calls
and visits to the respondents (cf. Annexure
E2, on CD). For this study, questionnaires
were distributed to public and independent
secondary and primary schools located in
the nine provinces of South Africa. In each
of the provinces, the schools used for the
study, were categorised as either secondary
schools (boys only, girls only, ex-model C
schools, technical schools, independent or
private schools, combined schools, rural
schools and township schools) or primary
(ex-model C schools, independent or private
schools and township schools). 85 The
duration for completion of the questionnaire
took 20 minutes on the average. In total 540
questionnaires were distributed of which
189 (55 schools) were returned. For
purposes of this study these respondents
were regarded as the study population (cf.
par. 5.9.2, p. 335). 85 Cf. par. 1.2.1.4, p. 4
CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND
METHODOLOGY 339 5.9.3 The questionnaire
as measurement instrument Monette et al.
(2011:164) regard a questionnaire as a way
to collect data in survey research that
contains recorded questions that people
respond to directly on the questionnaire
form itself, without the aid of an interviewer.
5.9.3.1 Advantages and disadvantages of
questionnaires Using the questionnaire as
research instrument has definite advantages
(Wilkinson & Birmingham, 2003:39; Best &
Kahn, 2006:313; Muijs, 2011:38,39), but
also has disadvantages (Wilkinson &
Birmingham, 2003:39; Muijs, 2011:38,39),
as will be pointed out below in Table 19.
Table 19: Advantages and disadvantages of
questionnaires ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES It is familiar to users and
allows them to complete the questionnaire
at their own convenience, while allowing
some time to think about their answers.
Questionnaires often provide low response
(return rates), time-consuming follow-up
and data entry. Questionnaires facilitate the
collection of vast amounts of data with
minimal effort. Ease of production and
distribution can result in the collection of far
more data than can be effectively used. The
availability of a number of participants in
one place makes possible economy of time
and expense and provides a high proportion
of useable responses. Questionnaires are
everywhere, competing for participants
time. As research instruments,
questionnaires can be used time and time
again to measure differences between
groups of people. They are thus reliable
data gathering tools. Lack of adequate time
to complete the instrument may result in
the return of superficial data. The person
administering the instrument has the
opportunity to establish rapport, explain the
purpose of the study and elaborate on the
meaning of items that may not be clear.
Lack of personal contact (if the
questionnaire is mailed) may mean that
response rates suffer, necessitating the
expense of follow-up letters, telephone calls
and other means of chasing the participant.
Well- designed questionnaires can allow
relationships between data to be identified.
They are particularly useful to showing
relationships with data that are easily
quantifiable. 5.9.3.2 The design of the
questionnaire Wilkinson and Birmingham
(2003:19) state that when designing
questionnaires, it is easy to overlook
mistakes and ambiguities in question layout
and construction. The design of the
questionnaire affects the response rate (cf.
par. 5.9.2.2, p. 337), the reliability and the
validity of the data collected. Response
rates, validity and reliability can be
maximised by: CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH
DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 340 Careful
design of individual questions; Clear layout
of the questionnaire form; Lucid
explanation of the purpose of the
questionnaire; and Pilot testing. The
questionnaire was designed to be
completed anonymously by the
respondents. A covering letter for the
attention of the respondents was written to
accompany each questionnaire (cf.
Annexure A, on CD), as well a letter to the
school sport director/coordinator/sport
organiser (cf. Annexure, E1, on CD). The
covering letter explained the purpose of the
research; and it contained important
information for the completion of the
questionnaire. In relation to this study, a
questionnaire was constructed in alignment
with the literature overview (cf. Chap. 3, 4
and 5), the theoretical framework (cf. par.
4.9, p. 296; Fig. 15, p. 289), the
semistructured interviews [(qualitative
research (cf. par. 5.8., p 327, 6.2.3, p 371)]
and the research aims. As a result hereof
subsequent quantitative data were built or
developed and thus connected with the
qualitative results (cf. par. 5.7.4.3, p. 326;
5.8.4, p. 330; 6.2.3, p. 372). Because an
already existing or generally accepted
instrument (questionnaire) was not available
in the literature (practice), a related
questionnaire developed by Toh (1997),
validated by Hollander (2000) and refined
by Gerber (2000; 2009) was adapted in
alignment with the theoretical framework
and qualitative findings (cf. par. 6.2.3, p.
