SSOCIATION

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 BLOCK
MBONSH
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NUAL

a%
P u a l i t y
CONCRETE
MANUFACTURERS
ASSOClAl!ON
c a s t in consrata
omp piled and coedited by: Gunter R Koch (MasonryConsultant)
Edited by: M ~ k e
Arndt (Consulting Engineer)
Robert Low (BSc MBA)
Steve Crosswell (PR Eng. PPC Cement)
Incorporating some masonry requirements
of the NHBRC Home Building Manual
Introduction

Illustrated block laying technique

Planning guides for modular construction 21

..
Modular planning
Modular dimensions
22 - 24
26 - 27

-
Block types and modular dimensions
Design example of 40 m' house
28 - 29
30

Footings & foundations

-
Layout & details
Corners
.Wall dimensions
Intersecting wails
..
Lintels & reveals
Copings & piers
Closing cavities
F i r e protection of steel columns
Control joints
Reinforcing of blockwork

Services in blockwork

Roof & floor fixing details

Partition walls under floor slabs

Trusses & rafters

140 m m modular walling system

Exteriorlinterior skim plaster

Key technical information 75

Building hints 76
77 - 78
.Lime in masonry construction
Characteristic compressive strength info 79 - 80

Definitions
1 INTRODUCTION
This manual is a further contribution bythe Concrete ManufacturersAssociation
(CMA) of South Africa to the building industry to improve understanding of
principles of modular masonry construction, and specifically for implementationof
and maintaining good building practices.

Over the years the CMA has produced many publications on the use of modular
concrete masonry, this manual focuses on the on-site detailing and use of
modular concrete masonry.

The SANS 1215 specification introducing modular masonry standards was

published in 1984. Since 1978 the use of modular concrete masonry construc-
tion systems has spread throughout South Africa to housing, industrial and
commercial applications. The majority of the details in this publication are
based on internationally accepted modular design standards. Assistance for
CAD design is also provided by the CMA publications: Detailing of Concrete
Masonry, Hollow Units for Single & Cavity Walling. Home builders need also
comply with the National Home Builders Registration Council (NHBRC) speci-
fications contained in their manuals.

A ~rereuuisitefor the successful use of modular masonrv is the knowledae of

construkion details by architects, engineers and builders for on-site application.
The obiective of this manual to ~ r o v i d e
some ~racticalrecommendations as to
standakd details that should be'used during cbnstruction.

The main aim of this manual is therefore to assist builders in familiarising

themselves with the required details when tendering, thereafter guiding artisans
and learner artisans to build and finally implement standard specified details
correctly during construction. Such details can be printed out in A4 format
for inclusion by the Bills of Quantities for assisting in tendering and for on-site
application as part of further training of artisans and learners.

One of the recurring problems found in South Africa with modular masonry
construction are, firstly: the choice of mortar and plaster aggregates, which
differ from region to region in South Africa and require local knowledge and
experience; secondly, the need for correct proportioning and mixing proce-
dures, application and curing of mortars and plasters; thirdly, an understanding
of and detailing for structural movement with correct bed joint and other walling
reinforcement.
ILLUSTRATED
MODULAR
BLOCK USAGE
IN P-ICE
SI hicolas Church of England scnool in Srevenage uses concrete bocks both ~nternallyano externally. Construnion is
two eaves of 100 mm blocks witn outer leaf of sol'd bocks an0 inner leaf of hollow b.ocks. A I th's olockwork is efr witn
exposed natural finish.
1 S e n ~ n gout t o block modules. 2. Block module spaclng

3 P o s ~ t ~ o n ~f ~nrgs corner
t block 4 Tapp~ngthe block lnto p o s ~ t ~ o n

7 Place block agalnst prevlous unit. 8 Tap into position.

 10. Check alignmerit w ~ t hstra~ghtedge.

11. Check level. 12. Mortar for closing block.

13 Lay closlng block 14 Face shell mortar b e d d ~ n g

15. Checkcourse height. 16. Check level

17. Lay blocks to mason's line. 18. Check corner alignment.

19. Re-fill mortar joints. 20. Tool horizontal joints.

21. Tool vertical joints. 22. Remove excess mortar burrs.

First the corners of the wall should be built (23-26) and raised three blocks higher than the walls. Regularly use a
gauge rod t o check alignment, coursing height, level and plumb. When building corners each course should be
stepped back half a block. When laying between corners a line should be stretched from corner to corner for each
course to be laid t o this line. Blocks can be levelled and aligned by tapping while rnortar is st111soft.
Usually the first course 1s l a ~ don a full bed of rnortar, unless otherwise specified. Note the use of 10 m m plastlc
tubing installed in bed joint and which w ~ lbel bent up into cavity to form the weep holes. The first course is levelled
and then aligned.
It is essential that the first course is laid w i t h great accuracy as this will determine the quality of the whole job.
After a few blocks have been laid (with mortar) a level should be used as a straight edge to ensure correct alignment.
Use of a timbe r lath supported on t w o strong strings t o ensure that cavlty
1s kept clear of m o rtar droppings. (SANS 021).

Block laying proceeds with a timber

lath in the cavity supported by metal

any mortar w h ~ c hmay have dropped down the cavlty

Portable carborundum saw used to cut chases In blockwork after erec- F~xlngs are mounted by drllllng,
tlon of wall Timber batten should be f~xedto wall to ensure that chase 1s plugg~ng and screwtng lnto the
true walls or mortar beds of completed
blockwork
A gu~debatten must be na~ledlnto
the blockwork as a gu~defor a cut
tlng wheel

When a movement control joint is

cut into a completed wall, ensure
that the joint is properly cleaned
out, freeing it from debris, to allow
free movement of the wall sections
( 36).

Anchor bolts can be installed in in-

situ concrete which fills either lintel
blocks, bond beam blocks, hollow
blocks or cellular blocks (37).

and scaffold board splashing. At the end of each day or when workstops,
the top exposed bed of the wall should be protected against heavy rain-
fall.
.

-
Allow any mortar sticking to the blockwork to dry
before removal by trowel or brush. Remove any mor-
tar then still remaining by scrubbing with small piece
of block.
Sealing of control joints must be against a backing cord
strip so that the width to depth ratio of the particular
sealant will result in satisfacton/ service performance.

Holes left by nails or line pins should be filled using fresh mortar. Particular
care should be taken to prevent mortar smearing the block surface.
It is essentialto protect face units from being stained during building opera-
tions. Stains and the like should not be removed with an acid wash without
consultation. Mortar droppings that adhere to the block face should be
rubbed down using a small piece of block. Solidified tar or bitumen should
be picked off prior to rubbing down. Technical advice should be sought for
any other staining problems.
 AS the work proceeds, mortar joints on the face of the wall shall be com-
pacted to give a... joint (specifier to specify shape ofjoint). Tooling shall be
delayed until the mortar has stiffened slightly
Figure 1
Joint profiles;for ~~~i~~
units The type of finish selected depends on the use of the wall and on the ap-
pearance desired. A flush joint is made by cutting off the excess mortar
with a trowel after the unit is laid. A raked joint is made by raking out
the mortar to a uniform depth after the unit has been laid. Both these
joints have an inherent disadvantage in that the mortar is not compacted
or pressed into place; this facilitates moisture penetration. Raked joints
also reduce strength and tend to form water traps which may cause water
penetration and efflorescence.
For these reasons, the concave joint or V joint is preferred for exterior
work. Such joints are formed by tooling with a convex or a V-shaped jointer
or with the point of a trowel.
Joints should be tooled when the mortar has become thumbprint hard.
The jointing tool s h o ~ l dbe s1ignt.y larger than the tnicdness of ihe mortar
l0'nt so that complete conract can oe made along the edges of the ~ n i t s .
Delayed tooling of the joints improves the i m p e r m e a b i ~ i ~the
o f mortar.

Although blockwork is primarilv structural. the decorative oualities of

blockwork can also be put to use very effectively internally and &ernally.
Numerous decorative facing blocks may be available.
Dust and loose material should be removed by brushing

Plaster qual~tyblockwork does not requlre a bondrng coat

asterin and
R e n d e I& Forsmooth htgh stress u n ~ t s
a propr~etaryb o n d ~ n gagent or a st~ppleplas
ter, may be used on blockwork to form a flrm bond between the masonry
unit and the scratch coat' Refer to SANS 2001 EM1 whlch deals wtth cor
rect and acceptable practlce
The overall th~cknessof the plaster or rendertng should be 6 8 m m for a
f ~ r scoat
t scratch course and 4 6 m m for the f ~ n t s h ~ ncoat
g whlch can read
~ l be
y accommodated w ~ t h ~ the
n 300 m m module

If ceramlc tiles are to be fixed directly to the blockwork a flex~bleadhes~ve

should be used and applied approximately 3 - 6 m m thlck. Spacer lugs
should be used to ensure a joint of at least 2 m m between each tlle. block^
work should be allowed to dry out for at least 4 weeks, prior to fixing the
tiles.
For t i l ~ n gno back~ngcoat should be required provided that the usual
standards for f a ~ rface masonry are adhered to. Movement jolnts in the
t ~ l i n gshould coinc~dewith control joints in the blockwork.

