Building Better Brains B2

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Building Better Brains ^ B 1 Mitkadmim

Ariel University Center of Samaria

English as a Foreign Language Unit


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_____________________
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ID # - ..
This exam is intended to check your ability to
comprehend the text in English relevant to the level of
the course you have taken.
You have to answer all the questions.
Time allotted: 2,5 hours
Please write in pen only.
You may use English- Hebrew Dictionary.

Good Luck!


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Building Better Brains ^ B 2 Mitkadmim
Ariel University Center of Samaria

Building Better Brains

We have the power to enhance our minds by three very different


approaches: by education, by computers, and by the techniques of
neurobiology.

A. Throughout man's history, education has gradually become the


formal process for passing on knowledge as cultures have grown
more complex and opportunities for adults have multiplied. From
the time of pre-historic man, when the young were taught to
memorize the knowledge they needed to survive, to present-day
man, surrounded by vast amounts of written discoveries and
essential facts, education has always been the best approach for
productive, prosperous individuals and nations. However, the
speed and learning capacity of the human mind is reaching its
limits.
B. The reality of the human mind is that, despite our best efforts, an
individual only has a limited capacity to store or process
information at a time. Added to that is the constantly increasing
amount of facts and statistics man accumulates each day. Our
understanding of the world is expanding, but the human mind can
no longer process or retain the vast amount of information it
needs to understand in order to continue his survival in our world.
C. Computers provide one path toward overcoming these problems.
Today, any mental task reducible to a set of written rules can be
converted into a computer program. This realization, added to the
amazing advances with computer capacity and speed, has led to
continuing optimism that any task the mind performs can be
analyzed in detail and programmed. If the problem is too difficult
to solve today, more computer power will surely come to the
rescue before long.
D. Soon, inexpensive computers with quality graphics will bring
universal education and specialized training to even the most
impoverished countries. Moreover, a world of less formal
information is at our fingertips through the Internet, fostering all
kinds of informal self-education. Practically all records, today, are
on computers, and there are "expert programs" for solving a large
range of specialized problems (from the best mix of crops for the
family farm to the material requirements and assembly
instructions for building a house). Computers with TV cameras are
learning to recognize faces and common objects by sight. Adding
mechanized appendages to a computer lets it grasp, recognize,
Building Better Brains ^ B 3 Mitkadmim
Ariel University Center of Samaria

and manipulate objects, and to move through a cluttered


environment. Even simple forms of true robots are appearing,
with facial expressions and simulated emotions.
E. While some see the steady advance of intellectual and robot-like
computer programs as potentially dangerous creations of
superhuman mental powers along with superhuman speed that
could potentially take over the world, others see the possibilities
and recognize the reality that such databases, computers, and
robots will at best be our capable assistants, not our conquerors.
F. Nevertheless, computers alone are obviously not the solution to
our problem. If the human race is to survive, then we will need to
evolve and adapt our minds to the ever-expanding universe. We
must look inward in order to enhance our own minds and explore
their potential. Computers are not a sufficient solution. Our
brains will need to change and develop into a more efficient tool,
able to store and process knowledge at a much greater capacity.
Therefore, we need to explore the science and techniques of
biology or, more specifically, the possibilities of human
neurobiology.
G. Neurobiology is the science of the nervous system, and it can be
approached from many directions. Examining and studying the
physical structure of the brain's neurobiology will help us
comprehend how brain cells (neurons) are organized and
connected. Neurons are an essential component of this process.
They create neurotransmitters that interact with each other and
provide the neurons with the miraculous ability to process,
respond and solve intricate problems in less than an instant.
Today, it is hoped that by understanding how the electric pulses of
neurons travel down branching axon fibers to other neurons and
then learning how nano-size packets of neurotransmitters are
secreted, we will ultimately recognize and then attempt to
recreate the combined processes that cause these neurons to
either generate electric pulses or suppress them.
H. Unraveling the complexities of neurotransmitters, therefore, is a
major focus of neurobiology research. It is the foundation for the
rational design of medicines for treating depression, mania,
schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease, and other mental and physical
disorders of the brain. In brief, current medicines and medical
treatments attempt to interact with specific neurotransmitter
receptors on certain classes of neurons, altering the effects of a
natural deficiency or excess in neurotransmitter action.
Building Better Brains ^ B 4 Mitkadmim
Ariel University Center of Samaria

