The

Chicago
School
of
Architecture
THIS REPORT WAS PREPARED PURSUANT TO INSTRUCTIONS
FROM THE SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR. PUBLICATION OF
THE FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS HEREIN SHOULD NOT
BE CONSTRUED AS REPRESENTING EITHER THE APPROVAL OR
DISAPPROVAL OF THE SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR. THE
PURPOSE OF THIS REPORT IS TO PROVIDE INFORMATION AND
ALTERNATIVES FOR FURTHER CONSIDERATION BY THE
NATIONAL PARK SERVICE, THE SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR,
AND OTHER FEDERAL AGENCIES.

Cover: Detail f r o m H E N R Y BABSON ESTATE -SERVICE

BUI LDINGS. Photograph by Richard Nickel for Historic
American Buildings Survey.
 The Chicago School of Architecture

A Plan for Preserving a Significant Remnant

of America's Architectural Heritage

by

Hugh C. Miller

UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
National Park Service

1973

For salo by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402
 FOREWORD

I have long been fascinated by the great landmark buildings of Chicago, the legacy of Adler,
Sullivan, Wright, and other architects of the city's rebirth following the great fire of 1871. As
examples of architectural developments of international consequence, these edifices constitute
one of our Nation's richest cultural treasures. I believe every effort should be made to retain them
as useful as well as ornamental features of the city's life and development.

The demolition of the distinguished old Chicago Stock Exchange building in 1971 dramatized the
peril to these handsome and still-useful monuments of a past era. Economic pressures engendered
by urban growth are relentlessly destroying them one after another. Ways must be found to ease
these pressures while also helping to finance the preservation of worthy buildings in continuing
beneficial use.

The Department of the Interior stands ready to participate in appropriate ways in responding to
the widespread popular sentiment for saving these landmarks as a legacy to future generations.
The following report suggests a possible approach to the problem.

Rogers C. B. Morton
Secretary of the Interior

Detail f r o m M A G E R S T A D T HOUSE.
Photograpn by Cervin Robinson for Historic American
Buildings Survey.

ii
 Contents

Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv

INTRODUCTION v

CHICAGO SCHOOL 1
The Development of a Modern Architecture

THE SKYSCRAPER 11
The Evolution of New Form

NEW FORM 19
The Expression of a Philosophy of Design

TOWN PLANNING 25
Architecture in the Landscape

THE PLAN 33
A New Park Concept

LIST OF PLATES 37

BIBLIOGRAPHY 38

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study was prepared by the Office of Archeology

and Historic Preservation, National Park Service, Depart-
ment of the Interior, under the guidance of Ernest Allen
Connally, Robert M. Utley, and Thomas N. Crellin. In-
formation and assistance were provided by Prof. Carl W.
Condit, Prof. John J. Costonis, Wilbert R. Hasbrouck,
Prof. Paul E. Spargue, Prof. Theodore Turak, and others.
This report was prepared by Hugh C. Miller, Architect-
Planner; Lucy Pope Wheeler, Writer-Editor; and James A.
Burnett, Graphic Designer. The background information for
the resources is based on field observations, interviews, and
published writings about the Chicago School. Source books
and articles used are included in the bibliography.

IV
 INTRODUCTION

Between the late 1870's and the First World War one Europe. The refinement of building techniques and the
of the most significant architectural movements since the expression of the function of the buildings in fully in-
Renaissance flourished in Chicago. The "Chicago School," tegrated architectural style provided inspiration for the
as it came to be called, produced an original architectural designers of Europe's new architectural movement that
expression based on the application of industrial technol- followed World War I. For the first time an artistic
ogy responsive to new economic demands and social development in America influenced architectural
concerns. Mirroring and shaping life styles, this archi- designers in Europe. The cycle was completed when the
tecture anticipated and influenced today's patterns of developed style of the modern European movement was
urban and suburban life in the United States and Europe. later reintroduced to the United States w i t h the emigra-
In the years following the fire of 1871, Chicago tion f r o m Europe of the leading members of its archi-
created distinctive urban forms that permitted new high- tectural community during World War I I . The w o r k of
density use in the city core. Development of the sky- the Chicago School was international in its consequences
scraper made possible vertical growth. Innovations in and prefigured the f o r m of commercial and residential
mass transit moved people out f r o m the city core and buildings now universally adapted as twentieth century
accelerated the city's horizontal expansion. New towns architecture.
and new housing styles were developed. These new
The evolution of modern architecture may be traced
forms were the physical response to the stimulus of
through its formative phases in Chicago and environs.
Chicago's booming activity in manufacturing, rail-
Here survive not only individual buildings but wnoie
roading, and commerce.
communities that graphically portray this significant
Departing from the traditional concept of tall office aspect of America's culture. Important examples of
buildings as originated in New Y o r k City, Chicago archi- this uniquely American architecture have already
tects adapted the design flexibility and speed of erection succumbed to economic forces. The remaining
used by iron bridge builders to a basic system of con- examples have been aptly described as "endangered
struction for commercial buildings. The resulting metal species." These merit recognition,preservation, and
skeleton frame, first in cast and wrought iron and interpretation as a rich and vital part of America's
finally in steel, permitted new physical height and open- cultural heritage.
ness. Since the wall no longer supported the building,
it became a mere skin, a transparent envelope permitting In Chicago's Loop area there are more than t h i r t y
maximum light and ventilation. The synthesis of the buildings dating from the mid-nineteenth century that
skyscraper f o r m led t o revolutionary theories of design illustrate the evolution of the skyscraper. The pro-
expressing the structure and function of the building. gression of architectural formfrom unassuming
Designers of this period rejected historic styles in beginnings w i t h traditional materials, through the
architecture and sought to apply newly formulated development of a new technique for building tall
architectural theories t o all types of buildings. These structures, and individual expression as architectural
theories were particularly manifest in the continuity of design is revealed in these buildings. In the residential
exterior f o r m and f l u i d interior spaces of a new kind of districts of Chicago and the suburbs to the west and
private residencethe Prairie house. This search for a north are several hundred modest public buildings
design universality t o reflect man's physical needs and and private houses that illustrate the architectural
social well being touched all aspects of architecture, principles evoked by the redefinition of form from com-
the applied arts, landscape design, and t o w n planning. mercial buildings to a new concept of suburban life.
The nature of building materials, the function of f o r m , In the same areas are remains of significant landscape
and the relationship of man's structures to nature designs and advanced concepts of city, suburban, and
became articulated in a philosophy that is still fresh and park planning.
relevant. This report traces the unfolding of the Chicago School
The Chicago School movement prompted an archi- movement, assesses its significance, and explores possible
tectural revolution, wholly American in origin, that means of safeguarding, in modern adaptive use, the best
anticipated by several decades a similar development in surviving examples.