372) according to the research aims (cf. par.
1.3.2, p. 12). Besides taking into
consideration the existing questionnaires of
Toh (1997), Hollander (2000) and Gerber
(2000; 2009), the questionnaire was also
developed while taking into consideration
existing questionnaires relevant to sport
management and school sport, e.g.
questionnaires developed by De Villiers
(2003); Camir (2012); Camir, Trudel and
Forneris (2012b; 2012a); Forneris, Camir
and Trudel (2012); and Van der Merwe
(2012:66). The questionnaire items were
developed to include responses of general
information and responses in relation to the
views and experience in accordance with
the diverse needs of South African schools.
Principles accounted for during the
construction of the questionnaire were
(Partington, 2003:100; Best & Kahn,
2006:319,320; Morris, 2006:42; Thitart,
2007; Delport & Roestenburg, 2011b:192):
The principle of economy, which would
enable respondents to provide as much
information as possible in the shortest
possible time and space available; CHAPTER
5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
341 The format of the questionnaire was
developed to have a professional
appearance with a clear, neat and easy to
follow layout; Clear and precise instructions
were provided for the completion of the
questionnaire; The theoretical foundation
(Chapters 2, 3 and 4) and the framework
served as a parameter for the development
of the questionnaire, in accordance with the
research aims and purpose of this study (cf.
par. 1.3.2, p. 12); and Particular and
thorough attention was given to question
formulation. A brief outline of the different
sections of the questionnaire is presented
below: Section A: General information
(Questions 1-13) Questions in this section
aimed to obtain some biographical
information from the respondents as well as
general information about the school
setting. Section B: Demographical
information (Questions 14-26) The
questions in this section were included to
obtain demographical information from the
respondents in order to describe the study
population. These questions only had to be
completed by the principal or his/her
delegate (acting principal, deputy principal
etc.). Section C: Wished for (required)
school sport management competencies
The aim of the questions in section C was to
collect information from respondents on the
importance of school for sport management
competencies required to manage school
sport, in accordance with the diverse needs
of South African schools. Closed-end
questions were grouped in different related
categories, which correlate with the core,
functional and specialist school sport
management competencies (cf. par. 4.8, p.
283). Section D: Needs (Question 1.1-1.25)
The questions in this section were included
to obtain information about the extent of
the specific needs and requirements of
school sport managers, as well the extent of
the utilisation of contemporary approaches.
It is imperative for the researcher to also
take a decision regarding the recording
technique for the responses on the
questionnaire. In other words, the
researcher should be clear in his mind
regarding the particular rating scale to be
utilized for the purpose of evaluation and
quantification of the data. As stated
previously, a Likert scale as category
partition method was adopted as recording
technique for the responses on the
questionnaire to capture the incidence,
potency and intensity as CHAPTER 5:
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 342
to what extent school sport is managed in
the study population of schools. The Likert
rating scale requires an indication of the
extent of the respondents agreement in
relation to a particular question item on a
given continuum. Scholars and researchers
are unanimous in their view that the Likert
rating scale is particularly useful for the
purpose of evaluation of data as part of a
research survey. In this study, a four-point
Likert scale was used to enable scores of
either low or high values to represent the
extent of the knowledge, opinion, judgment
and experience of the respondents with
regard to competencies required to manage
school sport (Keeves, 1997:792-793; De
Vaus, 2002:182; Anderson, 2004:111;
Morris, 2006:42-44; Maree & Pietersen,
2007b:167; Delport & Roestenburg,
2011a:211-212; Neuman, 2011:226).
