Project Work Breakdown Project work-breakdown methodology enables splitting of the project work into hierarchical work-breakdown levels of sub-projects, tasks, work packages and activities. Each activity represents an identifiable lower-level job which consumes time, and possibly resources. Construction projects are best organized by tasks into task responsibility centres. They aro best managed by work packagos and bost planned and monitored by activities. ‘This chapter defines the work-breakdown levels. It defines the project work-breakdown levels, outlines the methodology for determining the activities involved, method of assessing the activity duration, and correlating the activity and work items with budgeted earned value. 2 3.1 PROJECT WORK-BREAKDOWN LEVELS ‘The project work-breakdown process involves breaking down of the project work into manageable parts arranged in a hierarchical order till the desired level is reached. The work-breakdown levels are broadly categorized into five levels. These levels, arranged in a descending hierarchical order are given here ‘Sub-project level Task level Work-package lovel Activity level Operations level Each level has certain features associated with it (Table 3.1). However, it may be noted that level categorization is a broad concept and at times their overlapping may become unavoidable. ‘Work breakdown of the 2000 Housing Units Project is outlined in Exhibit 9.1 through 3.8. The project work included construction of 2000 residential apartments, educationalTobie 3.1 | Housing Project Work-breakdown Levels [Ute ecrored Gonerelly Associated with Lvele features Sub-project_ ‘Task Work Package Activity Operations Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Project to Sub-project_ Tasks to. Work Activities ‘sub-project to tasks, work packages to to operations project to packages activities, tasks (directly) Management Project team ‘Task Work contres Work centras. Site foreman responsibility responsibility unit 4. Planning Corporate. Project Project Project. Foreman- level plan summary master plan detailed plan work plan, ‘Programmes Design Constructed Contracted preparation works mile- works- plan, stone plan, control plan, Contract Project ‘Task/work finalisation budget package plan plan Short-term ‘work programmes, ‘Resources mobilisation plan Plan Months Menthe/ Weak Woeks/days Days/hours weeks duration unit 6. Project Corporate Management Cost Time control, Productivity control basis contra! contro! control Prodvetvity' control contrel, Seles control 7. Work inter Independent, Generally Mostly inter. Interdepedent interdependent dependency can proceed independent dependence with other without jobe interforonce buildings, public buildings, a civic centre, connected external utility services and landscaping, ‘The total value of contracted works was approximately US $160 million and the project Rae contracted for completion in 96 months. This project stope of work ie described in it 2.1. ‘The work-breakdown structure of a cantonment-construction project up to sub-project levels is covered towards the end of this chapter.The work breakdown structure of a project forms the basis for listing of activities, ‘modification of systems, sorting data by hierarchy levels, structuring of work organisation and managing similar-scope multi-projects. 3.1.1 Sub-projects Level ‘Sub-projects are derived by dividing the project work into independent large-volume mini projects or task groups. For instance, in a housing project, each group of major works which can progress in a systematic manner, without interference from other works can be termed as a sub-project. ‘The number of sub-projects in a project varies with the nature of the project. Each sub- project comprises one or more substantial work tasks. The sub-project level aids in identifying tasks. In the 2000 Housing Units Project, each type of residential, educational and public building can be taken as a sub-project (See Exhibit 3.1). 3.1.2 Tasks Level ‘The project or sub-project work can be split up into various tasks. A task is an identifiable and deliverable major work. It is an entity in itself and can be performed without much interference from other tasks, A task is supported by its design package. Each task is assigned time and cost objectives and is provided with planned resources for accomplishing the task objectives, The task execution is entrusted to a task responsibility unit, headed by a manager or a senior engineer. Task level is used in the project-summary plan, the design-preparation plan and the contract tendering plan. In the 2000 Housing Units Project, the construction works in each residential building can be grouped under three main tasks, j.c. foundation, superstructure and finishes (See Exhibit 3.1). 3.1.3, Work-packages Level A project task can be further subdivided into one or more work packages. Each work package contains o sizeable, identifiable, measurable, costable and controllable package of work. Exhibit 8.2 shows the work packages for the construction of a residential building of the Housing Units Project. im the project master plan or the contracted works-control plan, each work package is assigned its performance objectives. These are generally stated in terms of its completion period, standard cost, resource-productivity standards and the standard sale price. The measure of performance thus, gets closely linked with the execution of its work packages. Work packages form a common base for linking the key fanetions in project management. ‘The work-package concept leads to the simple-management theory of managing, designing, estimating, planning, organizing, directing, communicating and controlling, using these work packages as the base lines. In the 2000 Housing Units Project, foundation work of a residential building can be broken down into four work packages—base, raft, plinth wall, ground floor slab (See Exhibits 3.2 and 3.3)Exhibit 3.1 2000 Housing Units Project Subproject and Task Level Work Breakdown HOUSING PROJECT Sub [Residential Educational, ‘Public aot project, ‘aldings tudings bldings | | Services | fet High ‘Primary 334 noe, Ke. Narvery setod | | "hoa mmadutes | | $80 | | sehoot | | a | | zon Task Ievel Res, bldg. Ree, Bldg Tes. bag Super Foundation | | S42" | | "Finishes Filtered rater ||| Sewerage | || Hood Serva senty || Smtem® | | [revemens| || yutaings sysiem * Gas supply ster: Patice Panty Social sub. Hamman | | | Mosque sation once centre || | shopping Heath | | Youh Shopping Post | [swimming | | Air raid centre centre ie otis eal shelterBhbr 32 Construction of Residential Building: Work-breakdown Structure Residential Building i Foundation Precast Superstructure Finishes Tasks ‘Tasks "Tasks Tasks Base Raf Plinth Wall Ground Floor Construction Construction Construction Construction