v
THE CHICAGO SCHOOL . . .
 The Development of a Modern Architecture
Radical shifts in architectural form constitute one of the effect on architecture. Technological innovations recently
most significant elements of architectural history. In the developed in Europe and also in other parts of America
history of the western world three such shifts have occurred were brought together in Chicago for intensive use in
during the last thousand years, and each has signaled the building. New structural devices and construction methods
beginning of a new cultural epoch. increased the speed and efficiency of the building process.
The development of a totally new architecture indicates New systems, now standard, were conceived. With the
social and economic changes which cause the basic forms achievement of the iron and later steel skeleton frame,
and objectives of building to differ substantially from those great open floor areas became available for the first time.
of the preceding period. New structural systems as well as Raft footings better distributed the building weight over
new decorative schemes appear. A new sense of space the medium bearing soils. Concrete caissons carried the
emerges and w i t h it a new variety of symbolism more suit- loads of massive structures down more than a hundred feet
able t o the requirements of a clientele representative of the to bedrock. Chemicals were added to concrete and mortar,
new society. permitting construction in freezing temperatures. Shelters
The developments in Chicago in the late nineteenth were built to protect men and materials so that work could
century were as consequential in world cultural history as continue in any weather. Strings of Edison's newly in-
the developments in twelfth-century France that produced vented incandescent lamps provided illumination to permit
Gothic architecture and in fifteenth-century Italy that construction work at night, and buildings, although bigger
produced Renaissance architecture. Of these three equally than ever, rose faster. Concurrent w i t h this rush of con-
significant nodal points in the history of western man, only struction was a desire on the part of architectural designers
the consequences of the Chicago school were truly global to break away from the historic styles of European cultures
in scope. to f i n d forms more expressive of the dynamic forces of
The forces that nurtured the Chicago architecture are new-world democracy.
well documented in the political, economic, and social The nineteenth century, having found itself limited by
histories of the Midwest. Problems in Chicago were an the "age of reason," sought reality in new directions.
intensification of problems that faced the nation in the Science and romanticism, although seemingly opposite,
1870's readaptation f r o m cultural patterns formed in an were actually t w o phases of the same search. Science was
agrarian society t o a vigorous newly industrialized society. a search for reality through the world of facts, whereas
Chicago's emergence as an industrial and commerical romanticism was an attempt to comprehend reality by
center was dramatic. "Citizens have come for the one means of emotional experience. In practice, the romantic
common avowed object of making money," novelist Henry was often too intense, the scientist too literal. It was in the
B. Fuller wrote in 1895. The opening of the railroad from context of this nineteenth-century dichotomy that the
Chicago to the eastern seaboard was reflected in the architects of the Chicago School strove to identify a set of
lowering of prices in the wheat markets of Europe. Entre- architectural principles having a common outlook on
preneurs operated in an atmosphere of laissez-faire. Life modern life. They reacted against romantic historicism
was in deadly earnest. Business was conducted for the and the melange of ethical, literary, naturalistic, and
sake of business. Technology flourished. Mechanization sentimental values that were attached to various adapta-
took command. Science and the machine were applied to tions of classical and medieval "styles." They read with
solving problems of production and services needed to interest the theories of Viollet-le-Duc, the greatest of the
guarantee continued productivity. rationalist critics, who constantly appealed for " t r u t h " in
architecture and sought to establish the rule that "all
These forces became self-perpetuating after the Chicago
architecture proceeds from structure, and the first condi-
fire of 1871 as recovery took the form of unprecedented
tion at which it should aim is to make the outward form
economic expansion. Rapid growth intensified land use
accord with that structure."
in the city's core. A t the same time, through innovations
that brought about mass transit systems people were able Romanticism was concerned w i t h nature and the bio-
to move out f r o m the metropolitan center, accelerating the logical theory of adaptation of form to function and
city's horizontal expansion. environment. The emphasis of the rationalist was on the
From the economic pressures behind the whole building relation of use t o structure as a means of achieving archi-
industry came multiple inventions that had a profound tectural beauty and integrity. Chicago was a fertile field

1
 RESOURCES FOR
THE CHICAGO SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE THEME

Both the formative and mature phases of the Chicago School can be traced in the buildings that now survive in Chicago
and environs. This report identifies individual buildings and whole communities w o r t h y of preservation and interpretation
as influences on w o r l d architecture.