Usually a five-point-scale is used (Thomas et
al., 2011:208), but a seven-point scale
(Hollander, 2000:142) was seen in the
literature, while Van Vuuren (2008:8,197)
used a four-point scale and De Villiers
(2003:32) used a six-point scale. However,
according to Delport and Roestenburg
(2011b:219), Faul (1995:51-54;276)
recommends five, seven or nine as the ideal
number of responses. The rationale for
using a four-point-scale apart from the
reasons stated earlier in this paragraph, was
also to eliminate any easy (neutral)
responses in case of tiredness, laziness and
time constraints (Muijs, 2011:42; Gravetter
& Forsano, 2012:209). For purposes of this
research, the scale was constructed as in
Table 20. Table 20: Scale for questionnaire
NO EXTENT LITTLE EXTENT SOME EXTENT
GREAT EXTENT 1 2 3 4 5.9.4 Reliability
Salkind (2006:106; 2009:110; 2012:115)
refers to dependable, consistent, stable,
trustworthy, predictable and faithful as
synonyms for reliability. More specifically,
Delport and Roestenburg (2011b:177)
concede that reliability deals with what is
being measured. Muijs (2011:61) states that
whenever researchers want to measure
something, there is some element of error
what he calls measurement error. Reliability
then refers to the extent to which test
scores are free of measurement error.
Although it is rare to have perfect reliability,
Neuman and Kreuger (2003:179,180), as
well as Salkind (2006:108; 2009:112;
2012:118), suggest procedures to increase
the reliability of measures. These can be
summarised as follows: CHAPTER 5:
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 343
Increase the number of items or
observations, i.e. the use of multiple
indicators of a variable; Eliminate items
that are unclear; Increase the level of
measurement; Standardize the conditions
under which the test is taken; Moderate
the degree of difficulty of the instrument;
Minimise the effects of external events;
Standardise instructions; Maintain
consistent scoring procedures; and Use
pre-tests, pilot studies and replications.
Several procedures exist for establishing the
reliability of an instrument, such as the test-
retest and alternate-form methods and the
split-half technique (Gratton & Jones,
2010:92; Delport & Roestenburg,
2011b:177). For the purposes of the current
study, a pilot study was conducted; and the
Cronbach alpha coefficient (Cronbach alpha)
was used to measure the reliability of the
measurement instrument (in this case the
questionnaire). 5.9.4.1 Pilot study86 Bless et
al. (2006:184) define the pilot study as a
small study conducted prior to a larger
piece of research to determine whether the
methodology, sampling, instruments and
analysis are adequate and appropriate.
Janesick (1994:213) concurs that the pilot
test in qualitative research allows the
researcher to make use of the actual
qualitative interviews. According to
Wilkinson and Birmingham (2003:52), the
researcher can begin to identify and correct
imperfections by piloting or testing a
questionnaire with a select few people in
order to establish their clarity. Piloting
further assists in eliminating ambiguous
questions, as well as in generating useful
feedback on the structure and flow of the
intended interview. Welman et al.
(2009:148) and De Vos et al. (2011a:237)
summarise the purpose of the pilot study as
follows: 86A number of different opinions on
and definitions of the pilot study exist. Some
of these address one aspect of the pilot
study, while others are more
comprehensive. Sarantakos (2000:292-294),
for instance, differentiates between aspects
of the pretest and the pilot study. The
former comprises the testing of one or more
aspects of the subject, such as the
questionnaire or the programme for the
analysis of the data (Strydom, 2011a:237).
Although concurring with De Vos, Strydom,
Fouche and Delport (2011a:237) who feel
that the concept pilot study is the more
correct and the more comprehensive, the
concept pilot test and pilot study will be
used interchangeably in the current study
with pilot test referring to the trial run or
pretest of the measurement instrument
specifically as opposed to the
comprehensive conceptualisation of pilot
study as outlined in par. 5.9.4.1 CHAPTER 5:
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 344
To detect possible flaws in the measurement
process (such as ambiguous instructions,
and inadequate time limits); To identify
unclear or ambiguously formulated items. In
such a pilot study the actual questions are
put to the participants and they are then
asked to indicate how they have interpreted
the formulated questions; and An
opportunity for researchers and assistants
to notice non-verbal behaviour (on the part
of participants) that may possibly signify
discomfort or wording of the questions
(Welman et al., 2009:148). The final
questionnaire was discussed with as well as
analysed and approved by the Statistical
Consultation Services (SCS) at the
Potchefstroom Campus of the North-West
University (cf. Annexure R, on CD). 5.9.4.2
The Cronbach alpha coefficient Internal
consistency refers to the degree of
correlation between the various items of a
measuring construct (Sekaran & Bougie,
2010:162). The Cronbach alpha coefficient is
widely used as a reliable procedure to
indicate how well various items are
positively correlated to one another
(Drucker-Godard et al., 2001:203; Sekaran &
Bougie, 2010:162). The Cronbach alpha is
based on the inter-item correlations. If the
items are strongly correlated with each
other, their internal consistency is high and
the alpha coefficient will be close to one. On
the other hand, if the items are poorly
formulated and do not correlate strongly,
the alpha coefficient will be close to zero.