Work Package First Second Third Parapet Floor Floor Floor = & GRC. Electrical & Roof Stairease © &J Flooring Painting Mechanical ‘Treatment Works Fitting & Works Fixtures 3.1.4 Activity Level ‘A work package can further be broken down into various identifiable jobs. operations and processes, which consume time and possibly, other resources and are necessary for its completion. Each one of this is called an activity. As an example, the various activities involved in the construction of foundation of a residential building are listed in Exhibit 27 and Exhibit 3.3 ‘The breaking down of a work package into its constituent activities requires a study of the methodology of execution of the work package. This methodology, generally known by the term method statement, is evolved by the concerned planning engineer using his construction experience and through his discussions with the respective project, engineers, 3.1.5 Operations Level ‘An activity comprises one or more operations. Each operation contains a part of the work content of the activity. It generally has a particular type or a fixed group of resources associated with it. It is performed during the scheduled time duration of the activity. Somo operations may start with the commencement of the activity, while others may take place during its time duration. In some situations, performance periods of operations may overlap. Operations are not considered during the network modelling and analysis stage exceptExhibir 3.3 Construction of Residential Buildings: Work-breakdown Structure Foundation Tasks Buse Contraction Tah Cootrction Plinth Wal Cnsrotion _@. Fine Wek Work Package ‘Work Package ‘Work Package Construction PaCe#g™ Wena Layout Shaitrng Renfrremeat Coming, Curing ] Barthwork Base Ploparation Blinding Bitumen Coating Conereting Trae [meee] | | mm Lagat rutin Padang Dehatrng Corag Lafout Bscevatin Levelling Shutering Concreling iagiithcnlin ‘lgtme: Peciomry cig Mek, Girly: Cacog ‘Treatment ‘Works Fixing Bitumen Coating Back Plinth Anti-termite Polythene Plinth Wall Filling Filling ‘Treatment Sheeting Activity Breakdown into Operations Operation 1 Operation 2 Operation 3 Operation 4 that the sum of the costs of operations equals the activity cost. They form the basis for allocation and scheduling of resources of each activity. In the 2000 Housing Units Project operation involved in activity ‘concreting raf¥’ of foundation work include‘© Cleaning and preparing inner side of the raft for concreting + Pumping concrete * Spreading and vibrating concrete « Finishing of top concrete surface ‘The construction projects are best controlled by the work packages, and best programmed for day work by using operational level best planned and monitored by the activities. A project planner uses activity as the common data base for project planning. The activity duration forms the basis for time planning and scheduling of project work. Detailed information about resources such as men, materials and machinery needed for execution of each activity enables the preparation of resource forecasts. The activity sale price is used to determine the income and cash-flow forecasts. The activity base is vital for monitoring the progress of the project work. In the 2000 Housing Units Project foundation construction task can be broken down into 27 activities (Soe Exhibit 3.3). 2.3.2 DETERMINING ACTIVITIES INVOLVED In simple projects, an experienced engineer-in-change can visualize and list out the activities necessary for execution of the project. But in case of complex projects, the identification of activities can be systematized by using certain methods. The commonly used methods, depending upon the nature of activities, can be categorized as follows Nature of Activity Method Used Construction activities Work-breakdown structure Functional ectivities ‘Task matrix Repetitive activities Structure and matrix combine Building construction activities CUS Table 1 and similar indexing ‘methods, specification standards ote. 3.2.1 Work-breakdown Structure ‘The various construction activities can be identified by systematically developing a work- breakdown structure. This is done by dividing the project work into areas, sectors or task groupe or a combination of these. These are further subdivided into work packages, workpackages into activities and, finally, activities into operations or processes. This work- Pumping station sub-project In a cantonment construction project, the construction of a pump house of size 40,000 mm length x 8840 mm breadth, was tendered as one contract (Fig. 3.1). The scope of work included the construction of the pumping station building, the procurement and installation of six pumps and one gantry crane, the provision of connected internal services and, finally, the commissioning of the pump house.‘The work-broakdown structure of the pumping station sub-project can be developed by splitting the work into divisions or levels till the desired activity level for controlling the progress of the work is achieved. (a) First division: Showing taske "The works in the pumping station sub-project can broadly be divided into two task groups—building construction works; and electrical and mechanical works. Pumping Station Sub-project 1 Building Construction Tasks Electrical and Mechanical Tasks (©) Second division: Depicting work packages Each of the task group derived in the first division can further be subdivided into work packages as follows: Building Construction Task oH} Structure Finishes Foundation Superstructure Electrical and Mechanical Tasks It Equipment procurement Equipment installation ‘work package work package (¢) Third division: Representing activities Bach of the work packages can further he split into activities. For instance, activities constituting the work-package structure consist of the following: Excavation Foundation walls Walls up to sill Walls up to lintel Walls up to tie-band ‘Tie-band Gable end Roofing Similarly, the activities of the other work packages can also be derived. ‘The work-breakdown structure showing the activities involved is shown in Exhibit 3.4, while the activities derived are listed in Exhibit 4.2. It may be noted that the work- ReMnOOND>Exhibin 3.4 Pumping Staion Project Work-breakdown Structure Pump House pe EM Works Foundation Superstructure vie pwn Piadgna and Internal Finishes Services Excavation Foundation Wall arnt Above Ground op ge vue whe el Upto Upto Tie-band Gable Sill Lintel- Tie-band End Fabrication & Sheeting erection of trusses Flooring Electrification Water Supply & Sanitary Fittings Procurement of Installation & Equipment & Machinery Commissioning Gentry Pumping Sets Pipes and Crane & Accessories Accessories Gantry Erection Pumping Sete oH Foundation Installation Pipe Work Commissicning & Testingbreakdown here is restricted to