Building by an architect active in the Chicago School movement.

INTERPRETIVE UNITS

1. The Loop Evolution of the skyscraper. Near North Shore, Near South Shore Early modern
forms and new designs for industrial buildings, hospitals, and schools.

2. Kenwood, Hyde Park Evolution of the individual residences in modern architecture.

3. Pullman Planning of the self-contained industrial t o w n .

4. Oak Park-River Forest Single family dwellings and small public buildings redefined.
Riverside A suburban townplan designed on the land.

5. Evanston, Wilmette, Kenilworth, Winnetka, Glencoe, Highland Park Diversity of maturing

individual solutions for residential and public buildings.

3
A U D I T O R I U M B U I L D I N G , 1887-89. A D L E R A N D SU L LI V A N , architects. Photograph by Cervin Robinson for Historic American
Buildings Survey.

for the adoption of these ideas. This city, unlike eastern But architecture, unlike painting, literature, or music,
cities, had no physical continuity with the colonial period is not the product of the genius of one person. Archi-
and its related cultural ties w i t h Europe. Here designers tecture is a business as well as an art. A n architect employs
were far enough removed from their historic origins to other architects, often more capable than himself, to
feel that merely to adopt the styles, and hence the voice, prepare his designs, make working drawings, and even
of the past was to be irrelevant. From their vantage point, supervise construction. He hires consultants for the
it seemed absurd to continue to adhere rigidly to the rules structural, mechanical, and electrical elements of buildings
of the academies especially when, through their studies in the infrastructure that often controls the final design.
the history of architecture, they had accepted the evolu- The architect's ability as a businessman is as important t o
tion of form as obvious and undeniable. the successful completion of a building as his solutions

4
JAMES H. BOWEN HIGH SCHOOL, 1910, f r o m the design for C A R L SCHURZ HIGH SCHOOL, 1908-10.
DWIGHT H. PERKINS, architect. Photograph by Dwight H. Perkins, FAIA.

MRS. G A L E HOUSE, 1909. F R A N K L L O Y D WRIGHT, architect.

Photograph by Richard A. Miller for Landmarks Preservation Council, Chicago.

5
 W I L L I T S HOUSE, 1902. F R A N K L L O Y D W R I G H T , architect.
Photograph by Chicago Architectural Photography Co.

M O N T G O M E R Y W A R D WAREHOUSE, 1906. R I C H A R D E. SCHMIDT, G A R D E N A N D M A R T I N , architects. Photograph by

Richard A. Miller for Landmarks Preservation Council, Chicago.

6
UNITY T E M P L E , 1906-07. F R A N K L L O Y D W R I G H T , architect. Photograph by
Philip Turner tor Historic American Buildings Survey.

GETTY T O M B , 1890. LOUIS S U L L I V A N , architect. Photograph by

Harold Allen for Historic American Buildings Survey.

7
of the artistic and technical problems. His relationship
with his client must be persuasive in the conceptual stage
of design, practical in planning the functions of the
spaces, and realistic in estimating the costs of construc-
tion. When the architect loses control of this delicate
architect-client relationship, the results are usually an
uncompleted project or a poor building. These considera-
tions of the practice of architecture were intensified by
the institutionalization of business and financial organiza-
tions in the late nineteenth centurya factor that was a
major force in shaping architectural change in Chicago.
This change can be viewed as a response to t w o basic
problems that existed side by side giving rise in turn t o
t w o main branches of architecture within the Chicago
School. The first response was technological. The
problem of real estate costs versus the vast f l o o r areas
required t o enclose the bureaucracies of business was
resolved by exploiting the verticality of office buildings.
The second response was to the need for town planning
and middle class housing; a need given impetus by the
pervasive interest in the arts and crafts movement, the
vogue for bungalows, and the influence of the homemaker
magazines on life styles. Out of the Chicago School came
a whole new vocabulary of expressive design forms
'created specifically for these purposes. Many scholars
prefer to call the later phase of the Chicago School the
"Prairie School," to distinguish it from the first branch,
which they reserve for the design and construction of
commercial buildings. However, the interaction of these
branches was so strong as to render them inseparable;
both were phases of the total evolution of the new
architecture. Detail from: SCHILLER B U I L D I N G (later Garrick Theater),
1891-92 (demolished 1961). A D L E R A N D S U L L I V A N ,
The development of the Chicago School has long been architects. Photograph by Richard Nickel and Aaron Siskind
associated w i t h an inferred master-pupil role of the great for AIA Chicago Chapter.
triumvirate of American architecture: H. H. Richardson,
Louis H. Sullivan, and Frank Lloyd Wright. Although these
men had a profound effect on American architecture, they with the new definition of architecture. He wrote and
were not individually responsible for the movement called lectured in architectural theory and considered his office
the Chicago School. The impetus of this movement evolves an atelier. Here he encouraged functionalism, and,
from a variety of sources that were assimilated, reintegrated, although he embraced romanticism, he damned mindless
and redefined as personal expressions by a great number of eclecticism. His activities also encompassed other
individual designers and architectural firms. elements of the movement. He was experienced in the
William Le Baron Jenney comes closest to being the avant-garde theme of park design and t o w n planning from
father of the Chicago School. Although he is best known student days in Paris. He designed the Western Park
for his technical accomplishments in giving f o r m t o the system in Chicago, and was associated w i t h Frederick
skeleton frame of the skyscraper, he was perhaps most Law Olmsted, Sr., during the construction of the sub-
responsible for bringing radical architectural ideas, urban village of Riverside. Jenney's office provided early
primarily f r o m France, to Chicago. Influenced by the practical experience and the point of departure for the
theories of the French classical functionalist J. N. L. creation of a new architecture for later leaders in the
Durand and the doctrine of Viollet-le-Duc, ideas not Chicago School movement such as Louis H. Sullivan,
generally accepted in the European academies, Jenney William Holabird, Martin Roche, and Daniel H. Burnham.
created advanced technical and aesthetic forms for the John W. Root and Joseph L. Silsbee, with their per-
skyscraper. As an employer and teacher he was concerned sonal architectural expressions, also had an influential