1. What three methods can be used to increase the amount of information and
statistics the human mind can use?
a. Education (ONE WORD ONLY)
b. Computers (ONE WORD ONLY)
c. Neurobiology (ONE WORD ONLY) (9 points)

2. The author of the article claims that:


a. the human mind cant process the vast information it needs.
b. computers are likely to substitute the human mind in the future.
c. the human mind cant process discoveries and essential facts.
d. computers are likely to prevent the human mind from learning.
(7 points)

3. While some people believe that the continuous progress of computer


technology will result in computers being our assistants (ONE WORD
ONLY), others fear that since these dangerous computers will have
superhuman powers (UP TO THREE WORDS) and Take over us (UP
TO THREE WORDS), they will be our Conquerors (ONE WORD
ONLY). (8 points)

4. a. Once scientists comprehend how neurotransmitters are produced, they will be


able to cause neurons to generate electric pulses (UP TO THREE
WORDS) and suppress them (UP TO THREE WORDS).
(8 points)

b. How might some neurotransmitter receptors help today's medical treatment


of brain-related diseases?
By altering the effects of a natural deficiency or excess in
neurotransmitter action. (9 points)
Building Better Brains ^ B 5 Mitkadmim
Ariel University Center of Samaria

Expanding the Human Mind


I. Today we can see inside the human brain to some degree,
primarily by functional MRI, which allows researchers to observe
those areas of the brain that become more active while
performing ordinary activities, such as reading or solving simple
problems. The most detailed view of all comes from electrodes
placed in the brain to measure the activity of individual neurons.
It is awesome to contemplate the full complexity of the brain
tens of billions of neurons connected through literally trillions of
branches acting through complex patterns of neurotransmitters. It
will take many decades to learn in detail how activities at the
neurotransmitter level result in the conscious activities we
experience and the subconscious activities we can measure by
electrodes, MRI, and other methods.
J. Clearly, we must study in detail the characteristics of individual
neurons. The cell is the fundamental structural and functional unit
of biological organisms. Thus, studies of the brain and the rest of
the nervous system ultimately depend on our knowledge of its
neurons. Can they be classified into a reasonable number of
types? What is the molecular biology of each type, its
neurotransmitters, receptors, pattern of axon branching, modes of
modification, and propensity for growth?
K. With this information, we could identify specific neuron cell types
within the brain, recording their locations and connections to
other neurons. It should also become possible to isolate neuron
stem cells and stimulate them to differentiate into the variety of
neuron types found in the brain and peripheral nervous system.
Repairing and modifying the nervous system will depend on a
supply of the appropriate neurons. We can analyze the specific
factors guiding the growth of connections from one neuron to
another. Such knowledge will, in the future, become vital when we
try to build or rebuild neural structures in the brain and peripheral
nervous system in physically injured patients, leading to
desperately needed techniques to restore severed nerves in the
limbs and spinal cord. Such needs will drive research and
development of new applications.
L. Finally, we are learning to make long-term connections between
neurons and electronic circuits, two very different entities.
Neurons can be grown on thin, biologically friendly films that keep
the cells separate from the circuits. Each remains in its preferred
environment, but they are so close that a circuit can either detect
Building Better Brains ^ B 6 Mitkadmim
Ariel University Center of Samaria