the planning activity level only, and each activity can further be divided into one or more operations. For example, the activity ‘surface preparation’ can be split up into the following operations: Layout Excavation with machine Dressing, levelling and compaction Anti-termite treatment 3.2.2 Task Matrix ‘The task matrix method is generally used for determining functional activities at the feasibility stage or in the turnkey projects. In this, the tasks or work-packages in a project are listed vertically, while the various functions or connected aspects are drawn horizontally, ‘The interconnection between the tasks and the functions, where applicable, suggests the activities. Factory construction project Consider the case of a medium size factory which was ‘accorded top priority for construction. Sinco the project was to be completed with foreign collaboration, it was decided to drastically cut down the usual departmental procedures to speed it up. The project consisted of the construction of factory buildings, office and living accommodation, temporary accommodation for construction staff and the essential services. ‘The siting board took a month to finalize the layout and other connected preliminaries. The go-ahead signal for the survey of land and project preliminaries was accorded immediately on the finalization of location studies. The final approval for the project was expected to take another month or so. All work connected with the procurement, installation and commissioning of the factory equipment was to be undertaken by the foreign consultant, ‘The project was planned for completion in two phases, which were: Phase I: To commission the factory within 18 months after the project go-ahead signal is issued. This phase also included essontial office and living accommodation. Phase I: ‘To complete the remaining accommodation within six months after the completion of phase I. In order to plan and monitor the execution of the project, a project planning cell was established, and the planning chief was made a member of the project construction team. ‘The task matrix prepared by the planning chief to derive activities for developing the roject preliminary plan is given in Exhibit 3.5. 9.2.3 Work Breakdown and Task Matrix for Repetitive Works In projects involving repetitive or similar activities, the work-breakdown structure method can be used to identify activities in one building while the task-matrix method can assist in determining activities in the other buildingsExhibin 3.5 Planning of a Factory Project During Feasibility Stage Task Matrix Task code ‘Task description ‘Activities with Durations in Months ‘Accomplishing Designing Contracting Execution Survey Phase-I Phase Roem ono a mo Om Preliminaries Project Sanction ‘ Land Procurement and Factory Building - 1 Office & Living Accomodation Office & Living Accomodation ‘Temporary Storage Accomodation - Installation of Tube-wella = = External Wat'> Supply and Sanitation Phase-1 & IL - 2 Extornal Electrification ss 1 Air Conditioning—Factory & Office Building: - 1 2 Furniture for Phase 1 & IL = 1 1 1 = i it 2 = 1 lee wea © Schools construction sub-project Consider the construction of schools in the housing units project described in Chapter 2, The project included two nursery, four kindergarten, five primary and four high schools. These schools had similar construction but varied in size. Tho work breakdown structure of the primary school, reflecting work packages and the ‘connected activities, is shown in Exhibit 3.6, Its work packages and activities are as follows Work Packages 1. Footing Wing-T and II 2. Superstructure Wings 1 & 11 3. Structure of gymnasium 4. Building frame 5. Finishes Connected Activities Excavation and footing, stub column and plinth beam, and ground floor alab. ‘Wing I Ground floor column, first floor beam and slab, and roof structure, Wing If First floor structure Foundation, portals and slab. Block work, concealed pipes or conduits, internal plaster, AC ducting and piping, roof treatment, wiring, and external plaster. Tiling, preliminary paint, equipment installation, carpentry, joinery and metal work, fitting and fixtures, final paint and balance completion.Bibi 3.6 Primary School Consrecion Werk-brackdown Structure Footing Superstructure Gymnasium Building ‘Finishes Wings I & Wings I & I Structure Frame ‘Work Work Package Work Package Work Package Work Package Package Excavation Stub Ground Fouldation Porlala Slab Footing Columns Floor & Plinth Beam Superstructure Superstructure Wing I Wing I I First Floor Structure T Ground Floor First Floor Roof Columns Beam & Slab Structure Blockwork Pipes Internal Ducting Roof ~—=Sereed_-——External & Conduite Plaster & Piping Treatment & Wiring Plaster Tiling Preliminary Equipment Carpentary Fitting Final Final Paint ‘Installation & Joinary & Fixtures Paint + Completion The activities of the primary school can be listed in the main column of the task matrix as shown in Exhibit 3.7. The other school activities, being similar to that of the primary school, can be easily identified and tabulated in the task matrix. In particular, the duration of the activities ean be incorporated as chown in Exhibit 3.7. 3.2.4 Deriving Building Construction Activities using C1/SfB Manual C1/SfB background The C/S{B Construction Index Manual, originally published in 1976 by the RIBA Publication Ltd, London, is primarily designed for use in project information and related applications such as preparation of bills of quantities and establishing the performance accounting linkages.Exhibit 3. Construction of Education Buildings: Activities Matrix with Duration SU No. Antinty Coie Primary High KG. Nursery School School School _School 1. Excavation & footing EF 3 3 2 2 2. ‘Stub column & plinth beam PB 3 3 2 2 3 Plinth filling PP 2 2 2 2 4. Ground floor slab cs 3 3 2 2 6. Ground oor column ce 2 2 2 2 6. Ff Slab & beam Wing I FS 3 4 3 3 1. Roof struct URF Wing | RS 4 4 0 0 8. First floor Wing [I FS 3 4 0 0 9. Foundation portals Wing IT FP 3 3 ° ° 10. Construction Portale IT cp 4 4 o ° 1, Gymnasium slab Wing 1 sc 4 3 o ° 12, Blockworke Bw 4 1 1 13. Pipes/eonduit & frames Dw 3 1 1 iM. Internal Plaster IP 4 4 2 2 15. AC dusting & piping ac 2 2 6 6 18. Roof treatment Rr 2 2 2 2 17. Screed & wiring scEW 2 2 2 2 18. External plaster EP. 2 2 2 2 19. ‘Tiling TL 3 3 2 2 20. Preliminary paint Pr 3 3 2 2 21. AC. equipment installation & testing AB 2 2 2 2 22 C& J metal work cr 4 3 2 2 23, Fitting & fistures FF 4 3 2 2 24. Final paint & completion cM 4 4 2 2 ‘The CV/SMB system is internationally recognized. It originated in Sweden in 1974 and was initially developed for coordinating the building processes. In 1952, it was adopted by the International Congress for Building Documentations (CIB) for standardizing the classification and filing