Dense concrete masonry unlts provide an excellent base for palnts. Regard-
Painting less of the type of coatlng used, the blocksurface should be free of d ~ r tdust,
,
grease, 011, and mortar efflorescence before application of paint.
Chlorinated rubber, cement, andlor lime based palnts are resistant to alkal~s,
and are suitable for direct applicat~onto concrete blocks.
Paints with an 011med~umshould not be applied to concrete blocks without an
efficient alkali-res~stantundercoat.
A key can be produced on dense,
smooth matured concrete by using
a stipple coat of cement and sand
mixed with commercial bonding
fluid. Refer to SANS 2001-EM1 and
SANS 10145 Concrete Masonry
Construction/ZOOO.
.--;
FOR MODULAR CONSTRUCTION
We recommend that Concrete Masonry should be laid in accordance with Standard Specification
It is essential, in order to eliminate or keep cutting to a minimum, that consideration is given to senlng out of
blockwork at the initial planning stage. Wherever possible, walls should be planned on a 200mm module both
horizontally and vertically in order to use modular units. The details below show some of the probiems that can
arise when modular planning is not done first.

Figure 2
Use only full or half block units
(based upon co-ordinating (nominal)
size of 400mm x 200mm units)
A = 1400mm
B = 800 m m
C = 1 000 m m
D = 1 400 m m lwindowsl
E = 2 200 m m ldoorsl

Figure 3
Standard units indicate masonry
that would have to be cut
A = 1 100 m m
B = 850 m m
C = 900 m m
D = 1 500 m m
E = 2 100 m m

It is standard practice to specity the length and height of wall panels. (The actual dimensions are lOmm less
(SANS 993-1972(2002)Modularco-ordination i n building). The standard mortar joint thickness is 10mm. It is not
good building practice to vary joint thickness more than 3 m m from this amount.
Windowldoorlother openings are 10 mm larger than the co-ordinating (standard) dimensions. Window and door
frames are manufactured to fit a standard nominal dimension plus 10 mm.
When it is not possible to use the 200 m m module, the introduction of 'I, or3/&length andlor half he~ghtunits may
be satisfactory on a particular section of wall. Alternatively, ifthe length does not suit a 100 mm module, it is prefer-
able to introduce cut blocks in the centre of the panel rather than at one end (see figures 22 and 23 on page 39).
 >?., , Masonry units of dissimilar materii Accumulat~onsof mortar droppings
.." als shall not be built into the same in the cavity should be prevented
leaf unless separated by a horizontal by using laths, drawholes, fine sand
damp-proof course or a vertical control andlorthick rooe. Anv mortar which
joint. aoes fa I on wa I tles or cavlty trays
shoulo be remove0 and tne bottom
Blocks should normally be laid t o
of tne cavlty shou o be c carca da. v
stretcher bond, le. w ~ t hstaggered
through temporary openings.
vert~caljoints. Stretcher or running
bond, with blocks in each course Both leaves of a cavity wall should
overlapping those in the course below be raised at the same time, but not
by half a block length, yield the best greater than eight block courses, to
results In terms of wall strength. avoid sagging of blockwork.
Various bonding patterns are shown in Wall-ties should be bedded to a
fiaures 4-9. For all normal construction minimum depth of 50 m m in each
the srrctcncr bono pancrn snoulo oc leaf and have a slight fall to the out-
L S C ~For oecoratlve nno n o n - s t r ~ c t ~ r aer leaf to direct any moisture away
o ockworr the otner Dona ng patterns from the internal leaf.
may be used, but, notethat the horizon-
See figure 56 & 57 for positioning of
tal joints should be reinforced.
wall-ties in a cavitv wall.

.#
Types of bonding
---- . Block walls should be bonded in the
convent~onalmanner (see fluure 4)
Wnen o,~lo~ng a cav ty wal 11 s es
naltarna with hlnek sent d tndt tnc cave s not or oqca
oy any malPr a vrn r h rodlo transm t
, water from tne externa to tne nrerna
eat

Figure 6 Quarter bond

Figure 8 Ashlar bond Figure 9 Stretcher bond w ~ t hstack bonded corner pler
LAYOUT IN PLAN FOR MODULAR DESIGN 81CONSTRUCTION
with reference to Figures details in this manual
 b a
PLAN AND SECTION WITH MODULAR DIMENSIONS AND WALL PIER OPTIONS

LINTEL AND BEAM BLOCKS

190 lintel 190

split face lintel (SF)
90 lintel 140 lintel

Standard complementary blocks are often available from leading manufacturers.

190 bond block
140 bond block

Also available: 90 plain & 140SF & 90 SF. Bond blocks for long span or double high lintel construction.
I
 PLAN AND SECTION LAYOUT WITH CONVENTIONAL CAVITY

240

reinforced piers
as 'wall stiffeners'
SECTION

240

plit
ick

SECTION

SILL, COPING AND PIER BLOCKS COLUMN BLOCK

I - I

190 sill road edging block 190 sill - metal 140 sill
Standard types of masonry units with modular dimensions
(Note Check w ~ t hyour suppl~erfor ava~labll~ty
of d~fferentunlts)
 South African National Standards (SANS)
modular dimensional specification for masonry units

These tables reflect the dimensions and work sizes for concrete masonry units, and for glass blocks, which are
used in the design and construction of buildings.
The basic principles of and design rules for modular co-ordination in building are laid down in SANS 993.

The co-ordination dimensions of a masonry unit for preparing drawings for modular structures are in table 1.

NOMINAL DESIGN DIMENSIONS of a M

including mortar joints 110 mml
Length, mm Width, mm

The masonry units (page 281 are in accordance with the basic principles of modular construction.
AN EXAMPLE OF A STANDARD MODULAR 40 M2ECONOMIC HOUSE
 FOUNDATIONS
A foundation in residential construction may consist of a footing, wall,
siab, pile or pier, or combination of two or more of these elements. Resi-
dential foundation systems are most often constructed of concrete or con-
crete masonry.
Given that many foundations are constructed with concrete masonry,
builders should be familiar with foundation details using concrete mason-
ry. Refer to SANS 2001 CM2 dealing with strip footings, pad footings and
slab-on-ground foundations for masonry walling. NHBRC requires that a
competent person make a geotechnical assessment of a site which will
determine the sizes of footings and foundations.

Figure 10: Foundation footing wall and slab-on-grade. Foundation footing

wall and slab on grade construction uses a concrete floor that is supported by
the earth beneath it and isolated from the concrete masonry walls. The stem
walls are erected first and the siab poured afterward.
The slab may also be supported by the concrete masonry footing at the
perimeter and by the fill beneath.The concrete masonryfooting wall iscon-
structed to form a continuous ledae on which the slab's edaes bear. The
detail shown in figure 10, alternative 1, is used when differential settlement
at theslabedge(belweenthefoundationandslabl may bea problem.Figure1,Al-
ternative 2.3 and 4 may be used if little or no differential settlement between
the slab and the foundation is expected. All alternativesare acceptable.
Figure 11: Hollow core slabs placed onto wall. Depending on the length of
Figure 10 the hollow core slab and designed loading factor, the hollow core slab can
Alternative foundation footing be self supporting.
walls with slab on grade

isolation joint

infill concrete

600 600

Alternative 1 Alternative 2
 Designerstypically specify an isolation joint between the slab and the wall
to allow the slab to shrink or expand independent of the wall. Asphalt-
impregnated fibre sheathing is one commonly used isolation joint mate-
rial. If the slab is not allowed to move independently, cracking may occur
perpendicular to the wall. An isolation joint is suggested as a best practice
simply because it may make any shrinkable cracks less evident and thus
Figure 11 reduce customer dissatisfaction. It can also serve as a screed mark for
maintaining a level finished slab surface.
A = footing 600 x 250
B = modular 190 blocks A monolithic slab on grade is also commonly referred to as a thickened-
edge slab. It consists of a concrete floor and concrete foundation placed at
B' = modular blocks the same time to form a monolithic footing and slab. Refer to figure 11 for
190;140;or 90-60-90or a typical monolithic slab-on-grade.
90-110-90
C = thickened slab Regardless of the perimeter foundation type, slabs may be cast thicker un-
der interior load-bearing walls to help support the loads from above. The
D = 90160190cavity wall expected distributed load should be calculated by the engineer and shown
E = raft foundation slab on the drawings. Thus, the location of the interior masonry walls must
F = dpc under dab turned up at end be known so that preparations for thickened interior slab footings can be
G = '1.90 block = I90 x 90 x 190) made. Refer to figure 11 for some recommended methods for supporting
interior masonry walls.