8
role in this formative period of the Chicago School. Their younger associates, in the mode of creative inquiry
George W. Maher, Frank Lloyd Wright, and George G. and scientific theory, approached the problem of how t o
Elmslie were products of Silsbee's office. Wright also had achieve a universal design in architecture that would
an apprenticeship with Adler and Sullivan during the firm's embody the modern spirit. By 1909 the Chicago School
most distinguished period, but it was Silsbee's free ad- comprised more than 30 mature architects producing
aptation of the Shingle Style house that had a profound original, indigenous, and organic architecture for every
effect on Wright's early work. Dwight H. Perkins worked type of designresidences, churches, hospitals, museums,
for Burham and Root following graduation f r o m the theaters, railway terminals, warehouses, factories, even
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and became a tombs, parks, subdivisions, and city plans.
major figure in Burnham's office after the death of Root. The work of these men was not confined to Chicago.
In 1897, Perkins, with his acquaintances f r o m student Having established themselves as leaders of their pro-
days at M I T , Robert C. Spencer, Jr., and Myron Hunt, fession in the Midwest, they also designed buildings and
rented space in the loft of Steinway Hall. Shortly there- prepared master plans for the major cities of the United
after Wright joined this working group and entered w i t h States. Foreign commissions included Wright's Imperial
them into a loosely associated practice of architecture. Hotel in T o y k o and Griffin's plan for the new capital of
By the beginning of the new century, the architects in Australia in Canberra. However, in the eastern United
Steinway Hall included Perkins, Spencer, Henry Webster States they had few commissions and remained un-
Tomlinson, Walter Burley G r i f f i n , Birch Long, the Pond recognized by the tastemakers of the profession.
brothers, and Wright. This was the focal point for what When the United States entered World War I the
Wright later called "inspiring days spent in an ideal artistic Chicago School was abruptly deprived of its clientele.
atmosphere." After the war, the nation turned its back on Chicago's
A t the same time there was an informal group known inventive, forward-looking architecture. With the change
as "the Eighteen" that met at dinners and discussed in politics, economics, and social life in the postwar years,
architectural problems and theories. Although the roster America's architectural appetite reverted altogether t o
has not survived, most of the architects associated w i t h eclecticism. Except for a few critics who were willing to
this most prolific period of the new movement belonged. risk their reputations by making an objective assessment
Outside this group were Maher, Thomas E. Tallmadge, of the activities of the Chicago group, the works of the
Vernon S. Watson, William G. Purcell, George G. Elmslie. Chicago School went into eclipse. During the period
A l l took an active part in the Chicago Architectural Club between the t w o world wars the Chicago group was often
and the Chicago Arts and Crafts Society, where they found condemned and generally forgotten.
a f o r u m for their philosophies and a source of inspiration Fortunately there was still an open stream of con-
for their work. They revered Louis Sullivan and idealized tinuity for the Chicago School elsewherein Europe
his credo " f o r m follows f u n c t i o n . " Sullivan became through Wright's publications, and in Australia through
their prophet-fusing his ideas of God, man, human powers, the personal influence of G r i f f i n . On both continents
and beliefs about social order into a unique concept of the impact of the Chicago School was profound. But the
the role of architecture. significance for America's future lay in the feedback f r o m
Wright inherited Sullivan's role as the dominant force in the European stream. Wright's work became well known
the search for a rational architecture. Although his writings in Europe through major publications in Germany and
and theories are not as universally adaptable as Sullivan's, Holland. There were exhibits of his work in Berlin and of
his studio produced a great number of designers who Griffin's in Paris. Members of the Chicago School visited
worked in the spirit of the Chicago School. However, from Europe, and publications of their work appeared in
this group perhaps only Walter Burley G r i f f i n , William E. European architectural journals. It is one of the major
Drummond, and Barry Byrne developed an individuality ironies of American architectural history that from
of architectural design beyond Wrightian forms. European community, rather than f r o m its native country,
The architects who came together in Chicago following recognition first came t o the Chicago School. We know
the fire of 1871 included men of rare creative talent. Few now that its achievements were not a series of chance
of the leading figures were born in Chicago. Most of them happenings, that they were in fact part of a truly world-
had no formal training in architecture. The city had no wide movement. Their once forgotten principles constitute
architectural school as such, and only a small number of the basis for architectural practice on every continent
architects qualified to train apprentices. In less than today. Belatedly, we at last recognize that here in the
twenty years they had mastered the technique of steel Chicago area we have a living, tangible record of one of
framing and were thus able to develop the office building, the most original and dynamic developments in the history
hotel, and apartment block, as we know them today. of architecture.