system of documents. Work package The construction elements in C/SfB (extract in Table 3.2) represent the overall process of project construction, beginning with site development and proceeding vertically down to the external utility services. ‘The Table 3.2 matrix depicts primary divisions in the first column. Their corresponding subdivisions are reflected horizontally against each of them in CUS{B. Generally, each primary division can represent the work package of small projects, whereas for large projects, each subdivision or ita further breakdown may have to be used to denote a work package. These subdivisions aré shown in Table 3.2.una nie) comand or pana Pupron! pre (etonypana) mz gee emi wa Seg onvenae ose eon Mesano oun 9par 0 postundio sa] “Vowp-qns puv worstarp Lromud yoee yo eBurpean zofem Oy Moys Oy PABUEArE HT aAoqU UROYS T-OIGRL OL, Judexpwr] sung smEDg —_ wea som qwoudopaeg reomeg rma arson — Remog oun MOA — oS peony ad ampaATnS og rowan 2s 68) (8) (96) 8) 8) eo) (8) (1) (08) 8) aunyrumg nuowainigy eammumg wont aug anyone (8) (1) os) ce) soisia oud oanyrasna wig ous pay (a) a @ cD jonngasi smog song Jemog UFO ag eu (29) a) 9) o sed aisuq —resodsng snag peo (ete aug oneooaRy (aa) a9) 0s) cy sour, seqoraty Tes ea sous] sR os soyreng @ a on ow stumuado, sour stared iy Teas Aemproceg aun Jouayyy SON mg ksadas, @e) cH (08) sauuveg — sBuunog sau eas ra routig 800 ove] soa aug ising (ea) 1) (2) @ woryeavorg ome pEDAMTEE yg sumnungns cD aD «Dp D somponng woudeyosoq, ong puny us ous @o) ao o> oO worstap-ang worse found wousnsisu09 jrelorg jo so2014 Bumous (peyrpow) 1 21901 yS/ID :swestds pu swioWie[y Lo">niysUOD ze egeLCode no. Primary Division Basis of Grouping Within Division (00) Site development Information relating to external site development works. (20) Sub-structures Foundation work below grade (20) Super-structure Load bearing structural primary elements Elements above grades. (30) Super-atructure Non-loed bearing elements Secondary elements (40) Finishes Exposed surface treatment. (60) Mechanical services All piping and ducting systems including materials and ‘equipment. (60) Electrical services _—_All wired system, materials and equipment. (70) Fixed equipment All fixed equipment, components & fixtures in a building. (80) Moveable equipment All moveable equipment compuents and furnishes in a building. (90) _ External services All services not within the enclosed limits of the buildings. Activities In CV/SfB, the primary divisions are further split up horizontally into subdivisions or activities. For example, subdivision 21 represents the external wall (load bearing) while subdivision 43 stands for the floor finishes. Further subdivision breakdown leads to connected activities. For instance, roof (27) is broken up into flat roof (27.1), pitched roof (27.2), folded plate roof (27.4), etc. 2.3.3 ASSESSING ACTIVITY DURATION 3.3.1 Concept Duration of an activity is defined as the expected economical transaction time. The estimation of this time is based upon the current practices carried out in an organized manner under the normal prevailing conditions, and its assessment is done preferably, by the person responsible for its performance. This definition of activity duration implies the following: Duration is transaction time ‘The transaction time of an activity is the time taken to change from one state to the next within the system. In other words, duration is the time delay incurred in moving from one event to its succeeding event. Duration is assessed Generally, the smaller the level of details of an activity, the better the assessment of its duration. In the long run, during the progress of a project, the minor plus and minus variations in activity duration tend to get adjusted. It may be noted that duration is only an assessment. It may differ with the actual time which an activity may take for its transaction. If necessary, the activity could be work studied to determine the standard time of execution. The methods used for assessment of the duration are one-time and three-time estimates. These methods are oxplained in para 3.3.2. Duration is economical transaction time The assessment of expected time should be based on the most economical method of execution of activity under the prevailing working conditions by using the available or earmarked resources.Consider a job involving 50 cubic metre of manual excavation over an area of 15 x 6 m. It is possible to organise work by employing 18 men for one day in two shifts, or three men for five days; or four men for four days to complete this task. If each man is paid $5.00 per day, and assuming that tools required for digging are brought by the workers, the time for ‘completion of excavation and the corresponding labour costs for this activity can be tabulated a8 fellows:— Completion Time Manpower Employed Cost ($) Days 1 18 90 2 8 80 3 5 15 4 4 80 ‘The duration for this activity corresponding to the least cost of execution ($75.00) should be taken as three days. It may be noted that the duration of an activity is correlated with time and its cost. The time and cost at the least cost point in termed as normal time and normal cost of the activity. Duration is estimated in terms of predetermined units of time The unit of time can be a month, a week, a day or even an hour. The unit considered depends upon the plan type. The guidelines given below may be adapted for selecting the unit of time for assessment of duration of activities in the following: (@ Project Summary Schedule ‘Months or weeks Gi) Project Master Schedule Wooks (ii) Detailed Work Programme Days or hours ‘The following conversion factors may be used for converting from one unit to another. @ Working hours in a day 8 hours Gi) Working days in a week 5 or 6 days ‘Weoks in a year 52 wooks Alll activities in the network or schedule use same unit of time The duration assessed in weeks includes weekly holidays but excludes other holidays and non-productive period. Further, the seasonal and weather uncertainties are not considered; these are taken care of during scheduling stage. Overtime is not considered unless it is a standard practice. ‘The assessed duration estimate is expressed in terms of unit of time, in the nearest whole number. Duration estimation is based on current practices This implies that the estimation is based on the present knowledge of the method of transaction in an economical way; it may undergo a change with the passage of time or with improved techniques.Duration estimation is based on work being carried out under normal prevailing site conditions This implies that estimation is based on the method of work under normal working conditions at the site using economical resources. Adjustments for time delaying factors liko rainy season and bad weather are considered at the time of scheduling of work and resource (refer Chapter 6). Duration estimation methods presuppose that activity is performed in an orgenized manner Working in an organised manner implies breaking down the activity into elements, matching optimum resources for each element, laying down a systematic method of execution, and specifying objectives and responsibilities so that the task is performed efficiently and enthusiastically. Duration is assessed preferably by the person responsible for its performance ‘This makes the duration estimate realistic and meaningful. 