Guidelines for the interpretation of
Cronbachs alpha coefficient have been
suggested and the following seem widely
and generally accepted by researchers:
0.90-high reliability 0.80-moderate
reliability 0.70-low reliability For this
study a statistical method was used to
calculate the Cronbach alpha coefficient ()
to assess the internal consistency of the
various question items of the questionnaire
(Santana, 2009:124; Sas Institute Inc,
2013b:363; 2013a:274). The Cronbach
alpha coefficient was calculated for each
group of items in order to illustrate the
internal consistency of each subsection. It
also served another purpose in indicating
the level of measuring the same construct
validity. In the different subsections the
general coefficient was higher than the
acceptable, which is 0.7 and CHAPTER 5:
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 345
above. The Cronbach apha coefficient for
the different subsections of the
questionnaire follows. Firstly the Cronbach
alpha for section C of the questionnaire is
presented in Table 21. Table 21: Cronbach
Alpha coefficient for the constructs of the
questionnaire in Section C87 CONSTRUCT N
ITEMS Basic Fundamental Management
171 1.1.1-1.1.6;1.1.9;1.1.11;1.1.17 0.93
Strategic Planning 174 1.1.7-
1.1.8;1.1.10;1.1.12-1.1.16 0.92
Fundamental Communication 183 1.1.18-
1.1.23 0.88 Fundamental Governance 175
1.1.25-1.1.34 0.94 General Sport
administration 178 1.2.1-1.2.5 0.92
Information management 180 1.2.6-1.2.11
0.91 Product, promotion marketing 168
2.1.1-2.1.11;2.1.14 0.97 Price, place
marketing 180 2.1.12-2.1.13;2.1.15-2.1.18
0,93 Networking 179 2.2.1-
2.2.2;2.2.4;2.2.6;2.2.10 0.84 Public
relationships 171 2.2.3;2.2.5;2.2.7-
2.2.8;2.2.11- 2.2.15 0.93 Managing human
behaviour 172 2.3.1-2.3.7 0.91 Attract,
retain, develop human resource 169 2.3.8-
2.3.19 0.95 Operational Maintenance and
housekeeping 175 2.4.1-2.4.9 0.94
Operational Facility management 170
2.4.10-2.4.16; 2.4.26;2.4.28 0.96
Operational Risk management 175 2.4.17-
2.4.24 0.95 Operational project and event
management 180 2.4.25;2.4.27;2.4.29-
2.4.31 0.92 Strategic Financial planning 174
2.5.1;2.5.5-2.5.10 0.92 Financial control 180
2.5.2-2.5.4 0.87 Purchasing management
178 2.6.1-2.6.8 0.94 Sport law and legal
management 174 2.7.1-2.7.7 0.94 Health,
wellness and fitness specialist 162 3.1.1-
3.1.16 0.97 Human movement specialist
175 3.1.17-3.1.21 0.90 Sport medical
services specialist 178 3.2.1-3.2.8 0.95 The
alpha coefficient for the subsection of
competencies (question items 1.1-3.2) was
all higher than 0.7 in all items and was thus
accepted for further analyses and
interpretation. Hereupon after the Cronbach
alpha for section D of the questionnaire (cf.
Annexure D, on CD). The Cronbach alpha of
section D is tabled in Table 22. Table 22:
Cronbach Alpha coefficient for the
constructs of the questionnaire in Section D
CONSTRUCT N ITEMS Training, resources
and infrastructure needs 171 1.1-1.11;1.13
0.95 Support needs 175 1.14-1.15;1.17-1.18
0.87 Policy, structures, systems and
processes needs 176 1.19-1.20;1.22-1.24
0.93 Specialists needs 178 1.16;1.21 0.70
87 Not all the information on each
questionnaire was completed in full, hence
the difference in total responses at each
question item CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH
DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 346 From Table
22, it is quite clear that the Cronbach alpha
varied from 0.7 to 0.95 ( 0.7) for section D
of the questionnaire and it was accordingly
included for further analysis and
interpretation (cf. par. 6.3, p. 431). In total it
could thus be said that the different
subsections or constructs of the
questionnaire yielded high scores with the
general Cronbach alpha coefficient ranging
between 0.84 and 0.97 which indicates a
high level of reliability for each construct.