9
FHF/SKYSCRAPER . . .1
 The Evolution of a New Form

The tall commercial building originated in New out by the structural framing and bearing no part of the
York City, where the invention of the elevator made building load but the curtain itself. The exterior form
the multi-story building feasible. However, the designers that grew out of Jenney's system is distinguished by the
of these early skyscrapers did not recognize the articulated wall of large panes of glass, a basic pattern
possibilities that this building type offered in the reflecting the underlying steel frame. Jenney's influence
organization of the plan and elevations into a new led to a great diversity of forms derived organically from
architectural f o r m . The form of the skyscraper that the internal structure.
evolved f r o m the Chicago School was based on the The architectural firms that made the biggest contri-
adaptation of the new technology to the art of bution in the early search for new forms in traditional
building and expressing these techniques in archi- materials were Burnham and Root, and Adler and Sulli-
tectural design. van. Burnham and Root's Rookery Building is a livelier
It is perhaps significant that William Le Baron and richer essay in the architecture of commerce than
Jenney was one of the few Chicago architects not Richardson's Marshall Field Wholesale Store, demolished
profoundly influenced by the work of H. H. Richard- in 1930, which was also constructed in the mid-1880's.
son and his mastery of design in masonry. Jenney Although the street facades are of wall bearing ma-
had been trained in Ecole centrale des arts et manu- sonry, these elevations have an extraordinary openness
factures in Paris (a school noted for its engineers, of the wall w i t h vigorous articulation of the elements
graduating Gustave Eiffel in the class before Jenney) in precise scale and proportion. In spite of the elab-
but was interested in architecture as a structural art orate decorative elements on the street elevations, the
of organizing and shaping the building composition design is a powerful revelation of the building's pier-and-
as a whole. He recognized the challenge to master lintel and pier-and-arch construction. The real signifi-
the new materials and t o offer new solutions to cance of the Rookery is its interior court. The quality
the problems of building space that existed in Chicago. of this design was the rave of the architectural critic
The technological advances of the Chicago School Henry Van Brunt, who wrote that was "nothing
were the culmination of a structural evolution that bolder, more original or more inspiring in modern civic
extended over a century, Jenney's work gave form to architecture either here or elsewhere than its glass
these new structural techniquesan auspicious be- covered c o u r t . " The present interior ornament of the
ginning as building style changed into modern archi- court was designed by Frank Lloyd Wright in 1905 and
tecture. is combined w i t h Root's delicate ironwork to provide a
rich but perfectly disciplined effect. Equally impressive is
Jenney's commercial buildings were economic forms
the design of the fire stair, which extends as a half-helix
designed to satisfy functional requirements. His Leiter
from the second floor to the tenth, enclosed in a semi-
I Building was very nearly a glass box. The masonry
cylindrical curtain of glass and cast-iron panels. This de-
enclosure of the structural system was a fireproofing
tail and the fenestration pattern of the continuous or
measure introduced by Jenney to prevent the disaster
ribbon windows on the rear elevations and the court anti-
that befell the Bogardus-type cast-iron frame buildings
cipated a now-standard feature of commercial design.
during the fire of 1 8 7 1 . Erected in 1879 and demolished
in 1972, it embodied a special kind of mill construction The Monadnock Block, designed by Burham and Root
that marks an intermediate step between the timber and in 1891, was the ultimate dimension of the long, slow
cast-iron factory of James Bogardus in 1848 and Jenney's evolution of masonry structures. The contemporary archi-
achievement between 1883 and 1885 of full skeletal tectural critic Montgomery Schuyler considered the Mon-
framing systems. adnock Building t o be "the best of all tall office build-
The invention of skeleton construction was the major ings." This 216 foot-high, 16-story structure depends on
development in modern architecture. Jenney's Home its solid masonry exterior walls to carry the main load.
Insurance Building, built in 1884-85 and demolished in The massive thickness of the six-foot walls at ground
1931, represented the decisive step in the evolution of level indicates that to build higher, using traditional ma-
iron and steel framing. It was now possible t o reduce sonry construction, would have gone beyond the point
the exterior wall t o a mere curtain, supported through- of diminishing spatial and economic returns. Hereafter it