3.3.2 Duration Estimation Basis ‘The construction activity accomplishment process combines resources like men, materials, and machinery. The first step in duration estimation is the methodology to be used for transforming these input resources into the desired activity. ‘The method of choosing and combining these resources may vary. For example, the activity of placing concrete in the foundation of a large building can be done in any of the following ways—manually, using crane and bucket arrangement, pumping by concrete pumps or transporting by a conveyor system. The time and cost for each of these methods will differ considerably, may be the same in all cases. Similarly, the time and manpower required for wall shuttering will depend upon the type of shuttering used from the available choices of custom-built steel wall forms and the conventional timber-plywood steel props support system, ‘The choice of the method of execution of an activity, depends upon the past experience, the market availability of appropriate resources, the resources available with the contractor, and the cost-benefit analysis of the various methods of reduction. In short, it is the method of production that dictates the resources required for accomplishment of an activity, In the initial stages of time planning, it is necessary to make a preliminary assessment ofthe resources of men, machinery and materials required for the execution of each activity. ‘This assessment is used to determine the duration of an activity, to develop a time schedule based on the optimum level of resources or on resource constraints and to evaluate the connected costs. ‘The preliminary estimate of resources neoded to accomplish an activity can be made by using the planning norms developed from the past experience of companies or the published literature, suitably modified to conform to project environment. ‘The resource planning norms include the following: (a) Workers output norms (b) Plant and machinery output norms (©) Materials quantity estimation and wastage nerms‘The typical resource planning norms that can be used for preliminary estimation of major item of resources are dealt with in Chapters 7, 8 and 9. ‘The methodology for costing of resources and activities is covered in Chapter 11. 3.3.3 Duration Estimation Methods Generally any of the three methods are employed for assessing the duration of construction activities. These are termed as one-time estimate three-times estimate and non-linear distribution (e.g. trapezoidal) estimate, ‘One-time estimate Basis of estimation The estimation of duration is based on one or more of the following. 1. Planning data 2, Past experience on execution of a similar project. 3. Average time assessed by a group of exocutives. Example In excavation of 3,000 eft of common earth, if output of a man is taken as 100 cft per day and six men can be effectively employed on the job, the duration of the activity would be five days. Application in construction proj.cts In most of the construction works, it is generally possible to assess the duration of an activity with reasonable certainty by using experience or the departmental planning data. Tho one-time estirinte for activity durations is used in these projects. Further, the one-time estimate is task-oriented and the activity duration can be correlated to the cost and the resources employed. The method of the one-time estimate is simple and can easily be followed by all concerned with the planning or execution of construction works. Three-times estimate Basis of estimation When the exact duration of an activity, like research and development, not certain, the three-times estimate is used to compute its expected duration. The following relation is used to calculate the expected duration of such an activity. Ty +47 + Tp ™ z expected completion time optimistic time, assuming that everything goes extremely well with no delays pessimistic time, assaming that everything goes wrong ‘most likely time, assuming normal conditionsExample Let us take the activity of sanctioning of a government project, It has to pass through many channels and depends upon many factors. Let us assume that the sanction is most likely to take 8 weeks, and if all goes well, the earliest it can happen is 6 weeks, but in any case, it will certainly come through in 16 weeks. The expected duration of the activity can then be calculated as follows: 6+ (4x8) +16 T 6 9 weeks Application in construction projects The three-time estimate can effectively be used in certain arcas of construction projects whero time is the main criterion and the resources employed are of secondary consideration. Some of these are as follows. ( The planning of projects especially, at the foasibility stage. (ii) The skeleton networks enclosed with the tender documents. (ii) The contracted works, where time is the main consideration for the management. (iv) The complex structures, where the exact duration estimate is difficult to assess. ‘The analysis of networks using the three-times estimation is based on statistical methods. ‘These are covered in Chapter 4. ‘Trapezoidal distribution estimate ‘The one-time activity duration estimation methodology, given above, assumes average daily uniform manpower (or effort) of work throughout the execution of activity. But execution of some activities may need effort in a non-linear pattern. Such non-linear distributions may follow triangular, trapezoidal, binomial, beta, gama, normal or other pattern, In such cases, the activity duration estimation needs to be modified accordingly. In practice, the profile of most activities takes the shape of trapezoidal distribution. A trapezoidal distribution has a build-up phase, peak period and rundown phase. The build- up and rundown phase can be expressed in terms of total activity duration. Assuming build-up and rundown time as 20% and 10% respectively of total duration, the activity duration can be assessed as under: Total man days = 924 xp +07d xp + Old x p = 0.86dp Z _ Total man-days Duration d = Tene, in days Example Brickwork of « building (a) Assessed scope of work using standard productivity standard (b) Allow 20% for indirect Isbour and unforeseen reasons including absenteeism, bad weather, ete. 1000 man-days 200 man-days ‘Total effort required in standard man-days = 1200 man-days‘Trapezoidal Manpower Distribution Pattern Peak Period 024 ora oud, Activity Duration = Aseume: (a) Work is to be done by a sub-contractor employing labour with 25% overtime, and working 5 days a week. (b) Sub-contractor peak manpower per day is 40. (©) Build-up period and rundown period is 20% and 10% respectively. Solution Effort in man-days = peak manpower a + peak level period rundown period a = 40 (024, 1d’ 1200 = 40 (3. ora + 934) = 40 x 0.85¢ ion = d = —1200_ Duration = d = 71200 = 95.3 days = -853_ = plies 5.5 weeks weeks (taking 5 working days per week) and 25% overtime perday. 