Alternative 3 Alternative 4
 concrete slab

-
Figure 12
Monolithic slab on grade (thickened-edge slab).

Figure 13
Interior bearing wall foundation.

The most common footings in residential construction is the continuous

strip footing.
Some general rules for sizing a residential concrete footing follow:
The standard footing thickness is one-third the total footing width

. 600 x 250 mm. unless s~ecifiedotherwise.

The footing width for internal wall suppons for single storey buildings
Droien a minimum of 50 m m from both sides of the wall, but need not
greater than the footing thickness (250 mml. See Alternative 2 on this
page.
The footing is commonly unreinforced except when located in high-wind or
seismic areas, when stepped footing are used due t o sloped sites, or when
sites have difficult soil conditions.
 Regional climatic conditions may require basement walls to be damp
proofed from the top of the footing to the finished grade. In areas where a
high water table or other severe soil-water conditions are known to exist,
exterior foundation walls enclosing habitable or storage space should be
waterproofed with a double bitumen coat applied from the top to the foot-
ing as specified and approved by a competent person.
A plastic sheet should be placed over the soil and covered with a few inch-
es of soil or gravel to reduce moisture problems. In cases where there is
- -
a hiah around water level. the most imoortant feature is good foundation
r figure 1'4 for recommendations regarding
and surface drainage. ~ e f e to
moisture and water control in below-grade foundations.

Figure 14
Moisture and water control
measures.
A E footing
B = drain t o daylight or sump
C = gravel
D = blockwork
E = porous backfill
F = topsoil
G = cellar wall slab
H = infill concrete Ground level
I = plastered wall
J = steel mesh if required
K I plastic sheet as ground barrier
if required
L = dpc under ground slab
M =concrete slab on grade

Damp proof course (dpc) can also be placed on top ofthe gravel, and begin
at the bottom of the first block course. The gravel layer should be topped
with a thin layer of mortar to prevent puncturing of the damp course.
ON-SITE
I CORNER DETAILS
Right angle (90') corners for 90 and At comers where a fair face is required bonding is achieved naturally.
140 blockwork
E:,"Eoz, " d ~ ~ " , " , ~ o " , . ~For"140
, ~mm
~ wide units, either a mod-
unhsor,,,length blocks,asshown infig- ular corner block is required or alter-
natively a 140 stretcher block can be
ures l l to inclusive,should he Used,
used of the size 340 mm by 200 mm
With 190 mm wide units, block high and 140 mm wide.

Figure 15
Using standard corner blocks

Figures 16 and 17
Plan views on alternate course using
corner blocks
A = 90mm
B = 110 mm
C = 90mm

Figure 18
Using 90 3/, length blocks
Wall panel lengths will not be on the
200 mm module unless this detail is
used at either end of the panel.

Figures 19 and 20
Plan views on alternate courses using
3/4 length blocks in cavity walling

Az90mm
B = IlOmm
C = 90mm
Right angle 19O01corners used for 90
and 140 blocks

Figure 21a and b

Wall panel lengths will not beon the
200 mm module unless this detail is
used at both ends of the panel.

Actual block dimensions:

A = 140 m m or 90 m m blocks
B = 290L x SOW x 190H m m
C = 340L x 140W x 190H m m
B & C are alternate courses C
Figure 21a

ra rd

C I

l.4 I4
Figure 21b Same detail for 90 and 140 straight corner units

Figure 22 and 23
For non-modular wall lengths, mid-
panel details can be used.
E i e r 3/, blocks or custom made or cut
units should be used in mid panel,
depending on requirements.
 Masonry walls should be set out and bulk to the d~mens~ons ~nd~cated.
makrng due allowance for panel he~ghtsand lengths belng lOmm less
than the co-ord~nat~ng d~mens~ons All perpends, corner unlts, and jambs
should be kept true and square and bed jolnts levelled as the work pro-
ceeds. Normally units are laid in half (running) bond and wal s should be
built up evenly. Hollow and Solid blocks should be laid with the smaller
core aperture at the top to provide the maximum bed area for the mortar.
Solid blocks may have up to 25% cores and thus have broader shell thick-
ness.

Concrete Masonry units should be stacked on site free from contact with
the bare around and ~rotectedbv covers from direct rainfall and dirt caused
by normal site activities. offloading of pallets by crane is preferred to off-
loading by hand. Thls is to min'mise breakages by rough handling.

~lternativewall constructions within

a 300 m m nominal dimension is il-
lustrated for various loading require-
ments.

Figure 24
2 leaves 90 mm with varying cavi-
ties
A = 90mm
B = 110mm
C = 90mm

Figure 25
1 leaf 140 mm
1 leaf 90 m m
A = 140mm
B = GOmm
C = 90mm

Figure 26
2 leaves 90 mm with piers in cavity
(showing alternate courses)
A = 90mm
B r 100 m m
C = 10mm
D = 90mm
E = 90mm
Y = vettical reinfomment if required
Z = damp proof membrane, or two
coals of bitumenmay be applied
Fisuron
Using 190 m m wide solid or hollow
unia for paw wall in conjunction
wim an external cavity wail
A=800mmmin
B = bihlminous mating for
-ng
C = window or door frame
D = patywallconotructedof19Omm
wide d i d or hollow units
E = 90 m m stacked blockwork
with wall ties every alternate
course & a tie-bar across the
party wall every other alternate
cwrse

figure 28
Using 2 leaves of 90 mm wide solid
or hollow units with cavity for party
wall
A = 600 m m min
B = vertical dpc
In figures 23 and 24 it may be nec-
essary t o provide 10 or 12 mm mild
steel rods into the cores either side
of the vertical dpc.

Figure 29
Using 190 mm wide solid or hollow
unirs for party wail
A = 600 m m or longer
B = vertical dpc

Wherecutting is unavoidable, use an angle grinder with a diamond disc.This

can be carried out either on site or by the supplier. On bigger contracts a cut-
ting table should be used. The units can be cut dry or wet. With wet cutting,
any slurry must be washed off and then allowed to dry before being built into
a wall. Sizing masonry units with bolsters is not recommended.
It is not good practice to bond blockwork at wall intersections, as stretcher (halfl bond will be broken on the intersec-
tions.
Figure 30 a
Intersectionof a loadbearingwall and
a partition wall.
A = galvanised hoop iron strips
(36 m m wide x 1.2 m m thick)
placed in alternate bed joints
B = wall ties t o be placed not
more than 250 m m either side
of the wall intersection and
should be in every second or
third course
C = galvanised metal anchor tie
32 m m wide x 1.6 m m thick as
specified
D = 90 block

Figure 30 b
As an alternative, when hollow or
solid blocks are used, a top-hat wall
tie can be fixed in the bed joint of
every second course. If this does not
provide adequate lateral restraint to
partition walls it may be necessary to
reinforce and infill some cores of such
walls.
A = 3.15 to350 rnm tophat
B E 550 m m
C = 400 m m
D = 190 block

Figure 31
Plan views of alternate courses us-
ing 135' quoin blocks
A = SOmm
B = 110mm
C = 90mm
D = mitred joint
E = 135' quoin
Figure 32
Intersection of two 140 mm walls
Full mortar bedding must be used
to anchor the ties
A = 600 m m min
B = 50mm
C = metal lathing placed under
core t o be filled
D = galvanised hoop lron or metal
anchor tie 36 mm wide x 3.1
t o 3.5 m m thick as specified
E = infill core with metal lathing
below it
Walls should progress upwards atthe
same rate.

Figure 33
Connection of wall panels to a steel
stanch~on
A = metal lathing or hoop iron
fixed t o steel columns
B = metal lathing t o have mortar
cover of 20 m m minimum
from external face
C = suitable location for control
joint. Fixing should be made t o
column either side of joint

Figure 34
Connection of wall panels to rein-
forced concrete ( R . 0 column
A = R.C. column
B = metal lathing
b i n . length 230 mm)
C = hoop iron 32 mm wide x 1.6
m m thick x 600 m m long, or
36 m m wide x 1.2 m m thick
Take note: metal fix~ngsto be at ex-
act coursing he~ghtlevel with the
fixing pin as close as possible to the
right angle bend of the galvanised
hoop lron strip.
 The treatment of the support to blockwork over openingswill depend upon
its width and the applied load to be carried.
Note: 90mm wide lintel units are dealtwith in SANS 10400-Kdealingwith 90 rnm
single leaf lintels spanning up to 3 metres.

