Notebook Eight

In radiographic imaging, Recorded detail is defined as one of the geometric

properties of image quality; the degree of geometric sharpness or accuracy of structural
lines actually recorded in the image; also referred to as recorded detail, definition,
sharpness, and spatial resolution.
When detail is used by itself, it is typically referring to the recorded detail of
the radiographic image.
Recorded Detail is also referred to as :
Definition
Sharpness
Spatial Resolution
Detail
In film/screen, unit of resolution is line pairs per millimeter (lp/mm) or cycles per mm.
Most human visual acuity (sharpness of vision, measured by the ability to
discern letters or numbers at a given distance according to a fixed standard)
is limited to the range of 5 lp/mm.
At 5 lp/mm, each line is 0.1 wide.
An image with this structure can be discerned, but most
imaging systems do not provide this level of resolution
In digital imaging, spatial resolution is determined primarily by
matrix size
pixel size
grayscale bit depth.
These correspond to the x, y, and z axes of the digital image.
In digital imaging, recorded detail is commonly referred to as spatial frequency.
High Resolution - A shorter wavelength signal (with higher frequency) represents
pairs of lines that can be visualized very close together.
Low Resolution - A longer wavelength (and lower frequency) representing pairs of
lines that are further away from each other

Spatial Resolution- Describes the ability of an imaging system to accurately display

objects in two dimensions. Spatial resolution is higher when two objects can be
demonstrated to be smaller or closer together.

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 Spatial resolution can be measured by several different units:
Point Spread Function (PSF)
Line Spread Function (LSF)
Modulation Transfer Function (MTF)
System Noise
Spatial Frequency
Edge Spread Function (ESF)
PSF, LSF, and ESF all express the boundaries of an image; In conventional radiography
this aspect was called penumbra or blurring.
PSF - Measures penumbra (a geometric unsharpness around the periphery of the
image) and is used to quantify digital system spatial resolution
Unsharpness - Lack of sharp definition of detail
It is important to be able to control the degree of unsharpness so that is does not
affect the diagnostic image.
Unsharpness happens when unacceptable levels of penumbra as compared to the
umbral (darkest part of a shadow) shadows that are expected from the part.
Spatial Frequency:
High spatial resolution represents a high-frequency signal that is capable of
imaging smaller objects.
Low spatial resolution represents a lower-frequency signal that can only
image larger objects.
This is determined by measuring distances between pairs of lines.
The higher the spatial frequency, the closer together the sine waves,
and the closer together the line pairs.
MTF - Measures the accuracy of an image compared to the original object on a
scale of 0-1. Also known as fidelity or trueness of the image.
An MTF of 0 represents no signal, therefore no image

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 An MTF of 1 represents a signal of such extremely high fidelity (the degree of
exactness with which something is copied or reproduced) that it records the
image perfectly.
As the spatial frequency of objects rises, the MTF decreases.

Noise:
Imaging Noise - background information that the image receptor receives.
Degradation of the image occurs
Quantum Noise/Mottle - Lack of sufficient incoming data for processing.
Results in a blotchy or mottled (mark with spots or smears of color)
image.
Increase the number of incoming signals to get rid of this

Digital Sampling (Nyquist Criterion) and Aliasing (Moire Pattern)

Due to the many problems digital imaging can have, these systems, digital imaging,
require that the spatial resolution frequency signal be sampled twice from each
cycle. This is called the Nyquist Criterion.
Nyquist Criterion - is the processing algorithm that averages the incoming
analog data by using the distance between the imaging detector elements.
Also known as signal averaging.

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 Aliasing - When the Nyquist Criterion is violated. The incoming data is sampled
less than twice per cycle.These images come out to have the Moire pattern where it
looks like two slightly out of alignment images.

Effects on Image Appearance

Resolution affects the appearance of an image. Resolution can demonstrate fine
detail structures that are close to the size limit of the naked eye. When this is lacking
however, the image can appear blurred.

Factors Affecting Recorded Detail

There are three factors that affect recorded detail:
Geometry
Image Receptor
Motion
When resolving these problems, there are five factors (in order) to take into
consideration:
Eliminate Motion
Reduce OID
Reduce Focal Spot Size
Reduce Intensifying-screen phosphor size and concentration
Increase SID
Geometry - This is regarding to the geometry of the beam. The photons exit the
anode from the focal spot, a smaller point, the further the photons move from the
anode they diverge.
Distance:
Resolution is improved when SID increases and degraded when SID
decreases.
The minimum OID should be used to improve detail
Once OID has been minimized, resolution is improved when SID
increases and degraded when SID decreases.
Change in position can also improve or diminish detail, that is why we
follow careful procedures in positioning to perform exams.