9.3.4 Duration Estimation Procedure ‘The various stages in duration estimation of a construction activity can be identified as follows:(a) Estimating the quantity of work ‘These estimates are worked out from the engineering drawings of the project. It is a common practice in all engineering projects to estimate the quantity of work prior to tendering. (b) Deciding the labour and material constants The knowledge of these constants is essential to assess the activity duration. As is well known, these constants vary with place, environment and projects. {¢) Assessing the effective activity-wise employment of resources For each activity, assess the resources that can be employed effectively. {d) Estimating the activity completion period Quantity of work ‘Output per unit of resource x Resource earmarked (e) Rounding off the completion period to nearest value (8) Using the three-times estimate or a non-linear estimate where it is not possible to predict reasonable activity duration by one-time method The duration estimate of an activity assumes that the work will progress smoothly, but this is rarely true in construction tasks. It is general practice to make allowance for such contingencies while ‘estimating the duration of individual activities, and the duration of each activity is evaluated independent of the others. Completion period = 3.4 ACTIVITY COSTS AND EARNED VALUE 3.4.1 Costs Classification In general, the term cost implies expenditure incurred in monetary terms by a person or ‘an agency to acquire a product or a service, or to accomplish an objective. For a given product, the expenditure incurred or the money spent by the customer to acquire it, the manufacturer to produce it and the retailer to sell it, is not the same. The cost of an item is related to the purpose for which it is incurred; it varies when it passes through various agencies, For example, suppose a customer purchases an apartment from a Realtor for one-million U.S. dollars. The total money paid by the Realtor to acquire it from the builder is $950,000, while the production cost incurred by the builder for the land and construction is US. ‘$850,000. In each case, the cost is related to the specific purpose or activity for which it is incurred, and the cost sasocinted for accomplishment of exch activity becomes ite cist objective. In other words, the cost objective represents the cost which a person or agency has docided to pay for fulfilment of a specific purpose. In particular, the term cost, when singly used in this book, stands, for the production cost. The cost classification varies with the purpose. In general, the activity costs can be classified as follows.Cout Purpose Coot Classification 1. Estimating costa Direct and indiveet costs 2, Accounting costs Production cost and earned (sales) value ‘The above cost terms are outlined in the following paragraphs. These are further elaborated in Chapter 11. Activity direct cost This is the cost that can be traced in full with the execution of a specific activity. It consists of costs of direct materials, direct labour, direct equipment and other direct costs. For example, in the activity of roof concreting, the following direct costs would be involved. ‘Type of Costs ems of Coste Direct materials Cost of concrete and steel Direct labour Cost of labour employed Direct equipment Cost of equipment hired for placing readymix concrete Direct other expenses Formwork hiring and repair charges, Activity indirect cost_ This is the cost that is incurred while performing an activity, but cannot be traced directly to its execution. In other words, all costs other than the direct ones fall in this category. Those represent the apportioned share of supervision, general and administration casts, and are commonly referred to 2s overheads. Generally, the overheads charged to an activity are expressed as a percentage of its direct costs Activity production cost This cost is the sum of direct cost and its apportioned indirect cost. It is built up as follows. Cost Blements Amount Direct material costa Direct labour costs Direct equipment and other expenses Direct costs (A +B + C) Indirect costs Production cost (D + B) amoom> Activity contract value It is the contract value of the work done. It is the amount, which the client has agreed to pay for the satisfactorily completed works. 3.4.2. Activity and Work-item Sale Value In contracted projects, the sales prices for various items of work are fixed and these are listed in the Bill of Quantities (BOQ). As an example, Table 9.9 shows an extract from the bill of quantities (BOQ), for the foundation work of a residential building complex (with actual data modified). In the (BOQ), the sale price is generally exprossod in units of the work item, But for forecasting and monitoring the earned value, itis necessary to computeTable 3.3 Bill of Quantities: Foundation of a Residential Building {Original Modified) Ttem Description ‘iy Unit Rate Amount No. 6) ® ‘A. 1. Excavation in foundation include disposal of arth to a place within the work site, leveling and dressage and compaction of final source. 44400 M3 6.00 222,000 A.2 Backfilling and compaction around foundation in layers not exceeding 30 cm with excavated earth 13,320 M3. 6.00——222,000 ‘A.3. Earthfilling and compacticn in plinth with approved soil in layers not exceeding 30 cm level 93,855 M3 20.00 677,100 A.4 Anti-termite treatment for bottom & sides of foundation plinth wall as per approved ‘manufacturer's specifications 59.274 ‘A.5 Painting with 2 coats of bitumen paint to foundation sides and plinth wall surface 75,591 A.8 Laying of polythene sheet 1000 G as separator ‘between earth and concrete, and earth ad ground floor slabs 65157 M2 100 «65,187 ‘A.7 15 thick blinding concrete Grade M-100 in foundation with sulphate resisting cement 1.998 M3 9505 189,910 A.8 Reinforced concrete Grade M-260 in foundation & plinth walls with sulphate resisting cement ineluding, inserts, formwork and including expansion joints as necssary, but excluding reinforcement 14643 M3. 