11
was recognized that the only feasible system for the con-
struction of a skyscraper was the utilization of the steel
skeleton frame.
Interior spaces in the Monadnock Building consist of
shops on the first floor and offices on the other floors,
all carried on cast-iron columns. Street entrances open on
t w o sides w i t h a principal entrance on the north. In ad-
dition to its monumentality as the l i m i t of masonry con-
struction for commercial use, the Monadnock Building is
also significant in the architectural refinements of its fa-
cade, which heralded a new architectural aesthetic. Since
the client insisted on a building with no ornament, John
Root conceived of it as a single slab with a subtle curve
rising f r o m the ground inward to the plane of the sheer
vertical surface of the wall. A t the t o p , the plane of the
wall then gently sweeps outward to form the cornice at
the roof. The form is not unlike the profile of a rolled
steel I beam section. The flat surface of the wall is inter-
rupted by bay windows of brick which seem to grow
f r o m the surface of the facade. The smooth transition of
all these surfaces of unadorned brick anticipates the mod-
ern architectural philosophy of expressing through the
nature of materials the ornamentation of the design.
While Root was discovering the full reach of his design
powers in the Monadnock Building, Sullivan was well on
the way to finding the extent of his powers in designing
the A u d i t o r i u m Building. The reputation of the firm of
Adler and Sullivan and even of Chicago was made by this
THE R O O K E R Y , 1885-86. B U R N H A M A N D
building. When the A u d i t o r i u m was completed in 1889, ROOT, architects. Photograph by Hedrich-Blessing.
it was one of the largest and most complex buildings in
America. Shaped by civic and aesthetic considerations,
this ten-story, block-long structure was built to house not
only a 4,237-seat theater, but also a hotel and commer-
cial office space. The ingenuity of the design achieves in- resulted in superb sightlines and accoustical qualities,
tegration of these separate and diversified elements both but his innovations in mechanical and hydraulic equip-
in the function of the plan and the u n i f o r m i t y of the ele- ment for the stage insure that the theater still functions
vation. Sullivan abandoned his propensity for elaborate as one of the very best for opera and drama.
exterior ornament and concentrated on the architectonic The A u d i t o r i u m was a high point of masonry and
effect of mass textures and the proportioning and scaling iron construction in an age of mechanized industrial
of large and simple elements. techniques. It brought the old systems of construction
The exterior walls of the A u d i t o r i u m and the interior to a close and at the same time substantially advanced
partitions dividing the theater f r o m the hotel and offices the new structural techniques growing up around it.
are of load-bearing brick masonry. This is the extent of It was William Le Baron Jenney who first demon-
traditional materials and methods of construction. The strated in Chicago the advantages of new structural
foundation problems for this construction were solved in techniques as applied to tall commercial buildings. His
ingenious ways by Dankmar Adler w i t h raft footings, pre- early buildings, such as the Leiter I (1879) and the
compressed soils, and high-pressure waterproofing. All Home Insurance (1885), have now been demolished.
forms of iron construction known at the time were used However, there are several buildings still remaining in
in framing the interior floor and carrying the roof loads. the Loop that show his genius. The Leiter II (now the
To support the great elliptical vault over the orchestra Sears Building) is a well-developed design for space,
floor of the theater, Adler spanned the space with six, light, ventilation, and security that f u l l y expresses its
117-foot long, flat trusses and hung elliptical arch trusses construction and function in architectural elements.
from these. The vault and ceiling were suspended f r o m This is a starting point for architectural purity. The
these trusses. Adler's engineering of the theater n o i only steel and wrought-iron frame functions entirely as a

12
 Rightto left: M A N H A T T A N B U I L D I N G , OLD COLONY B U I L D I N G , FISHER BUI L D I N G , and
M O N A D N O C K BLOCK, South Dearborn Street looking north.
Photograph by Harold Allen for Historic American Buildings Survey.

skeleton w i t h large bays divided into windows of maxi- cantilevered steel members, thus avoiding the necessity
mum size by fireproofed, cast-iron columns. (The for heavy foundations at the property line. The frame is
fenestration pattern is considered to have influenced supported on spread footings on the hardpan at pres-
the design of Le Corbusier's Maison de Verre (1932), sures not heretofore used. The framing system is a com-
according to Sigfried Giedion, the Swiss historian, in bination of steel and cast and wrought iron, used as an
his study of the development of modern architecture.) economy measure to reduce the use of steel, which was
This expression of structure dominates the architec- reserved for the main girders, joists, and the channels
tural accents of this eight-story building, which is over used for the spandrel beams. This was the first building
400 feet long and contains 57,000 square feet per floor. in which the structural designers recognized the need for
The first floor was remodeled in 1955, but the mass of wind bracing, which was carried out by both diagonal and
the building remains essentially as it was when com- portal bracing of the frame.
pleted in 1891. The window openings vary from trapezoidal to semi-
During this same period, Jenney built the Manhattan circular window bays. The openings on the additional
Building at 431 South Dearborn Street. This sixteen- floors are paired windows under arches surmounted by
story building now appears somewhat awkward because triple windows, a traditional fenestration pattern which
the original design was for a twelve-story building and can be traced to H. H. Richardson's Marshall Field
the cornice above the twelfth floor now reads as a belt Wholesale Store and classic sources. This curious mix-
course. A t the time it was completed in 1 8 9 1 , it was ture of window patterns and shapes was not entirely a
the tallest building in the city. Technically, it is a very matter of caprice. Jenney was exploring the use of bay
significant advance. The skeletal frame is used through- windows as a means of admitting as much light as pos-
out the building. Even the party walls are carried on sible f r o m the narrow, densely built street.