Figure 35 (left)
Lintel details (using lintel and s ~ i l
blocks)
A = reinfwdngrods and infill m m
B = stepped dpc
C = 140 mm wide lintel blocks
D = 190 m m wide sill block
E = dpc
F = 110 m m cavity

Figure 36 lrightl
Lintel details (using steel angle strip
and sill block)
A = galvanised steel angle strip
acting as dpc above windows
C = 60 mm cavity
D = 140 mm sill block
E = dpc protruding into cavity
F = half height course if windows
are not modular

Some typical applications of the use of sill units are shown in figures 36 to 39 inclusive and figure 37 below

Figure 37
Sectional detailshowinguseof 140mm
or 190mm (depending on width of
modularcavity)sill unit with dpc into
cavity.
A = sill unit 140mm or 190mm
B = stepped dpc protruding into
cavity
C = precast sill unit
Figure 38 (left)
Lintel detail (using gahranised angle)
A = galvanhed mild steel angle
size t o wit opening
B = stappeddpc
C = 140 m m wide sill block
D = dpc
H = 110 m m reinforced lintel block

Figure39 (right)
Lintel &tail for spans exceeding 1.8m.
A two course bond beam detail may
be w
A = 13 m m t h i i plaster
B = rteppeddpc
C = paidea weephole in every
perpendicular join
D = cut lintel block
E = 110 m m thick sill block
F= *
G = water drip Cast into lintel It is essential that the dpc extends at least 100 mm beyond the ends of a lintel.
H = 140 m m reinforced lintel block

Figurea
Construction detail - lintel blocks
A = Bme(M&
B = min. bearing length 190 m m
C = comrete infill
D = reinforcement
E = pmvideshumrhg boardwith
pmp(s) at mid-span during
mns4mdh

It is essential thatthe lintel issupportedat mid-span during construction

For long spans, a two course bond beam type lintel, as shown in page 54
is suitable (as specified).
For longspans (1,8m+) consideration should be given to provision of upward
camber to allow for any deflection likely to occur later.
If none of the above alternatives is used, precast concrete lintels are preferred
to in-situconcrete in orderto keep shrinkageto a minimum.
Where in-situ lintels have to be used, a layer of slip-joint material should be
placed under their bearings, e.g. a double layer of Malthoid, or similar.

The concrete infill used for lintels and reinforced vertical cores for standard
concrete masonry units should be 25 MPa, as follows:
1 part cement by volume: 2'1, parts sand :2.5 parts aggregate (6 mm to9.5 mm
max. size).
(or50 kg cement : 80 litre sand : 80 litre of 6 mm to 9.5 mm stone)
 If the masonry design is to incorporate the coping or parapet detail, sug-
gested options are shown in figures 41 and 42.

Figure 41 and 42
Alternate coping details
A = coping unit
B = sill units
C = dpc
D = solid cast coping unit
E = 3mm flexit or thick dpc
F = 140 m m blockwork
G= slip joint t o support in-situ or
pre-cast roof top slab
H = waterproof plaster; or aluminium
flashing; or a durable, flexible
roof seal membrane system

Where walls require additional stiffening, because of high point loads or

slenderness, and a pier cannot be formed within the cavity, as shown in
. -
fiaure 26 on oaae 40. an external ~ i ecan
r be formed as shown in fiaures 43
to 47 inclusive.
Small isolated piers (390 rnrn x 200 rnm) can be formed as indicated in fig-
Figure 43 1st course ures 48.49 and 50.
Pier construction in single leaf walling,
applicable to 90, 140, 190 mm block-
work
A=90mm
B = 10mm
C = 90mm
D = 390 m m
E = plaster or other rendering as
specified

Figure 44 2nd course

Pier construction using two 90 mm
blocks with metal strap holding
leafs together
A = 90mm
B = 10mm
C = 90mm
D = 100 m m long hoop iron or
metal strap (32 m m t o 1.6 mm x
30 mmlW x 50 mml
E = plaster or other rendering as
specified
F = cores infilled with mortar
before fixing clamp in mortar
Refer to SANS 2001-CM14.4
Figure 45
Pier construction using a 190 mm
wide block
A = 190mm
E = plaster or other rendering as
specified
Figure 46
Large piers using 190 mm blocks
A = 390 m m
B = 190 m m
C = plaster or rendering
D = 90mm

Figure 47
Alternate course to Figure 38
B = 190 m m
C = 10 m m mortar
D = 90 m m block

Figures 48 and 49 A
390 rnm wide pier between openings I
A = 390 m m
B = 390 m m

Figure 48

A
I I
Figure 50
Part elevation of 390 mm wide pier
A = 390 m m
B = 390 m m

Figure 49 Figure 50

Figure 51
Reinforced corner for internal load
bearing walls w ~ t hhoop iron or
mesh, as illustrated. If corner block
units are not available.
A = full 390 mm190 m m block
B = half 390 mm190 mrn block
C = hoop iron anchor
D = mesh
Figure 52
Reveal block method
A = 90mm
B = 10mm
C = 100 m m
D=90mm
E = wall ties provided in each
second joint 50mm from
opening dpc
F =vertical dpc
G = window frame

Figures 53 and 54
Reveal using mortar method
A = as F (above1
B = dpc or moisture barrier

In cavity work, the use of corner or reveal blocks (cavity closer units) are
recommended as shown in figure 52. Additional wall ties should be pro-
vided, as shown, 50mm from the opening on every second course.
Note: the reveal blocks for modular construction are either 190 or 140 mm
in length and can also be used on the outer leaf if the frame is recessed.

Figure 55
Encased steel column.
Note: Maximum steel column for
this detail is 254 x 152 x 59 kg Im.
A = external wall
B = 90 corner unit
C = 190 m m
D = 90 m m
E 3 290 mm
 Walls subjected t o high uniformly distributed vertical loads require less
* p p r ; a r l u l ~UI
control joints than lightly loaded panels.
:ontrol joints
As a general guide the control joints should be at regular horizontal spacing.
For unreinforced external walls, control joints should be approximately
twice the wall height but not exceeding 8 m. Unreinforced internal walls
can be constructed up t o 15 m without control joints.
The control joints may also be required at:
1.Changes in wall height and thickness
2.The junction with other forms of construction eg. steel stanchions and
RC columns
3.The intersection with other walls and partitions
4. Major chases or recesses for piping, pilasters, and other building services
5. One or both sides of some large wall openings, eg. windows or wide doors
&Addition of localised bed ioint reinforcement below and above o .~ e n i n- a s
eliminates the necessity for a control joint at such openings. A mid wall
control ioint is often referable to forming control ioints at one side of
openings.

1. Use a soft board (10 rnm) to separate the wall sections

z ways to torm
2. The wall is built in the 'normal' manner with the exception that on alter-
control joints nate courses, half length blocks are used to form a straight vertical joint.
Once the panel is completed this vertical joint is raked out to form the
control joint, and must be free of any mortar or debris. This will be sealed
at a later date using a joint filler cord and a commercial purpose specific
sealant such as polyurethanes, polysulphides or polysobutylenes.
Control joints should be carried through all finishes.
Bed joint reinforcement should be interrupted at a control joint.

Figure 56 and 57
Plan view showing alternative courses
for a control joint in the leaf of a
cavity wall
A=90mm
B = 50mm-110mm
C = 90mm
D = wall ties t o be placed not more
than 100 t o 225 m m either side
of the control joint
E = control joint formed and sealed
F= 6-10mm
G .:these sections t o be wrapped
i n DaDer or Dainted with
b i i m e n t o break bond and
~ e r m imovement
t within the
iength ofthe wall whilst
retaining lateral stability of wall
H = 6 m m mild steel rods I600 m m
long) bedded in alternate
courses
J = internal leaf
K = external leaf
 All o ~ i l d i n gmater als move due to temperatLre an0 moisture changes.
Des gners snould ensLre that the effect of movement in a wa I takes place
at control lolnts in oroer to prevent uns~ghtlyrandom cracking.
Figure 58 There are three ways of controlling the possibility for cracking particularly in
Example of blockforce external walls:
1. Ensurethatonlywellcuredproductsareused.Concretemasonryproducts
should be moist cured for no less than 14 days before being delivered to
clients.
2. Provide control joints at regular/suitable intervals to accommodate
movement.
3. Provide bed joint reinforcement to counteract induced thermal or moisture
movement.
For longer uniform wall sections, specified bed joint reinforcement (i.e. block-
force) should be used to reduce number of control joints required.
The standard South African dimensions of bed joint reinforcement is limited
to minimum 2.8 mm diameter to 3.55 diameter mm of straisht wire sections in
lengths of 2.4 to 3 metres.
24 diameter rolled up brickforce is an ineffective, nonzompliant material and
may no longer be used.
Ordering the correct bed joint reinforcement is of critical importance.
Under no arcumstancesshould bed joint reinforcementreplace pmper wall ties.