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 Focal Spot Size:
The focal spot size is a huge controller of image resolution because it
controls penumbra (the partially shaded outer region of the shadow
cast by an opaque object).
As the focal spot decreases in size, penumbra decreases, and
therefore increasing resolution.
Penumbra decreases when the focal spot decreases, when the OID
decreases, and when the SID increases.
When penumbra decreases, resolution increases.
Penumbra is increased by attenuation or absorption
unsharpness. The only object that would have a perfectly sharp
image is a trapezoidal object
It would have an equal amount of object thickness that would
attenuate the beam causing an equal proportion of the beam to
reach the image.
Image Receptor
Film/Screen Systems: Classified by speed
Inverse relationship between film/screen combination speed and
resolution
Slow film/screen combination will demonstrate better than a fast one.
Higher speed film/screens reduce patient dose, but lower resolution
Non Screen or direct exposure film possesses the highest resolution
possible.
Direct exposure film often requires 20-100 times more mAs than a
film/screen exposure does.
Resolving power of an intensifying screen depends on three factors:
Phosphor size

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 Phosphor layer thickness
Phosphor concentration
The relationship of these factors are listed in the table below.
Digital Systems: The primary factors affecting recorded detail in digit
systems are:
Detector geometric properties
Image processing system
For CR, the factors that affect recorded detail are phosphor size, layer
thickness, and concentration, very similar to film/screen.
Factors limiting photostimulable phosphor systems are:
Intensifying-screen
Scanning system
Flat Panel systems are of two types:
One uses an intensifying screen with a CCD detector
The other uses a silicon detector with a CsO scintillator
Screen/CCD system has the same limitations that affect recorded
detail in film/screen intensifying screen systems.
Silicon/Scintillator/TFT has limitations due to the fill factor.
Fill Factor - An area of the detector is light sensitive.
High fill factor produces higher resolution.
Each interface between system elements reduces recorded detail.
Size of the detector element limits digital systems

Motion - Affects recorded detail because it fails to allow enough time for a well
defined image to form. Image appears as a blurred series of densities in which no
detail can be seen
Voluntary Motion - under direct control of the patient.
Involuntary Motion - Not under the consciousness of the patient
Heartbeat and peristalsis

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 Equipment Motion - Movement of the reciprocating grid mechanism
can cause vibration of the cassette in the bucky
Communication - Communicating with the patient helps avoid motion.
Patient understands what they need to do.
Exposure Time Reduction - When the patient is not able to cooperate.
It is smart to decrease your exposure time, while increasing your mA.

Immobilization - Immobilizing the patient with sandbags or tape can

come in handy if the patient is unable to hold their position for a
period of time.

Distortion - is defined as one of the two geometric properties affecting radiographic

image quality; a misinterpretation of the size and shape of the structures being examined.
There are two classifications:
Size Distortion
Shape Distortion
Distortion can exists when it cannot be seen due to poor visibility or when density/IR
exposure or contrast are poor.
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 To be able to recognize distortion in an image, a radiographer must be familiar with
normal radiographic anatomy.

Factors Controlling Distortion

Like mentioned earlier, there are two factors that control distortion - Size and Shape
Size Distortion - The only possible size distortion in radiography is magnification.
All size distortion is controlled by distance; SID and OID
Reduce magnification in distortion size increases the resolution of
recorded detail.
SID - The greater the SID, the smaller the magnification, the greater
the detail
OID - Firstly, when objects within a structure are at different levels,
then they will projected onto the image as different sizes.
Smaller objects are perceived as more distant and larger
objects are closer.
Objects further away from the image receptor will be magnified
Calculating Size Distortion - Magnification or size distortion can be
measured by calculation of the magnification factor:
M = SID/SOD
M = Magnification Factor
Shape Distortion - The misrepresentation by unequal magnification of the actual
shape of the structure being examined.
Displaces the projected image of an object from its actual position and can
be described as either elongation or foreshortening
Elongation - Projects the object so it appears to be longer than it
really is
Occurs when the tube or image receptor is improperly aligned
Foreshortening - Projects the object so it appears shorter than it really
is
Occurs only when the part is improperly aligned
Alignment - Shape distortion can be caused or avoided by careful alignment
of the central ray and the part being xrayed.

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 Part and image receptor must be parallel
Alignment adjustments involve bringing the tube central ray, the part,
and the image receptor back into their correct relationship.
Incorrect centering may occur from off-centering the tube, incorrectly
positioning the part, or off-centering the image receptor
Central Ray - is intended to be projected perpendicular to both
the anatomical part and the image receptor
Anatomical Part - Long axis of the part should be parallel to the
long axis of the image receptor
Image Receptor - intended to be positioned perpendicular to
the central ray and parallel to the anatomical part

Angulation - The direction and degree the tube is moved from its normal
position perpendicular to the image receptor.
The angulation of the tube is designed to cause a controlled or
expected amount of shape distortion to avoid superimposition.
Angulation of the tube also changes the SID, which, unless
compensated for by a new SID, will produce a decrease in image
receptor exposure.
Direction - Most common direction of tube angle is longitudinal.
Cephalad - Tube angled toward the head of the patient
Caudad - Tube angled towards the feet of the patient
Degree - describing the amount of angulation between the
central ray and the image receptor.
Effect on Image Appearance:
Size - size distortion is generally a matter of magnification
All magnification involves a degree of loss of resolution, even when
special systems are designed to minimize the loss.

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 Shape - Shape distortion involves both elongation and foreshortening and is
a serious alteration in the projected image.
Some cases, these distortions can be used to the radiographers
advantage.

The most prominent factor that affects both detail and distortion is distance. When being a
radiographer, it is important to know what you are doing to your overall image when
changing your SID or OID. Some positions will create a greater OID, so it is important to
know that if your OID increases than SID needs to increase as well.

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