Apart from the importance of the concept
reliability in the context of measurement,
validity is widely considered as important in
the context of measurement to ensure the
success of any study. 5.9.5 Validity Validity
is the primary concern of all researchers
who gather educational data. Validity is the
most important quality of a measured
dependent variable. This is because validity
refers to the extent to which an empirical
measure accurately reflects the concept it is
intended to measure, yielding scores that
reflect the true variables being measured. In
other words, validity refers to the soundness
of the interpretation of scores from a test,
the most important consideration in
measurement. A construct, concept or a
theoretical construction is aimed at
organising and making sense out of our
environment. The main purpose is to use
observed variables to describe a construct
or concept which is an observable variable,
e.g. school sport management and school
sport management competencies (Pedhazur
& Schmelkin, 1991:86; Ary et al., 2006:38-
39;243). Construct validity is the extent to
which a questionnaire or test measures a
theoretical concept or trait (cf. par. 5.9.5, p.
346; 5.9.5.3, p. 348). Confirmatory factor
analysis was used to determine the
construct validity for each subsection of the
questionnaire (cf. par. 5.9.5.3, p. 348; 5.9.6,
p. 350; Annexure D, on CD). To determine
whether a factor analysis may be
appropriate, for the questionnaire, Kaisers
Measure of Sample Adequacy (MSA), was
computed for each confirmatory factor.
Kaisers measure of sample adequacy gives
an indication of the inter correlations among
variables (cf. par. 5.9.6, p. 350). An MSA of
0.5 is an indication that the data are
appropriate for factor analysis. A variance
retained of more than 50% was considered
to make the data reduction sufficient. The
final communalities indicate the range of
low and high contributions that each
variable is making to the specific factor. The
results of the factor analysis are presented
in Table 23 below. CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH
DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 347 Table 23:
Exploratory Factor Analysis ITEMS88 MSA
NUMBER OF FACTORS RETAINED % OF
VARIATION EXPLAINED C1.1.1-1.1.17 0.93 2
67.48 C1.1.18-1.1.24 0.85 1 59.10 C1.1.25-
1.1.34 0.91 1 66.49 C1.2.1-1.2.11 0.92 2
73.46 C2.1.1.-2.1.18- 0.95 2 74.41 C2.2.1-
2.2.14 0.90 2 64.96 C2.3.1-2.3.19 0.93 2
67.51 C2.4.1-2.4.31 0.95 4 75.78 C2.5.1-
2.5.10 0.90 2 72.93 C2.6.1-2.6.8 0.89 1
70.55 C2.7.1-2.7.7 0.93 1 74.62 C3.1.1-
3.1.21 0.94 2 73.66 C3.2.1-3.2.8 0.94 1
76.15 D1.1-1.25 0.94 3 72.07 From Table 23
it is evident from the initial exploratory
factor analysis, that the factors retained
from the different sub sections of the
questionnaire varied from one to four
factors retained. The factors retained
explain the percentage of variation in this
situation and yielded different MSA scores.
The MSA for the different sub sections of
section of the questionnaire varied between
0.85 and 0.95, while for the subsections of
section D of the questionnaire, the MSA
score was 0.94, which is an indication that
the data were appropriate for data analysis.
All the factor analyses were therefore
trustworthy and construct validity on all
constructs was confirmed. The significance
of the above Confirmatory factor analysis is
the fact that it demonstrates the high level
of construct validity of question items in
being homogenous in relation to each other.
5.9.5.1 Internal validity Internal validity is
crucial to experimental research designs;
and it may be obtained by using at least two
groups that are equal in respect of both the
dependent variable and all nuisance
variables. Cozby (2009:86) believes that the
internal validity of a research study is the
extent to which its design allows the
researcher to draw accurate conclusions
about cause-and-effect relationships. To
ensure the internal validity of research, the
researcher needs to attempt to eliminate
any other possible explanations for the
results observed (Marczyk et al., 2005:159;
Devlin, 2006:76; Cozby, 2009:86). 88 Cf.