Bed joint reinforcement serves the same purpose as bond beams in control-
linq stresses due to movement. Because of the closer s.~ a c i -n uof bedioint
reinforcement in the wall, it may be more effective in controlling move-
ment than a more costly bond beam. This table applies to external wall
sections.

Table 3 shows the relationship be- Ratio UH of panel

tween the spacing of control joints length L (determined by 2 2/ 3 4
and that of bed joint reinforcement control joint spacing)
for external and exposed walls. to panel height H
Internal walls, less exposed to
thermal and/or moisture induced Limit of panel length L
12" 13" 15" 18'4
stresses need limited bed joint rein- irrespective of panel height H
forcement. (15 m is a rule of thumb
length). Vertical spacing of bed joint
reinforcement 600mm 400mm 200mm
forcement

Example: For a panel 14.6 m long and 4 8 m h ~ g h UH.3, and as L does not exceed
15.2 m the venlcal spaclng of the jolnt reinforcement should be 400 mm ?
ail
Bed ioint reinforcement should be interru~ted
at a control loint exceDt 18%
 Examples of control joints and reinforcement

Figure 59 Itopl elevation panel A = bed joint reinforcement extending 600 mm min each side of corner
Figure 60 elevation Panel B = control joints- Joints have been provided on both sides of openings
Figure 61 detail in figure 60 for aesthetic reasons. Alternatively use bed joint reinforcement at
one side
61 = a false control joint for aesthetic reasons
C = provide two layers of Malthoid under bearingsto lintelt o form sliding joint
D = no blockwork below windows or above doors - special provision for
movement not required here
E = bed joint reinforcement extendingat least 600 mm either side of window
F = dpc level under lintel bearing
G = rainwater pipe hiding control joint

, H = control joint in mid-wall often easier and neater or hidden by down

pipe
Figure 62
Modular opening using
100 x 90 mm precast
lintel, supported by
19Ox90x90mm
modular brick to return
to full module as illus-
Two types of bed joint reinforcement (minimum 2.8 mm to 4 mm 0
as s p e c ~ f ~ e d )
Blockforce for 190 mm blocks. 2.8 to 3.55 0. 155 mm wide

Blockforce for 140 mm blocks. 2.8 to 3.55 0. 105 mm wide

Blockforce for 90 mm blocks and Maxis, 2.8 to 3.55 mm 0.55 mm wide

-
For 105 106 m m imperial bricks
75 mm wide bed joint reinforcement is used for 106 mm bricks, 2.8 to 3.55 mm 0
Not suitable for any 90 mm wide masonry

N.B. Rolled up block- and brickforce does NOTcomply with building regulationsbecause it loses a
great deal of its effectiveness. Truss type bed joint reinforcement is specified for use in masonry
in SANS 2001 CMl.
Some regional suppliers manufacture bed joint reinforcement as 'ladder' type which is also acceptable.

For 190 mm blockwork, brickforce should be 155 - 160 mm

For 140 mm blockwork, brickforce should be 105 - 110 mm
For 90 mm masonry units, the reinforcementis 55 - 60 mm
For "imperial" brick sizes 106 - 110 mm, brickforce width is 75 mm
 reinforcement 1
Y10 or as
specified lintel block or beam block for
long spans
- Y10 vertical reinforcement

Long span structural reinforcement

to be in accordance with Structural Engineers design

Splicing of vertical or horizontal steel bar reinforcement is

Splicing 280 rnm
standard practice in block reinforcement.
Splices need to be tied together with wire or self-locking 370 mrn
electrical cable fastners. lapping
Splicing overlap shall be as per table:
560 rnrn
Refer 2001-CM1 740 rnrn

wall plate level/ bars as specified

top of lintel

bond beam
block with
lintel block compression bar
with tension reinforcement
bar reinforce-
ment

Short span - multiple window or other openings

Details of some control joint configurations and column fixings
(Note: Joint fillers and sealants not shown)

alternate courses on one side

Steel bar greased on one si

groove of sash block

Figure 63
Bonding a pier. Concrete grout as
specified.
m m every other course)

Figure 64
The term Brickforce is used incor-
rectly when it comes to modular 155 mm wide
construction and is related to Impe-
rial brick units (222 x 1 0 6 x 7 3 and is
75 m m wide).

Brickforce for modular masonry

comes in 55, 105 and 155 m m lad-
der type or truss type shapes for
90, 140 and 190 m m masonry units
respectively and is the correct joint
reinforcement width in modern ma-
sonry construction.

Modular 190 blockwalls

Figure 65
Reinforced corner construction for
heavy duty applications as spec~fied
by the engineer. For single storey
housing units, one corner bar may
be sufficient.
 With units laid in stretcher or stack bond, mechanical or electrical services,
such as conduits or small ducts, may be placed in the core of the block.
electrical servi
The mason must check the plans to be sure of the size and location of the
service before block laying commences.
The detail shown below indicates how an electric service box can be fixed
into blockwork. The opening should be formed, preferably before the unit is
built into the wall, using a masoniy saw to cut 2 vertical slots at the bottom
of the exposed face. The cut out piece can then be removed with a bolster.
Depending on the thickness of the block, it may be necessary to use an
extension piece t o permit top fixing of the conduit.

Figure 66
Installation of switch box and circuit.
Cores of hollow blocks can be used
for electrical services.
A = slots cut i n block for box for
electrical fitting
B = conduits carried through core
of hollow block
C = fixing lugs

Electrical services on surface of

blockwork. Electrical fitting being
fixed directly to blocks with wall

r
plugs and screws. Commercially
available bunerflv anchors are used
to fix servics to the sheH of blocks.

Recesses electrical f ~ n ~ nIn

g fac-
Ing olockwork is easler to c ~ att the
edge of b ock than near the midole
-
Figure 67 (left1
R.S.J. fixing detail
A = 16 m m diameter (min) mild steel
anchor bolts holding down
bolts for steel bearing plate.
Rooftrusses, roof and floor beams and the likecan be fixed to anchor bolts
which are cast into the cores of the blocks as shown in figures 67 -70. The
actual depth of embedment of the bolt will depend on the up1 h expected.
Tne concrete infill should be placed aher the truss or beam has been l~nea
and 'levelled'. These details will only be used when the roof truss span is
large (+I0 m) and roof is sheets.

Rod t o extend at least 380 m m

into cores filled with concrete S
(engineers decision)
B = R.S.J. (roof support)
C = galvanised metal lathing placed
i n bed joint beneath cores t o
prevent filling below
See SANS 10400-K4.2.1 1 Roof fixing.
Refer also to Home Builders Manual sealing cavities over openings
(HEM) part 3, page 85 and 86.

Figure 68 (right)
The ends of roof trusses, beams, etc,
can also be fixed by casting rag
bolts into the hollow core infill

Figure 69
Timber beam or truss fixing detail
A = timber beam or truss

Figure 70
Roof or floor joist fixing detail. Mini-
mum centres of H.D. bolts - 800 mm
A = timber joists
B = joist fixing
C = timber wall plate
For details also refer to HEM part 2
table 20
- BLOCK lWASONSm
SIlE MANUAL A
Where concrete roof slabs are supported on blockwork it is recommended
that a double layer of polyolefin sheeting malthoid or kilcher-bearing is
provided between the slab and wall. This is to provide a sliding joint, which
allows for differential thermal movement between the slab and wall.
Bed joint reinforcement (see page 51) should also be provided in the top
two courses of the wall.
With partition walls additional provision for slab deflection has to be made
as indicated below.

All floor and roof slabs, spanning between load-bearingwalls, deflect unless
restrained (engineers detail and decision). It is important to ensure that this
deflection does not transmit any load to a partition wail unless the wall is de-
signed to act as a load-bearingwall.
Wherethisdeflection isnotlikelyto beexcessive,thatisnot morethan 13mm
ina distanceof 6m.thejoint may befilled usingasoftboard packing or poly-
styrene.
On walls longer than 3 m, when it is not possible to provide adequate head
restraint, it is necessary to reinforce and infill the top block course for lat-
eral stability. Where site fixing of wall junctions occur at less than 3 m, this
may not be necessary.