16350 2,894,150 A.9 Same as Item 1.8, but for ground oor slab 3143 M3 14495 455,975 A/10 Mild steel wold mesh reinforcement. as per BS 1221 for ground floor slab 7228 T 151810 109,601 A.11 High strength deformed bars reinforcement a8 per ASTM 1-616 Grade 60 or equivalent 67993 T 1096.00 737,202 E 7.50 444,855 5 245 185,198 the sales price, preferably activity-wise. This computation is carried out by developing a correlation between each work item and activity by breaking down an item of work into activities, or subdividing an activity into items of works, as the case may be. Example 1 This example illustrates the splitting up of sales price of the BOQ work-item No. 8 into work package sales price. Consider the BOQ item No. A8 in Table 3.3 relating to plinth wall concreting. It represents the concrete M 250 in the plinth wall of a building module of the repetitive-type residential building construction complex. This work item can be broken down into the eales price of connected activities of the work-package as shown in Table 3.4 Standard unit sales price of work package ‘plinth wall’ expressed in work-unit of m* concrete placed works out as: $8031.85/43.70 = $183.80/m?Tobe 34 Sole Price Breakdown of Concreting Work Package Boa ‘Activity Qy Unit ——~Rate(S) Amount (®) AS Bitumen painting 62 a? 245 866.99 AB Layout - = - 2 All Reinforcement fixing Indluded in raft work package a8 Shuttoring 485 mt 7 6 a3 Concreting 43.7 nt 153.50 7144.95 a8 Deshuttering - - - - &8 Curing = = = = Concrete placed 487 mi $8051.85 Example 2 This example shows the determination of sales price of work-package representing ground floor slab of one module from the given BOQ work item. ‘The sales price of the work package ‘ground floor slab’ in work units of m* concrete placed works out to $515.82/m’, that is, $14618.42 divided by 28.34. See Table 3.5 for details. Table 35 Determination of Sales Price of Work Package BOQ Work Tem iy. Unit Tate “Amount @ ® ‘AS Bitumon painting mt 245 781.55 A2 Back filling o 5.00 600.00 AS Plinth fling m 20.00 6100.00, ‘Ad Anti-termite treatment ot 7.50 1290.00 ‘AB Polythene sheeting m 1.00 225.00 ‘9 Shuttering mt - ~ ‘AclO. Weld mesh laying Ten 1518.10 988.28 AS Concreting M 250 mt 163.5 4683.58 Ag Curing - - Concrete placed fs $14610.42 3.5 WORK BREAKDOWN OF A NEW CANTONMENT PROJECT 3.5.1 Introduction This case history illustrates the application of the work-breakdown structure technique in developing the tasks involved for planning a military eantonment construction project costing over $22.5 million. This case can be used as a guide for breaking down work into new townships and housing complexes:‘The team assigned for preparation of the project plan studied the information (then available) from the following sources: (a) The sitting board report. (b) The layout plan. (©) The project administrative approval. (a) The existing outline of ten-year plan for the construction of the project. (e) The progress reports of the works under execution. (©) The policy letters covering the brief history of the project, the scope of the work and the limitations or constraints imposed by the higher management from time to time. ‘On review of the above, it was found that the available data was not adequate to prepare a project work-breakdown structure for developing the project plan. The main drawbacks were as follows: (a) The cantonment-layout plan was unrealistic. It did not give the correct development of zones and had no user bias. (b) The external-services plan needed revision, Keeping these aspects in view, a drive was launched by the higher management to Prepare a user-oriented zonal development plan. Based on this, the external services schemes were prepared for the further planning of the project. Further details required for making the time plan wore obtained by discussing the relevant aspects with the heads of sections and applying the famous questioning technique of ‘How? Why? What? When? and Where?, as applicable. 3, Cantonment Project Work-breakdown Approach ‘The sketch showing the layout (not to scale) of the cantonment is given in Fig. 3.2. The cantonment area is divided into 15 Zones, serially numbered from 1 to 16, excluding the number 13. Based on the work lead, source of water supply, plan of sewage disposal and ‘the common road network, these zones are further grouped into four sectors, as follows. Cantonment Construction Project Project Sector A Sector B Sector C Sector D External Preliminaries Services Zonal accommodation including internal service ‘The accommodation, planned zone- wise, is as follows: (@ Unit accommodation other than married (OTM): Zones 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 9, 10,11, 12, 14, 35, and 16. Each zone has a’ major unit or its equivalent number of emaller units: located in it.eis sng) Aropunog 209008 *§ moos sug S2opuneg [oue7 °z == “sry uaoys speoy “T —puodioy polorg jusumuayung yo snoXey jouez ze embryi) Married accommodation (Md); Zones 7A, 1B, 7C, 7D, TE, and TF. (iii) Accommodation for construction stoff: Zone 5. (iv) Cantonment hospital: Zone 4. (v) Cantonment market: Zone 6. ‘The sector-wise location of the zones is shown in the following Exhibit 3.8, Proceeding similarly, each zone is further subdivided into sets of adjoining buildings. To give an example, the various subdivisions of Zone 16 are shown below: Inter-sector external services These services include roads, power supply, water supply, sewage disposal, area drainage and arboriculture. These can be further subdivided into inter-sector works, inter-zonal works and the zonal works. The work breakdown of oe inter-sector service tasks is shown in Exhibit 3.9. The tasks involved are outlined ow. Sector C Sub Zone A ‘Sub Zone B Sub Zone C Zonal Services Zone 16: Sub Zone A Buildings Buildings Buildings Buildings Building 1S and 14 10 and 28 26,27 and 29 3, 7, 8, 11, and 12 25 (@) Roads The main road runs through the centre of the cantonment. There are a number of other roads which connect the zones. () Electrification The main source of electric supply is from the hydel department. The hydel power is received at the receiving station in Zone 1. It is then transmitted to the various zones by HT transmission line. There are 17 sub stations which step down the high voltage to 440 volts and distribute it to the various zones by the LT lines. The power house, housing three generating sets, caters to important installations in an emergency. (c) Water supply The main source of water supply is a stream. An irrigation channel connects this stream to the water treatment plant. The treated water is pumped to six water reservoirs which are distributed to the various Zones as follows. (® Three water reservoirs: for Zones 9, 10, 11, 12 and 7B. i) One water reservoirs: for Zones 5, 6, 8, 7C and 7D. (iii) One water reservoir: for Zones 14, 15, 16 and 7A. (iv) Two water reservoirs: for Zones 1, 2, 3, 4, 7B and 7F. (a) Sewage disposal It is based on the oxidation-pond method and is organized as follows: (@ The trunk sewer from Zones 9, 10, 11, 12 and 7E are connected to the oxidation pond in Zone 12.Exhibt 3.8 Sector-wise Location of Zones in a Cantonment Construction Project CANTONMENT CONSTRUCTION PROJECT Project Sector A. Sector B Sector C Sector D External Preliminaries Services OTM Zones Md Zones 9, 10, 11 & 12 Te OTM Zones Md Zones 1, 14, 15, & 16 TA OTM Zones Md Zones 2&3 7B & 1F Gi) The trunk sewer from Zones 4, 5, 6, 7D and 8 terminates in the oxidation pond in Zone B. ii) The trunk sewer from Zones 7A, 14 and 15 is also connected to another set of oxidation ponds in Zone 8. (Gv) The trunk sewer from Zones 1, 3 and 7B are connected to oxidation ponds in Zone 1 (v) All other Zones are connected with separate septic tanks (e) Area drainage and arboriculture These are planned on area basis. 