Questionnaire, Annexure B on CD CHAPTER
5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
348 5.9.5.2 External validity If a study lacks
external validity, then one is not confident
that the findings can be applied beyond the
narrow confines of the study. One especially
common threat to external validity is the
lack of random selection. When the sample
does not reasonably represent the
population, external validity is lacking
(Suter, 1998:132). Shadish, Cook and
Campbell (2002:20-24;39;55;86-92;346-
348;353-371;466-473) suggest four areas of
doubt concerning the ability to generalize
findings: The researchers inability to
conceptualize performance indicators, so
that other researchers can replicate the
experiment; The researchers inability to
ensure that the experimental and control
groups are representative of larger
populations; The researchers inability to
be confident that the operationalized
variables in the experimental setting can
be replicated in real-life situations; and The
researchers inability to be certain that
internal validity variables such as history,
maturation, pre-test sensation, test
reliability and selection (Adams et al.,
2007:237-238; Bordens & Abbott, 2011:116-
117) will not detrimentally affect external
validity. 5.9.5.3 Measurement validities
Neuman (2011:211) describes measurement
validity as how well an empirical indicator
and the conceptual definition of the
construct that the indicator is supposed to
measure fit together. Although there are
many types of validity, authors are
generally in agreement that there are a few
common techniques used to assess the
validity of a measuring instrument. With
regard to content validity, Smit (1991:56)
distinguishes three types of content validity,
namely face validity, 89 sample validity and
factorial validity. Face validity, according to
Iacobucci and Churchill (2010:257), refers to
the relationship (similarities/correlation)
between the researchers description of
concepts and his/her description of the
categories measured. In the light of the
purpose of the current research (cf. par. 89
The terms face validity and content validity
are often used interchangeably in research
literature, although some methodologists
argue that they should not be thought of as
synonymous. They claim that face validity is
not technically a form of validation, since it
does not refer to what an instrument
actually measures, but rather to what it
appears to measure (i.e. it appears
relevant to those who will complete or
administer it). Nevertheless face validity is a
desirable characteristic of a measuring
instrument. Without it, we may encounter
resistance on the part of respondents, which
may in turn adversely affect the results
obtained. Consequently, it is important to
structure an instrument so that it not only
measures the attributes under consideration
accurately, but also appears to be a
relevant measure of these attributes. So
whereas Smit (1991:56), considers face
validity as a sub type of content validity, are
Delport and Van Roestenburg (2011b:173)
and Neuman (2011:212-213), to name but a
few, of the opinion that content and face
validity should be seen as separate
categories or types of validity underlying
measurement. I therefore agree with the
classification scheme of Delport and Van
Roestenburg (2011b:173) and Neuman
(2011:212- 213) to categorise validities
underlying measurement as: content, face,
criterion and construct validity CHAPTER 5:
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 349
1.3.2, p. 12), face validity thus determines if
a questionnaire after a superficial (on the
surface/on the face of it) assessment, looks
valid at first glance (the face of it) for a
respondent (person) who has to complete
the questionnaire. That is to say, that face
validity does not refer to what items of a
questionnaire really measure, but rather
what the researcher wants it to measure at
first glance. In other words, each question or
item on the measurement instrument should
have a logical link with an objective.
Broadly, the establishment of the referred to
link, is called face validity (Kumar,
2011:180). Sample validity (logical) of
measuring instrument as for instance a
questionnaire on the other hand, is
grounded on a representative sample of the
content subjacent to the concept about
which information is obtained from. In this
regard Guion (1965:124) alleges that
content validity is the degree to which the
total variance of the sample (the actual
questionnaire) is related to the variance in
the total possible population of tasks or
items. Lastly, the factorial validity of a
measuring instrument (questionnaire) refers
to the loading of the questionnaire with a
general factor in other words, the relation
(correlation) which exists between the
questionnaire and a common factor, as
measured by means of the questionnaire
(Smit, 1991:56). Churchill and Lacobucci
(2005:90,394,413); Devlin (2006:72), as
well as Gravetter and Forzano
(2012:381,391) implicitly purport, that there
is a relation (correlation) between the
questionnaire and a common factor which is
measured by means of the questionnaire.