Figure 71
Joint under slab with potentially
large deflection
A = floor finish
6 = floor slab
C = 20 m m thick min compressible
filler as specified by engineer
D = masonry partition wall
E = galvanised mild steel angle or
timber baton fiied only t o Mi
to rertrain the wall h i d

Figure 72
Joint under slab with potentially
small deflection
A =floor finish
6 = floor slab
C = joint wim fibre board and sealant
D = masonry partition wall
F = 10mmmin
G = cornice glued t o soffit
for neatness
Refer t o detail in HEM part 2 Sec-
tion 3, figure DM12C. Also refer
CMA Detailing Manual, Volume 2
page 25.
Refer to NHBRC Manual, part 3, section 4for further information if required
Figure73
Collar jointed wall
A = bed joint embedment depth
B = beam filling
C = wall plate
D = minimum anchor depth
E = anchor in accordance with
table 4 on page 62

Figure 74
Single leaf (solid units)
A = bed joint embedment depth
B = beam filling
C = wall plate
D = minimum anchor depth
F = 4mm diam galvanisedsteelwire
(type A anchor)

Figure 75
Single leaf (solid units)
A = bed joint embedment depth
B = beam filling
C = wall plate
D = minimum anchor depth
G = plaster
H = metal strap (type B or C anchor)
tucked into bedding course
 1 BLOCK MASONSm
!SITE MANUA d
Figure 76
Single leaf (hollow units)
B = beam filling
C = wall plate
D = minimum anchor depth
E = anchor spacing as i n Table 4
I= mesh t o support concrete infill

Figure 77
F~lledcavity wall
B = beam filling
C = wall plate
D = minimum anchor depth
E = anchor spacing as i n Table 4
I= mesh t o support concrete infill

Table 4
Roof trusses and rafters shall be fixed to walls by means of the following anchor types:
A: two strands of 4 mm diameter galvan~sedsteel wire
B: 30 x 1.2 mm galvanized steel strap
C: 30 x 1.6 mm galvanized steel strap

ROOF SLOPE (degrees) MAXIMUM ROOF TYPE OF ANCHOR REQUIRED

TRUSSIRAFTER SPACING
(mm) LIGHT ROOF HEAVY ROOF

< 15" 760 A, B, or C

1050 BorC A for all applications
1400 C
15' to 30' 760 A, B, or C
1050 BorC
1400 C
> 30' Not greater than 1 500 A, B, or C

neavy roofs include those covered with concrere roof t es, clay roof t~les,slate or thatch.
~ g h roofs
r refer to metal or fiore cement, prof~leasheet ng, f~brecementslates or mera roof Iles
W re 15 not perminea for lignwe'ght roof coverings w th trJss or raher spac ng !centres! more tnan 760 mm.
M l n l m ~ mlength of roof rrdss roof anchors is 600 rnm for lighr roofs. 300 mm for neavy rook.
 7 4 0 SINGLE LEAF I
MODULAR I

1
WALLING SYSTEM
FOR ECONOMIC AND
LOW COST HOUSING
System created and des~gnedby Gunter R Koch and Helnrlch Gersner IArch~tect),Cape Town
 Proposed window opening widths: 600,800,1200 & 1800

+*. X8

5 0
Ir

r and window lintel

4
Ir""

Weight: 13 to 15 kg for thermal mass of masonry

Hein Gerstner Architects, Cape Towm

 340 x 190 x 140 corner block

cavitywithin block 12 to 15 m m one or two coats of plaster or

3 to 4 m m Agrement approved skim plaster

140 single leaf wall with full bed lime mortar

Door sill, step and lintel detail
 Window sill detail

Door or window lintel detail

Cavity within block

 -1 single leaf wall smooth endblock with
saw cut for vertical dpc insertion

standard metal section fenestration to

receive dpc behind

Plan detail showing vertical dpc

190
floor finish on screeb
on concrete bed on
140 com~actedsand fill

vertical dpc to saw-cut

Foundation wall detail

showing stepped dpc
 75 x 38 mm wallplate

truss or roof beams fixed

to wall plate with hoop

lower block cavity

plugged with paper to
prevent core holes
below being filled with

Anchor fixing detail of wall plate

I
Elevation of door sill and step
GLUTONE APPLICATION

Tools for the job

Pre-wet the SKIMPLASTERED wall

Apply the first (white) coat

Apply the second (colourl coat

South Africa has widely differing climate conditions - at one end of the scale we
have the semi-desert Karoo where rainfall is minimal and the paint requirements
are largely decorative. In other parts of the country, rainfall IS during summer
and the winters are dry. Each has its own demands on the design of external
wall performance.
In the Western Cape there are extended winter rainfall periods accompanied by
driving winds where the exterior coat must give extra protection against damp
penetration.
It has been shown that paint systems are not consistent in waterproofing walls
against prolonged rainfall. On its own, common plaster coatings are not expect-
ed to be resistant to moisture penetration.
Paints used on concrete block or rendered surfaces should be alkali-resistant and
preferably applied when the block-work is dry. Acrylic paints generally comply
with this requirement and they can be elastic so that hair-cracking does not
appear. Generally it isthe poor and variable applicationofthe paint systems that
causes them to fail. Cost effective cement or lime-based paints are often used in
low cost housing. These have the advantage that they are homogeneous with
concrete products, generally fill pores well, but are susceptible to develop fine
cracks over time. Their colour consistency, however, is difficult to maintain.
In low cost housing, external walling IS mostly slngle leaf. To resist the weather
and improve thermal performance, the NHBRC currently requires a plaster ren-
dering plus a good quality external paint.
However, a standard plaster coating does not contribute significantly to the
thermal performance of external walls and on its own do not render walls rain
resistant. The plaster therefore can be omitted, providing the block has a speci-
fied minlmum thermal performance. When Agrement approved skim plaster is
appliedthe walling remains permanently diy from external weather effects.
The CMA has done extensive research into the raln resistance of different con-
ventional plaster and paint systems and has concluded that in order for a paint
system to be successful it has to have two coats: 1) a base coat that is relatively
thick so that the pores of the concrete block surface are covered; and: 2) a final
coat that is waterproof and elastic so that it can cope with the fine hair-cracks
that inevitably appear in the mortar joints and rendering. However, paint coat-
ings are not durable in the long term and require replacing. In low cost housing
this is a future financial burden for marginal income households and needs to
be evaluated.

SKIM PLASTER
A relatively recent development is an Agrement approved skim plaster tech-
nique that is specifically effective in single leaf block walling conforming to
NHBRC thermal requirements. Skim plaster is a rendering that is typically only
3 to 5 mm thick. Its fibre-re~nforcedcharacteristic resists crazing and cracklng
that is commonly associated with standard cement-sand plasters. This system
is less costly than a plaster-paint rendering and can be 100% effective in pre-
venting rain-penetration in the long term. Such systems do require carrying the
Agrement certificationof approval.
The CMA can advise what systems are approved or what paint systems are
effective in the 'Southern Coastal Condensation Problem Areas' (SCCP) regions.
(ref: SANS 10400-K:2005).
 -
BLOCK MASONSFSITEM!ANUAm
rn

1INFORMATION
TECHNICAL
-
BUILDING HINTS
A goo0 general purpose monar 's: 1m e n t :0.1-1 *lime :6 sand (class2 monarr.
or 1cement :2 lime : 9 sand (class 31. Mortar mix should not oe too sloppv.
*addition of lime is dependant on sandqualityandestablishedbuildingpractice.

-
A good general purpose mix is: 1 cement : 2 lime : 8 sand. (Ref 2001EM1)
Surface should be dry or very nearly so before applying plaster.

It is wise to lay the blocks out without mortar to see whether the blocks fit
the configuration. It may be necessary to "stretch" or "shrink" a few joints to
obtain a good fit.

The horizontal distance between vertical joints of adjacent courses should

be at least one quarter of the length of the unit used.

Lay blocks dry. Shell-bedding shall be used with 190 m m wide blocks and
fuf bed for 190 and 140 mm wide blocks. In single leaf 140 masonry mortar
- oualitv.
is to be of moisture resistinu . . Place with blind side* uo. to .orovide
bed for mortar. Avoid smearing mortar on blocr sioes as tnts snows up

-
after oaintina. *blrnd srde means the side of tne nollow block that is oarriallv or

Jointsshould be pressed after mortar has partially set (1 to 2 hours).