13
 Following the death of Root, Burnham continued his of glass, clean sharp lines, and a lively expression of the
architectural practice under the name of D. H. Burnham steel frame. In the upper stories the clarity softens, and
and Co. The Reliance Building, designed by the f i r m the motif terminates w i t h circular windows not unlike
in about 1894, is credited to one of the firm's prin- Adler and Sullivan's Wainwright Building in St. Louis.
cipal partners, Charles B. A t w o o d . This building is con- However, this does not distract from the ornamental re-
sidered by Carl Condit to be "astonishing in its daring straint and the delicately enhanced movement of the
pursuit of the Chicago principles to their logical ulti- gently undulating walls of terra cotta and glass. The ef-
mate." The Reliance has no piers or columns in the ex- fect of this creamy color among the darker buildings
terior envelope, which is simply a vertical succession of facing Michigan Avenue is remarkable. The upper floors
broad glass bands divided into large panes by tenuous overlooking Grant Park and Lake Michigan were used as
mullions. The strong horizontality of the street elevations offices by Burnham.
is a direct revelation of the internal floor system, a series
The views from here certainly must have stimulated
of parallel horizontal slabs carried t o the columns by
his romantic sense of grand views and long vistas, as
girders and joists. The design of the Reliance almost
he prepared his city plans for Washington, Chicago,
reaches the ultimate refinement of the modern dema-
Cleveland, San Francisco, and Manila.
terialized curtain wall.
Of the early buildings of Holabird and Roche, only
This work is a direct forerunner of the designs of Le a few remain that are significant in illustrating the ori-
Corbusier and Mies van der Rohe. In fact, the Reliance ginality and imagination of building that was possible in
Building comes very near to the transparent tower that Chicago's new construction system. The commission for
the latter imagined in his Berlin project of 1919. The re- the south addition of the Monadnock Building was
finement of the structural system included t w o unusual awarded to the f i r m in 1892 and completed a year
provisions for wind bracing, employing spandrel girders later. In spite of an apparent misgiving on the part of
and two-story columns w i t h staggered joints. The upper
the owner over the cost of constructing in steel, the
ten stories of the frame were erected in fifteen days, a
extension of the original building is a steel frame struc-
feat generally not surpassed today. A large space on the
ture. The elevation expresses this in the wide openings
first floor is utilized for commercial use, whereas the
at the base and the large area of glass in the upper
rear portion contains stairs and an elevator. The upper
stories. The structural design is that of Croydon T.
floors, covering the same area plus cantilevered bay win-
Purdy, who later achieved national reputation as a
dows, are subdivided into rooms w i t h a center corridor.
structural engineer for a number of famous Chicago
The Fisher Building, finished in 1896, has all the es-
sentials of the Reliance Building translated into terms of
Gothic ornament and pseudo-structural detail. However,
the essentials remainthe high glass walls, the level plane
of the projecting bay windows, and the thin bands of
spandrel moldings and mullions. The whole effect is open
and airy and does not have the cloistered effect of the
Gothic motif as applied to skyscrapers as late as 1930.
The structural system had fully matured by this time with
spread footings to carry higher compressions and portal
wind bracing. The efficiency of steel construction was
well demonstrated in the Fisher Building where the upper
thirteen and a half stories were topped out in thirteen
days. The visual effect of this building as viewed in late
winter afternoon softens the redundant details and the
lighting transforms the walls into a glittering and trans-
parent sheath crossed by thin horizontal and vertical
lines.
The Railway Exchange Building, erected in 1903-04,
is considered by many critics to be one of D. H. Burn-
ham and Co's best designs. The building has little depen-
GAGE BLOCK, 30 & 24 South Michigan Ave. {left), 1898.
dence on historic style and is the epitome of Chicago
H O L A B I R D A N D ROCHE, architects. 18 South Michigan
construction systems. Although it lacks the precision and Ave. {right), 1898-99. LOUIS S U L L I V A N , architect.
openness of the Reliance Building, it has extensive areas Photograph by Chicago Architectural Photographing Co.

14
 symmetry have been lost w i t h the addition of a bay
and another floor where the cornices were removed.
As originally designed, all the offices both on the
street and the interior court received outdoor ventila-
tion and natural light. The bay-wide, horizontal ex-
panse of glass with a large fixed central sash flanked on
each side by narrow, double-hung windows, later re-
ferred to as the Chicago window, is a full expression
of the cells in the steel frame. The building extends
for 188 feet (eight bays) on the f r o n t and 141 feet
on the side and carries up 16 stories. There were no
interior partitions in the original construction since the
owner rented the space on the basis that he would sub-
divide the floors t o suit the tenants. The elevator lobby
is particularly commodious, and the floor planning is
a model of functional design that has rarely been im-
proved in the history of commercial architecture.

From the design of the Marquette Building, Holabird

and Roche rapidly developed a standardized f o r m for
the office building. One building after another came
from their drafting boards, each almost identical to its pre-
decessor. The street elevations had cellular walls of large
rectangular openings w i t h the long dimension horizontal,
each opening of glass filling an entire bay. The piers
generally were continuous, having spandrel panels recessed
M O N A D N O C K BLOCK, {foreground) 1889-91.
to the point of being nearly flush w i t h the windows. The
B U R N H A M A N D ROOT, architects {background) 1893,
piers and spandrel were always much narrower than those
H O L A B I R D A N D ROCHE, architects. Photograph by
Richard Nickel for Historic American Bui/dings Survey. of the Marquette. The Chicago windows were common
throughout, but sometimes narrow, grouped openings
w i t h tenuous mullions were used. U n i f o r m i t y of the
and New York skyscrapers. Although the building facade replaced the decorative variations of the Marquette.
continues the general proportions of Burnham and This simplified treatment answered the functional re-
Root's northern portion of the block, the composi- quirements of light and air, and honestly and effectively
tion is more traditional. The lower stories are treated expressed the structural system of steel framing.
with three-story piers dividing the large horizontal Especially refined examples of this concept are the
windows f r o m the two-story arched entrances. The three buildings of the Gage Block, 24 and 30 South
projection of the bay windows is sharper in their break Michigan Avenue by Holabird and Roche and a com-
w i t h the plane of the wall, and the cornice and upper panion building, at No. 18 South Michigan Avenue,
story windows combine in a heavy arcaded treatment. whose facade was designed by Louis Sullivan. The first
These features are a differentiation from the original two buildings were completed in 1898 and are a frank
portion of the building. expression of the clarity and exactitude of the uni-
The Monadnock addition, the earlier Pontiac (1891), f o r m i t y of treatment in reducing decorative detail to
and the later Old Colony (1893) buildings are unusual narrow moldings and in the placing of large Chicago
and arresting combinations of elements, but they show windows in the small facades. The cornices have now
a failure to exploit the steel frame to full utilitarian and been replaced by a parapet, and the present store
formal advantage. However, these buildings are impor- fronts are grossly inferior to the plane of glass that
tant for the reason that they mark the point at which originally characterized the base of these buildings.
Holabird and Roche took the decisive step in the This formula of the design of office buildings was
architectonic revelation of steel framing. carried to its ultimate in the McClurg (now Ayer)
The Marquette Building, completed in 1894 from Building, completed in 1900. Here Holabird and Roche
a design by Holabird and Roche, embodies all the cri- reduced the wide bay cellular wall to a pattern of mere
teria for an office building in well-porportioned and lines and accentuated the tenuousness of the piers by
imposing simplicity. Some of the building's grace and fluting them to a knife-edge profile the full height of