Two other forms of validity are construct
validity and criterion validity. It has been the
purpose to determine the perceptions of
respondents on the importance of sport
management competencies in developing a
sport management programme for educator
training, which would enable sport
managers to manage school sport in
accordance with the diverse needs of South
African schools. Construct validity bears
relation to assumptions underpinned by
theory relevant to the concept. In an
endeavour to ensure construct validity for
the current study, the questionnaire items
were developed in alignment with the
theoretical underpinnings concerning school
sport management (cf. par. 4.8, p. 283;
6.3.2, p. 454). Face validity was optimised
by the conduct of a pilot test to verify the
relevance and representativeness of the
various items to the intended setting (Bush,
2002:61; Roberts et al., 2006:43). Criterion
validity is seen as the ability of a measure to
correlate with other standard measures of
similar constructs or established measures.
Given the fact that no other standard
measure of similar constructs or established
criteria was available, criterion validity was
not established. Subsequently, it is in line
with the research design adopted for this
research (cf. par. 5.7.4.2, p. 325). The
external validity was optimised by the
selection of schools where sport is managed
according to criteria relevant to the research
aims (cf. par. 1.3, p.12; 5.9.5.2, p. 348).
Internal validity was ensured by means of a
substantial theoretical framework, initial
qualitative data and an adapted existing
questionnaire. CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH
DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 350 5.9.6
Statistical analysis Descriptive statistical
techniques were applied to organise,
analyse and interpret the quantitative data.
Measurements were recorded as scores
indicated by a four-point Likert scale with a
range from a low to a high level of the
variable of interest (cf. par. 5.9.3.2. p. 339;
Annexure D, on CD). Measurements of
central tendency were applied to describe
the average of selected sets of scores to
obtain indications of typical tendencies and
outliers. Data from the questionnaire (cf.
Annexure, D, on CD) were statistically
interpreted, analysed in collaboration with
the Statistical Consultation Services of the
North-West University, Potchefstroom
Campus. The gathered data from the
questionnaire were statistically converted
by means of the SAS (Sas Institute Inc,
2010; 2011) computer software
programmes to obtain related scores for the
purpose of quantitative interpretation (cf.
par. 6.3., p. 429). A two-stage statistical
procedure was followed: In the initial stage
an exploratory factor analysis was done on
all the items of Section C and D of the
questionnaire (cf. Annexure D, on CD) as a
means of data reduction and to ensure
construct validity. The factors retained by
these factor analyses were then named and
constructed; the value of a factor was
defined by taking the mean of all the items
comprising each construct Thereafter the
Cronbach alpha coefficient was calculated to
ensure and determine the reliability of each
new defined construct of the various
subsections of the questionnaire (cf. par.
5.9.4.2, p. 344). To determine whether a
factor analysis may be appropriate, Kaisers
Measure of Sample Adequacy (MSA), which
gives an indication of the inter-correlations
among variables, were computed
(Tabachnick & Fidell, 2012:191) for each
confirmatory factor. Guidelines according to
Hair, Black, Babin and Anderson
(2010:9;14;20;90-150) were used to confirm
that the MSAs were appropriate (cf. par.
6.3.2, p. 454). Secondly, the statistical
procedure involved the use of descriptive
statistics in graphical and numerical ways
to present and analyse the gathered data of
this research (cf. par. 6.3, p. 426). Two-way
frequency tables or cross tabulations were
used to explore response patterns of
different subgroups (Pietersen & Maree,
2007:185). Central tendency measures (e.g.
mean, frequencies and ranking) were
applied to describe the distribution of
responses and to identify characteristic
values. The spread of distribution (e.g.
standard deviation) was described by
numerical variances to the extent to which
data measures tend to cluster close
together or are widely spread over the
range of values (Pietersen & Maree,
2007:188). Individual or raw scores which
point to a relative distribution were also
employed to indicate how far the individual
score is either below or above the midpoint
of a four-point Likert scale, namely 2.5.
CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND
METHODOLOGY 351 The preceding
descriptions of par. 5.9 provide an
exposition of the quantitative component of
the empirical section of the research. In the
next section ethical considerations and
ethical aspects relevant to this research are
dealt with. 5.10 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
AND ASPECTS Ethics is a philosophical term
derived from the Greek word ethos,
meaning character or custom and connotes
a social code that conveys moral integrity
and consistent values (Partington, 2003:22).