Half-round jointing is best for appearance and moisture shedding. Avoid
raked and square jointing in external walling

Avoid chopping blocks with a bolster, this is untidy and generates waste. Use
a carborundum saw on well-soaked blocks and allow to dry before use.
Preferably use the complimentary block shown on the page 28.

Usecarborundum saw where necessay. It IS preferable to rJn conduir in rhe

blockcav tv or wall cav tv. C L o~ ~individual
t blockcav~riesfor sw tch boxes.
etc. Alternatively, leave half or quarter block opening for grouting in switch
boxes, etc.

Mortar droppings should be scraped off after partially drying (e24 hours).
Persistent marks can sometimes be removed by rubbing with another piece
of block. Use acid solutions with caution, as they will etch and stain the
block surface. (Consult experts on acid cleaning).

Normal alkali-resistantpaints and Agrementapproved cement or lime based

paints should be used in accordance with manufacturer's instructions. Note
that mortar smears on block sides and at joints will show up through paint-
work. This should be avoided by careful laying unless the whole wall is to
be bagged or plastered.

These should be spaced at intervals of 5 to 8 metresfor unreinforced walls

(refer to page 51). The wall is built in the normal manner excepting that
on alternate courses half-length blocks are used so that a straight vertical
joint is formed. The joint should then be raked out +10mm and filled with
a suitable mastic sealer. There is no need to build in a compressible mate-
rial into the joint. Notethatwherethewall is to be plastered the control joint
must be carried through the plaster as well (V-joint).

It is preferable to protect unfinished blockwork from heavy rain by cover-

ing the top courses with plastic sheets. When building recommences, use
blocks of the same moisture content as those in the wall.
 By S t e v e Crosswell - PI Eng MIC7; Technical Support Manager. PPC Cement
7,
A brief history of lime
Lime (calcium oxide, or CaO), has been used as a binder from time immemorial. It is derived from burning limestone
(CaC03) at temperatures in excess of 900C.
The burning process, known as "calcining", drives off the carbon dioxide to leave the calcium oxide behind in
"lump" form. At this stage the lime is called "unslaked lime". If this lime is added to water it reacts vigorously
giving off heat and forms hydrated or "slaked" lime, calcium hydroxide lCa(OH)2).Hydrated lime is a very fine
material, substantially finer than Portland Cements.
The same process is used to make dolomitic limes (ie. contains magnesium oxide). Dolomitic lime is, however,
slowto hydrate and hydration is normally carried out in an autoclave.
It is also possible to produce lime by burning seashells and this process was used in early lime kilns in South
Africa at Kalk Bay and Yzerfontein and was still in use until fairly recently.
Hydraulic limes, which contain a proportion of clay (which supplies aluminates and silicates), are also manufactured.
but not in South Africa.
From ancient times, up until fairly recently, lime mortars were made either by mixing unslaked lime with sand
and water and by leaving the mixture overnight for the lime to hydrate, or by hydrating the lime and then mixing
with the sand. The mixture was then re mixed with additional water and used as bedding mortar. Lime monars
harden very slowly through the recombination of the hydrated lime with carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
This process is called carbonation and the hydrated lime converts back to limestone, releasing water in the process.
The slow rate of hardening was not a matter of concern given the rate of construction in those days, in fact it was
often advantageous as the mortar was relatively flexible and tolerated more movement than would have been
the case with stronger, more rigid mortars.

The introduction of common cements

With the introduction of common cements in the late 19th Century it became possible to produce mortars which
hardened relatively quickly and which developed more strength than the lime mortars used previously. This was
oov o1191yaovantageu,~ as t was rhen possiole to bui d m,cn more q, crly. As rime went by, common cemenr
mortars largely s ~ p anred
p I rrle monars and rne benefirs of "sing I me in monars were neg ecreo or forgotten. 11
was assumed, often erroneously, that mortars with h ~ g hcompressive strengths performed better than those with
lower compressive strengths, and the use of high strength cement mortars was, and still is, commonplace.
The most important properties of hardened mortar in load bearing masonry are good bond strength to the masonry
~ n ' t s low
, d r y ~ n gshr'nnagc, anu oa permeaoi fry, not compress ve strenytn. Best prart ce s therefore ro util se
the senlng and haraen~nycnararrer~sricsof comrnorl cements n comb~ndtion* rn the oenef cia1 eflecls of #me

The effects of lime on plastic mortar

1. Plasticity
Lime acts as a plasticiser and makes mortar mixes fattier and more workable. This in turn makes the mix much
friendlier forthe mason and it IS easierto bed the masonry units and control the th~cknessof the masonry beds
and perpends. In the case of plaster mixes it is much easier to trowel the plaster on to the wall and to achieve
the required finish.
2. Cohesion
Lime mortars are more cohesive which means they are easier to use and there is less wastage as they adhere
better to the masonry units and the mason's trowels and floats.
3. Water retention
Lime retains moisture in the fresh mortar and plaster because of its fineness. This means that the masonry units
cannot suck the moisturefrom the mortar so easily and the cement has more moisture available to hydrate prop-
erly. Common problems with mortar and plaster are poor strength and durability caused by rapid drying.
4. "Finishability"
Because lime retards the set of cement slightly it is easier for the mason to achieve the required finish on both
masonry joints and plaster.
The effects of lime on hardened mortar
1. Permeability
Mortars containing lime are generally less permeable. This is partly a result of their workability and water re-
tention. Denser mortars are obviously desirable, especially in single skin masonry in high rainfall areas.
2. Less efflorescence
Contrary to popular belief the use of lime in mortars does not cause efflorescence, it actually reduces it. The
reasons are that mortars containing lime are less permeable and lime hydrate, particularly dolomitic lime, is
not particularly soluble in water.

Recommended mixes
Mortar and plaster mixes are normally in the range of 1 bag of cementto 130 to 300 litres of damp sand. Rich mixes
are typically used where masonrv is highly stressed or where plaster is subiect to impact, for example sauash
court wal s. Leaner mlxes are used on soft, fr~abe surfaces such as poor y oaked and sdn a r ~ e dbrlcls In some
cases mlxes as lean as 1 bag of cement to 4 bags of llme to 600 1 tres of sand nave oeen ~ s e dsuccessfully
SABS 0164 recommends the following mixes which will give adequate strength and durability providing average
or good quality sands are used. (A simple field-test for sand quality is described in PPC TIP 8)

Mortar Cement* Builders Sand Masonry cement or Sand

class Lime** (Damp & Bulked) common cement
with plasticizer++*
1 1 bag = 50kg 0-lOkg 130 litres 50 kg 130 litres
11 1 bag = 50kg 0 - 25 kg 200 litres 50 kg 200 litres

*CEM 1,11, or 1111A and strength class 32.5N or higher

* * A 25kg bag of lime contains a nominal volume of 40 litres of lime
*** Mortar admixtures of the plasticisers type should comply with BS 4887
Recommended mixes should comply with those in SANS201-CM1

Sand measured loose and damp + Mass increased by 5% to allow for moisture in the sand
This table provided by the Cement & Concrete Institute is based on the following data:

Relativedensities: Water content, kgIm3 (total, dry randl:

Common cement Common cement + sand 350
Lime Common cement + lime +sand 360
Masonry cement IMC 12.5) Masonry cement IMC 12.51 +sand 330
Sand
Loose bulk densities, kglm3: Air content, %:
Lime 700 Common cement + sand
Sand (dry) 1400 Common cement + lime +sand
Sand (damp) 5% moisture (20%bulking) 1230 Masonry cement (MC 12.5) +sand
 The characteristic compressive strength of masonry depends upon:
a. the characteristic strength of the masonry unit d. whether the work is bonded or unbonded
b. the mortar designation e. the thickness of the mortar joints

NominalCompressive strengths 2,3,4.

Design allowable compressivesaengths
for bricks/blocks bedded in classic 2. Bricks
mortar. The table allows for the non
homogenuity of the wall, i.e. the 3. Blocks - Hollow 3.2 5.5 5.9 6.6
combination of blocksbricks bedded
in mortar assuming mortar is the 4. Blocks - Solid 3.3 6.0 8.2 10.2 13.0
weakest link in the wall unit.