3.5.3 Cantonment Project Work-breakdown Structure ‘The work-breakdown structure down to the task level developed for this project by integrating ‘the varjous sub-project structures is shown in Exhibit 3.10. It also includes the additional tasks derived subsequently. 3.5.4 Project CPM Skeleton Network. ‘The work-breakdown structure (Exhibit 3.10) was used to derive the list of sub-projects and the main tasks of the eantonmen- construction project. These sub-projects and tasks formedBb a9 Roada Ublities Area Arboriculture Drainage & Landscaping Main Inter Road Zonal Roads Power Water Sewage Supply Supply Disposal Installations “HT Feeders Receiving Power _Sub-stations, Station House 1 to 14, 16 & 17 ‘Treatment Pump Water Water Plant House Reservoirs Mains 4 Rising Gravity Mains Mains ‘Treatment Oxidation —Trunck Plant Ponds Mains the basis for preparing the skeleton CPM network to conceptualize the long-term construction plan of the project within specified constraints. The project constraints were as follows: Priority of construction This included the following, (a) The accommodation under construction, (b) The construction staff accommodation and, as per user requirements, the unit accommodation of Zone 8, Zone 9 (part), Zone 10 and Zone 16, in that order. (© The remaining accommodation, in conformity with the command and control set-up. Phasing of unit accommodation The unit accommodation within a zone was broadly grouped into the following: (a) The existing accommodation constructed prior to the formulation of network plan. (b) The minimum essential accommodations, as per the units requirements. (© The remaining unit accommodation, where applicable.Exhibit 3.10 ‘Cantonment Construction Project: Work-breakdown Structure oo oo Pret Pliny Iniecaner Sate A Sete SatrO Saaer D her Se Land Santon Detaled ip ome ut Ne cyton Sane | he Aen nes Co Se Lis. Ac ——1—74 || Loo Praiinay Cot Amtitesural | ame tne neo Boe tale Serer” exioatin ‘ManerPis | ion TE das ie ap eu ee aa Roads Elestrifeation Water Sewage Disposal Arboriculture a ain Road Zonal sala wl Gah Water Gravity Sewage Separate PWD Rosds ‘with Works Maine Treatment Adintes Raining ‘Mains Considered ‘a (Sector B to Oxidation —_ Septic =, te Onidation” Pond in tanks | eation Pond in Zenoa I, 8 Zones 2 poh toe’. 82 a6 Generation HIT Feeder CN Conee1es a6: Bridge at pall Sewer Gavortior Construction Installation Power Sresing in on ‘sm UF Hake Mt Md Accn oe pi i i Commission House () Zomeei&3 Zee, Tones Tone 7A, Rondon Mt1G 14,15, tel rae 7A, 16 Receiving : a1 Station foe ‘Treatment ‘Temporary OT LT Marrind Water Sappiy Water Aen Lines = Acen & Perfeation Work Zone Tone 3, Zones Complex 263° B2 Ba TF ‘Note: 1) Zope 7A to 7F are all married secommodation. ‘The zone accommodation was split up into one or more part(s), broadly conforming to the above grouping Married accommodation ‘To be ready with the completion of minimum essential unit or sub-unit accommodation, as applicable.Work under progress and connected external services All works under progress tobe completed as per the running contracts. The corresponding external services to be synchronizod with the completion of the building. Assumptions The main assumptions, made for making the network were as follows: Network logic The tasks completed prior to preparation of network were also shown in the network to maintain its logic, though not necessarily in the order of their occurrence. ‘Tho duration of the activities of the comploted tasks were not considered. Employment of contractor It was assumed that not more than one building contractor could work in a Zone at a given time. Duration estimate The unit of time for duration estimation was taken as one month. ‘The activities less than one unit duration were either merged with the neighbouring activities or were omitted. Duration of all works under execution was estimated in months from the * date of making of network. Project sub-networks integration Since the main purpose of drawing the network was to evolve a long term preliminary plan for the construction of the project, the level of details considered in the network was restricted to the sub-projects and major tasks, and sub- networks were prepared for most of them. Some of these sub-networks included the following. (a) Skeleton network for planning the construction of accommodation in Zone 16. (b) Skeleton network for planning the construction of married accommodation in Zone TE. (©) Skeleton network for planning the advanced landing ground. (d) Skeleton network for planning the works in the military hospital. (e) Master network for construction of the offices, mess. (©) Master network of the multi-project contract. (g) Master network for accommodation in Zone 10. (h) Master network for sewage disposal of Sector B and C. (@) Master network of the water purification plant. G) Summary network for the construction of married accommodation. (k) Summary network of the multi-contracts complex ‘These sub-networks were prepared by the graduate engineer trainees belonging to the military works services. Thereafter, the project skeleton network was developed by integrating the sub-networks of sub-projects and major tasks. Due to space constraints, the skeleton network of the Cantonment Project has not been included in the book. ‘The methodology for preparation of CPM network was used as a training device to teach network planning techniques to selected engincers of the Military Engineering Service in India. Most of the sub-networks mentioned above were drawn by the trainees. It would be ideal to illustrate this case history step-by-step to give it the right combination of established theory and practical application, but that will need another volume. Keeping in mind the limited space available, the mothod of preparing the CPM/PERT sub-networks is described in Chapter 4, the precedence networks are covered in chapter 5 and the scheduling of networks is outlined in Chapter 6.