electric pulses in an adjacent neuron, or alternatively, generate an


electric pulse strong enough to stimulate the neuron to fire.
Simple arrays of electrodes are already used to detect
neuromuscular signals generated by the shortened nerves in a
severed limb and translate them to useful movements of an
artificial limb attached to the stump.
M. Given the pace of molecular biology in unraveling the genome, we
can expect to learn within the next ten years much of what we
need to describe and classify neuron types, to locate them in the
embryonic and mature brain, to grow them in cell culture, and
connect them with distant neurons, guiding the growth of their
axons along pathways marked with bio-molecules. Progress will
be slower in creating a "circuit diagram" of the brainthat is, a
compendium of the pattern of connections made by the (still
unknown) number of neuron groups in the brain. Identification of
cell types, embryology, and genetics will speed the process, but it
will probably still be somewhat fragmentary ten years from now.
N. In the next decade, we still may not completely understand how
the neuron "circuits" cooperate to bring about conscious and
unconscious mental action, or discover exactly how the mind
understands language and music or how it forms and retrieves
memories. However, we should learn enough to develop better
treatments for mental problems such as bipolar disorder,
depression, schizophrenia, obsessive-compulsive disorders, and
panic attacks. We may understand neurodegenerative diseases,
such as Alzheimer's, Huntington's, and Parkinson's, well enough
to at least design remedies to slow their progress.
O. We should also expect significant progress in the next ten years
toward repairing injuries to the nervous system, especially in the
limbs and spinal cord. We will know how to stimulate severed
axon and dendrite branches to re-extend themselves, as well as
how to stimulate actual cell division to replace neurons. We will be
learning to grow more complicated neural structures with several
cell types, looking toward repair and replacement of accessible
structures, such as the retina of the eye. Ten years from now, we
will be ready to look beyond these simpler applications toward the
prospect of direct neural connections to the brain.
P. Why might we wish to move in this direction? One reason is
simply to restore damaged brains. Physical injuries, strokes,
tumors, and neurodegenerative diseases in the brain cause
heartbreaking disabilities. Another motivation is personal
development. Our society is gradually acknowledging that many
are born with strong propensities for mental illness such as
depression or addiction.
Building Better Brains ^ B 7 Mitkadmim
Ariel University Center of Samaria

Q. It is important to realize that most long-term mental changes will


take considerable time to achieve, both to change the quantity
and quality of the neurons involved and to create the more subtle
modifications that will come with use. In general, the scope for
quick, effortless change by taking a pill will be quite limited. This
is fortunate, since human relationships, both personal and
societal, depend on predictability. Rapid changes in personality,
motivations, habits, and skills could produce social chaos.
R. Looking further ahead, can human beings add useful new
capabilities to their minds? Our conscious mental sensations
define us as humans and individuals. They are clearly associated
with structures in the brain, which leads us to wonder if new
neural structures supporting new mental powers will lead to new
mental sensations.
S. In time, we will accumulate detailed functional descriptions of the
brains of large numbers of individuals. Many will contribute all or
part of their personal information to a common pool, sharing with
the world how their individual differences in brain structure and
function contribute to differences in mental characteristics, from
personality to talents. The information will point in two directions.
Just as today we acknowledge that some of us are especially
susceptible to mental illness, tomorrow's vastly deeper knowledge
of the functional differences in brains will foster greater
understanding and acceptance of people, as they are.
T. However, we will no longer be resigned to living with what we
began life with. We can move to change our mental makeup by
modifying our brain's functional structure, to enhance what we
like and diminish what we don't, proceeding on the assumption
that all normal human brains, free of major mutations or
accidents of development, have the same complement of neural
structures, just as we all have the same set of muscles, bones,
and ligaments. Our physical individuality comes from the
differences in their size, length, and shape.

5. In the future, brain studies will benefit people with physical disabilities, since
doctors will be able to reconstruct and restore Nervous system (UP TO
TWO WORDS) in the body. (6 points)

6. Results of the scientific research into long-term connections between neurons


and electronic circuits are already being used to create medical advances such
as artificial limb movements.(UP TO FIVE WORDS).
Building Better Brains ^ B 8 Mitkadmim
Ariel University Center of Samaria

(7 points)

7. Even though we expect to gain a lot of knowledge from unraveling the genome
over the next ten years, we may still not be able to comprehend how:
a. growing more complicated neural structures (UP TO FIVE
WORDS)
b. repair and replacement of accessible structures (UP TO
FIVE WORDS)
c. direct neural brain connections (UP TO FIVE WORDS)
(9 points)

8. Why will man, in the future, most likely desire to continue pursuing
information on brain, beyond the simpler applications?
i. Add useful new capabilities to their minds .
ii. New neural structures supporting new mental powers
will lead to new mental sensations. (8 points)