More in relation to the ethics of science,
Mouton (2001:238) is of the opinion that the
ethics of science concerns what is wrong
and what is right when conducting research.
To this end all researchers, regardless of
research designs, sampling, techniques and
choice of methods, are subjected to ethical
considerations (Gratton & Jones, 2010:121).
The following ethical aspects were adhered
to in this research: A detailed, prescribed
application was submitted to the Research
Ethics Committee of the North-West
University for approval to conduct the
research. Approval was granted (cf.
Annexure Q, on CD); Superintendent
Generals of the Department of Basic
Education from six provinces granted their
consent and approval for the research in
schools (cf. Annexure P, on CD).
Superintendent Generals from three
provinces have failed to date to respond.
This letter was presented to the respondents
with the questionnaires to encourage their
participation in the research. Information
was also provided to the participants
concerning the nature of the study,
participation requirements (e.g. activities
and duration), confidentiality and contact
information of the researcher; Permission
was obtained from the provincial
Departments

Basic Education, different district offices and the selected schools; Consent
and approval for the research in selected HEIs by the appropriate university
authorities were granted (cf. Annexure F, on CD); Consent, permission and
approval for the research were obtained from the principal of each selected
school (cf. Annexure E, on CD); Informed consent was obtained from
participants and respondents (cf. Annexure G,H, I,J, L on CD; Participants
and respondents were not subjected to any risk of unusual stress,
embarrassment or loss of self-esteem; The researcher ensured that
participants and respondents would remain anonymous; CHAPTER 5:
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 352 The right to professional
privacy and confidentiality of information obtained was guaranteed by a
written statement in the cover letter (cf. Annexure D, E on CD; and The
research was conducted in accordance with the ethical requirement to report
the findings in a comprehensive and honest way. Ethical issues and
considerations have mainly to do with permission to carry out the research,
the participation of respondents, the community and public as well as the
process employed to analyse data (Keeves, 1997:257-260; Busher, 2002:81).
Caution was taken to avoid any harm to participants in the light of sensitivity
of the research theme concerning responses about the sport management
competencies required by school sport managers to manage school sport and
which should thus inform a sport management programme for educator
training in accordance with the diverse needs of South African schools. 5.11
ADMINISTRATIVE PROCEDURES Permission to conduct the research in a
purposive sample of schools in all nine provinces of South Africa was obtained
by the Superintendent General of the Department of Basic Education from all
nine provinces (cf. Annexure C1, on CD).. Only six provinces (cf. par. 5.10, p.
351; Annexure, P, on CD) responded positively and gave their written
consent. An organised administrative system was developed for the
completion and filing of questionnaires and interview data. A covering letter
(cf. Annexure E, on CD) with clear guidelines and instructions was also
provided with each questionnaire. The researcher collected questionnaires
from schools after completion by the respondents (cf. par. 5.9.2.2, p. 337),
while the posted questionnaires were collected from the post office. Finally,
arrangements were also finalised with the Statistical Consultative Service of
the North-West University (Potchefstroom Campus) for statistically processing
the gathered data. 5.12 SYNOPSIS In this chapter the research design and
methodology were set out. A specific, related research design was identified
to ensure the accomplishment of the set aims for this study, namely to
determine the needs and competencies required by educators to manage
school sport effectively in accordance with the diverse needs of South African
schools (cf. par. 1.3.2, p. 12, research aim 4). In conclusion, it may be stated
that the research design and related methodologies were developed with the
aim of obtaining reliable and valid data to develop a sport management
programme for educator training in accordance with the diverse needs of
South African schools. Ultimately, this would help current and prospective
school sport managers to deal with the demands of managing sport in public
and independent (private) primary and secondary schools. CHAPTER 5:
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 353 In Chapter Six, the data from
the qualitative and quantitative research are presented, analysed, described
and interpreted in a systematic manner to provide a methodological structure
for the unfolding of the empirical section of this research to enable the
researcher to develop a sport management programme for educator training
in the diverse South African context (cf. par. 1.3.2, p. 12, research aim 5; 7.5,
p. 547) after the programme design process has been discussed in Chapter
Seven. Firstly the analysis and interpretation of the qualitative data are
looked at.