Definitionfor brick and block sizes Bricks s 300 long Blocks 2 300 s 650 -
s 130wide a 130 5 300
5 120 high n 120 a 300

The cube strength requirementsof

mortar (SANS 164 part 1) Class l = 14.5 LabUtest Work test 10.5 mpa
Class ll = 7.0 LabUtest Work test 5.0 mpa
Class Ill = 2.0 LabUtest Work test 1.5 mpa

Applied to SANS 1215 -Concrete Masonry

Modular SANS 390mm blocks - mmlwide 90 140 190

-overall square centimetre: (351) (546) (741)

SANS BLOCK MASONRY SPECIFICATIONS Total force crushina strenath in tonnes It) and kn
3.5 MPa x 10,197 = 35.7 kg 1 sq I c m t 12.5 19.5
kn 122.5 191.1 251.8

/ 10,5 MPax 10,197 = 107.1 k g l s q l c m

kn 1 37.6
368.5 I 58,5
573.3 I 778.1
1 14 MPa x 10,197 = 142.7 k g l s q l c m t
1 50.1
1 77.9
1 1
I
kn 491.0 763.4 105,7
1035.9

21 MPa xl0,197= 214.1 k g l s q l c m t

kn 1 75.1
735.9 I 117.1
1147.6 1 1751.3

It is recommended that blocks are specified in accordance with Strengths Category Requirements (as above) as
determined by the structural engineer.
Table 5
Comprehensive strength of masonry Nominal Compressive strength MPa, min
unirs, SANS 1215-Table2 compressive
strength, Average for
MPa Individual units
In the case of units having an 5* units
overall length of 290mm or less, an
average of 12 units is taken 3,5 4,O 3.0
7,O 8,O 5,5
10,5 11,5 8.5
14,O 15,5 11.0
21,O 23.5 17.0

Work sizes, mm

290
Width
390 190
Height
390 190 190
Table 6 Table 7
Nominal dimensions of masonry units, SANS 1215 Tolerance on work sizes, SANS 1215 -Table 1
* In the case of FUA (face unit aesthetic)the tolerance on
the overall width shall be i 10mm
 -a
DEFINITIONS
For the purpose of this book, the following definitions apply:

Block
Masonrv unit that has dimensions which satisfv
any one of the following conditions: Bed joint
i) lenath between 300 mm and 650 mm Horizontal joint between courses of masonry
I) wloih between 130 mm an0 300 mm. or which is mortared.
iir he ght between 120 mm and 300 mm
Collar joint
Brick Vertical longitudinal joint between the ends of
Masonry unitthat hasdimensions which satisfy all two adjacent masonry units laid in the same
of the following conditions: course which is filled with mortar.
it length no;exceeding 300 mm
iir wioth nor excccd~nq130 mm; and Flush joint
iii) height notexceediig 120 mm Mortar filled joint which is finished flush with the
face of the masonry in a wall.
Brickforce
Light welded fabric comprising two hard drawn Raked joint
wires of diameter not less than 2.8 mm and not Mortar filled joint which is raked out to a specified
exceeding 3.55 mm held apart either by perpen- depth behind the face of the masonly in a wall.
dicular (ladder) or by diagonal (truss type) cross
wires.
Struck joint
Mortar filled horizontal joint which is finished so
Core that the base of the joint is flush with the edge of
A void within the cross-section of a hollow masonrv the course beneath the joint and the top of the
unit. joint is set back so that the course immediately
above oversails the joint.
Cleanout
Opening at the bottom of an infill concretelgrout Tooled joint
space to allow for removal of debris. Mortar filled joint, including a flush joint and raked
joint, where the surface is trowelled or ironed to a
Frog smooth, dense finish of specified profile.
Depression formed in one or both faces of a ma-
sonry unit, the total volume of which does not
exceed 25% of gross volume of the unit.
Control ioint or movement ioint
Joint designedto permit movement between sections
Grout of a masonw structure without impairing
. .the func-
Highly workable concrete placed in cores, cavities tional integrity of the structure.
or pockets to produce qrouted and reinforced
masonry, normally referred to as infill concrete
(grout does not contain coarse aggregate in excess lnfill concrete
of 5 mm particle size). Highly workable concrete placed in cores, cavi-
ties or pocketsto produce grouted and reinforced
masonry (contains coarse aggregate).
Header
Masonry unit which is laid across and connects
two or more adjacent leaves. Leaf
Continuous vertical section of a wall, one masonry
unit wide.
Hollow masonry unit
Masonry unit that contains cores that exceed
25% but do not exceed 60% of the gross volume Masonry
of the unit. Assemblage of masonry units joined togethe~
with mortar or grout.
Prestressed masonry Free-standing wall
Masonry in which reinforcing steel is incorpo- Wall that depends for stability on either its own
rated and then pre-tensioned or post-tensioned mass or stability atthe base of the wall or a combi-
to strengthen the masonry. nation of both.

Reinforced masonry lnfill concretedlgrouted cavity wall

Masonry in which steel reinforcement is grouted Wall comprising two parallel single leaf walls
or concreted into cavities, cores or pockets or separated by a void at least 50 mm wide, filled
bed joints to strengthen the masonry. with infill concretelgrout and tied together with
wall ties sometimes reinforced such that the
leaves act In a monolithic section.
Masonry accessories
Anchors, connectors and ties, other than wall
ties, which are built into masonry including shelf Parti wall
anglesand theirfixings; and fine fabric reinforce- Seperates two living units in semi-detached or
ment located in bed joints. apartment buildings.

Masonry unit Partition wall

Rectangular unit for use in the construction of Temporary or permenent light structure used in
masonry walling. open plan buildings.

Mortar Non-structural wall

Mixture of cementitlous materials, sand and water, Wall supporting only its own weight such that its
with or without chemical admixtures. removal would not adverselv influence stabilitv
of the structure.
Shell bedding
The covering of the plan area and perpends of Single leaf wall
the face shell with mortar, but not the webs, of Wall of masonry units laid to overlap in one or
hollow masonry units during laying. more directions and set solidlv in mortar

Slip Structural wall

Thin section of facing cut from a full masonry Load-bearing wall, the removal of which would
unit which is fixed to concrete or other supporting cause collapse or partial collapse of the structure.
structural members to give the appearance that
the masonry is continuous over the concrete or sup
porting member. Wall tie
Mechanicalfastenerwhichconnectsadjacentleaves
of masonry to each other or to other materials.
Solid masonry unit
Masonry unit containing no cores exceeding 25 %
of the gross volume of the unit. Works test
Test comprising three mortar cubes sampled
from monar produced on site to evaluate the auality
Stretcher or strength of mortar.
Masonry unit laid with its length parallel to the
length of the wall.

Characteristicvalue
A value determined on a statistical basis to cor-
Cavitv wall res~ond to a wescribed ~robabilitvof not beins
wail that consists of two separate parallel leaves exceeded on'the unfavdurable side during the
and evenlv spaced webs ioinina the leaves to lifetime of the structure (see also nominal val-
form a monolithic section with vertical voids. ue).

Double leaf [collar jointed) wall Designer

Wall comprising two parallel single leaf walls Competent person appointed to be responsible
with a space between them not exceeding 25 mm for the design of such building or part of such
filled solidly with mortar or infill concretelgrout building.
and tied together to form monolithic section.
Effective depth Shear span
The d e ~ t hfrom the extremiw of the comoression Ratio of the maximum design bending moment to
surfacdto the centre ofthe ldngitudinal te'nsile re- the maximum design shear force in an element.
inforcement in an element subjected to bending.

Slenderness ratio
Effectiveheight Ratio of the effective height (or in the case of
Height used for calculating the slenderness ratio walls, the effective length, if the effective length
of the wall, pier or column. is less than the effective height) to the effective
thickness.
Effective length
Length used for calculating the slenderness ratio
of a wall.
Strength mortar
A strength mortar is designated by the specified
Effective thickness compressive strength at 28 day.
Thickness used for calculating the slenderness
ratio of a wall, pier or column.
Prescribed mix mortar
A orescribed mix mortar is desianated bv its mix
Lateral support proportions.
Support that will effectively restrain a column,
pier or wall against lateral movement.

Nominal valueldimension Adhesion Bond

The principal representative value of a parameter The adhesion between masonry units and ordinary
(either an action, or a property of a member of mortar, thin-bed mortar, or infill concrete or grout.
a material), fixed on a non-statistical basis (e.g.
empirically) or on physical constraints, e.g. the
Masonry Bond
nominal dimensions for modular blocks are
A systematic arrangement of courses of masonry
400 long x 100 wide ( o r 150W or 200W)
units that will enable them t o act monolithicallv.
x 200 high mm.

Reinforcing Bond
Pre-stressing tendon The adhesion between steel reinforcement and
Steel wire, strand or bar that is pre-tensioned or
mortar or infill concretelgrout.
post-tensioned in order to prestress masonry.