U. At its simplest, functional differences in the same neural group will


depend on the number of neurons in the group. We can place
modified neurons within the group to send inhibitory signals that
effectively decrease the number of neurons. To effectively
increase their number, we can send stimulating signals that lower
their firing threshold, thus making fewer neurons do more work.
Over the long term, stimulation may also increase the number of
neuron branches, further enhancing the neuron's effectiveness.
V. There is surely some limit to enhancing the existing neuron
supply. When we need more neurons, we can place modified
neurons within the group and induce them to form connections. A
far more formidable challenge will be to connect neuron groups to
distant parts of the brain and body. One approach is to place a
line of "beacon" cells to guide the growth of new branches along
the desired path. Another, more radical way is to connect the
neurons to an electronic interface, which would convert the
neuron's signals to electronic signals and relay them directly to
the target neuron group.
W. The electronic interface can be upgraded to make arbitrary
connections by adding digital switching circuits. Additional circuits
could turn the interface into a computational facility to aid
Building Better Brains ^ B 9 Mitkadmim
Ariel University Center of Samaria

memory or make instant simulations. The interface would become


the digital assistant described earlier, with the potential to connect
naturally to any portion of the brain rather than only to the
sensory inputs. Of course, we would need a deep knowledge of
brain function to make useful connections rather than creating
chaos.
X. If we can systematically add (and subtract) neurons from
functional groups, where can it all end? Can we effectively
transmute one brain into another? There are several qualifiers.
First, we are dealing with actual growth, which takes time.
Second, genes will vary between individuals, creating variations in
each of the neuron types. While we can try to compensate for
genetic variability by using modified neurons to administer
neurotransmitters, inhibitors, enhancers, growth factors, etc., we
would really need to modify each neuron's genetic complement to
transmute its function completely. And third, brains have a
lifetime of experience, which will impose biochemical adaptations
on each neuron, reflected in its pattern of branching and its
patterns of stimulation and response. Experience will still count.
Nevertheless, biological inequality will no longer seem inevitable.
Y. What about capabilities we have yet to conceive? Can we add a
genuinely new capability to the human mind, complete with
never-experienced mental sensations in our consciousness? For
example, the light-detecting cells in the eye sense only three
colors-red, green, and blue. Their signals are sent to the brain
and combined to produce the perceptions of the thousands of
colors we "see." In the future, can we examine the neural
structures that produce color vision so as to design and grow
neural structures that support vision that senses four primary
colors and perceives millions?
Z. If we can grow a neural structure that supports new mental
sensations, we may be able to substitute other constituents for
neurons while still producing the same results. For example,
electronic circuits connected in the same manner as the neurons
could potentially simulate the actions of neurotransmitters and
receptors. Perhaps the circuits need only reproduce the vast
complexity of electric field changes that accompany neuron
action.
AA. What are the advantages of replacing neurons? First, the
circuits might be more compact, allowing us to stuff more brain
power into our skulls; or perhaps they might speed up our mental
powers to match the electronic speeds of the digital world.
BB. More profoundly, extending our mental powers by
engineered changes would allow us to systematically explore a
potential world of mental sensations far beyond those we know
Building Better Brains ^ B 10 Mitkadmim
Ariel University Center of Samaria

today. Thus we might find that all our emotions are combinations
of a few basic emotional "atoms." By studying the way the basic
emotions combine to produce our present emotions, we could
combine them in new ways to create emotions never before
experienced. An enormous world of mental sensations awaits our
exploration, analogous to the immense number and variety of
biological species.

9. List two methods that may be used to connect remote parts of the body and
brain with neuron groups:
a. To place a line of "beacon" cells to guide the
growth of new branches along the desired path.
b. Connect the neurons to an electronic interface,
which would convert the neuron's signals to electronic
signals and relay them directly to the target neuron group .
(8 points)

10. What are the benefits of replacing neurons?


a. The circuits might be more compact, allowing us to stuff
more brain power .
b. Speed up our mental powers to match the electronic speeds
of the digital world (6 points)

11. The author would AGREE / DISAGREE (CIRCLE ONE) with the following
statement:
In the future, we will be able to merge basic emotions, producing new emotions
that people have never experienced before.

Prove your answer by using a quote from the text:

By studying the way the basic emotions combine to produce


our present emotions, we could combine them in new ways to
create emotions never before experienced .
(8 points)
Building Better Brains ^ B 11 Mitkadmim
Ariel University Center of Samaria

12. The purpose of this article is to:


a. examine the best way to replace the human mind so that it will work more
efficiently.
b. examine the best way to program the human mind so that it will work
more efficiently.
c. examine the best way to enhance the human mind so that it will work
more efficiently.
d. examine the best way to transplant the human mind so that it will work
more efficiently. (7 points)

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