15
 superior in the subtle quality of its finely proportioned
composition. This expression is derived f r o m the articula-
tion of the underlying structure by means of the t h i n
piers and narrow spandrels set flush w i t h the large open-
ings and a flat glass base. The horizontal quality of the
window openings is intensified by the translucent panels
which Sullivan introduced to diffuse the natural light.
Alterations in 1902 added four more stories to No. 18
which, although it destroyed the original relationship w i t h
the adjoining buildings, followed the Sullivan motif in de-
tail, including the foliation at the top of the piers so
arbitrarily stuck onto the parapet. The Gage Building is
the starting point for Sullivan's next step in the synthesis
of f o r m .
Sullivan's mature understanding of the complex
quality of fine architecture is found in his design of
the department store for Schlesinger and Mayer, later
Carson Pirie Scott and Co. This commission was one of
the few that came to Sullivan for a large urban building in
the years after the partnership w i t h Adler was dissolved.
The design for the first t w o portions of the store (1899
and 1904) embody all of Sullivan's architectural theories
and artistic skills. The last phases of construction were
completed in 1906 by D. H. Burnham and Co., and in
1961 by Holabird and Root who chose to f o l l o w the
major features of the Sullivan design.
For the most part, the Carson Pirie Scott Store is a
steel-frame structure. The outer columns and spandrel
girders above the second story are sheathed in terra
cotta tiles. The first t w o stories f o r m the base of the
mass and are covered w i t h profuse, delicate, and original
LEITER II B U I L D I N G , 1889-91. W I L L I A M LE BARON
foliate and floral ornament of low relief in cast iron.
JENNEY, architect. Photograph by Cervin Robinson for The cellular units of the upper story are a bold and
Historic American Buildings Survey. exact reflection of the steel frame and perfectly pro-
portioned windows are a dramatic culmination of the
Chicago School fenestration pattern. This horizontality
the building to terminate in a stylized entablature. The of the wide-bay window frame is further emphasized
cornice, as w i t h most of the buildings of its period, has by the continuous rows of ornament at the line of the
been removed as a safety precaution by city ordinance. sill and lintel. The original roof line was a thin slab
It can be seen that Holabird and Roche designed their projecting slightly, accenting the horizontality, and
variations w i t h i n a stable architectural treatment, pro- terminating the verticality of the mass.
viding a formula for the development of an architectural There is no better expression of the architecture of
vernacular that extended the number of important opera- modern industry and commerce than this building. It
tions that could be performed w i t h o u t a fresh act of can be easily associated w i t h the European International
imagination for each architectural commission. This is Style of the mid-1930's and the American horizontalism
truly the basis of the ethos of our modern civilization. of the later phase of the Chicago School. Sullivan's
Sullivan's experiment w i t h expression of basic superior sense of scale, proportion, r h y t h m , and organi-
architectural f o r m is dramatically displayed in his treat- zation, coupled w i t h his unparalleled imagination as an
ment of the facade of No. 18 of the Gage Block, designed ornamentalist, is a declaration not of his style alone, but
by Holabird and Roche in 1898. This is the first of the of his architectural principles. The Carson Store building
Sullivan designs to take its f o r m from the steel frame that is both an exploitation of the aesthetic possibilities of
supports it. In comparison w i t h the frank clarity of the the steel frame and a statement of the system of con-
t w o adjacent buildings, Sullivan's personal idiom is struction epitomized in the Chicago School movement.
17
NEW FORM
 The Expression of a Philosophy of Design

The f u l l character of the Chicago School was not George W. Maher, and the f i r m of Tallmadge and Watson,
entirely visible during the late nineteenth century. The all of whom at times matched and occasionally surpassed
original architects limited their work almost entirely to the genius of their mentors.
the single aspect of tall commercial buildings. This limi-
The early phase of this branch reflects Sullivan's mes-
tation imposed severe restrictions on their effectiveness
sage of simplification and elimination of nonessentials.
in other directions, prevented them f r o m developing
He starts w i t h the building mass, transforms it by ordering
styles that were not so specialized, and inevitably im-
and simplifying the individual forms and openings, and
peded their influence on ramifications of the new
then integrates a structured ornament. This is what he
architecture.
had done in the A u d i t o r i u m Building and the Wainwright
As the practice of architecture became increasingly Building, both echoing H. H. Richardson's Marshall Field
institutionalized to meet the exacting needs of large Warehouse and its source, the Renaissance palazzo.
commercial commissions, young professionals and small
architectural firms found they did not have the credentials The most dramatic examples of Sullivan's approach to
required by the business community for its major projects. design can be seen in his development of a personal style
A t the same time, the larger architectural offices, w i t h in the two tombs he designed at Graceland Cemetery.
their highly specialized talents, could not afford to accept The Ryerson T o m b (1889) is a clear statement of simpli-
less remunerative commissions for small public buildings fication w i t h its battered walls that flare out at the base
and residences. As a result, a later phase of the Chicago in a graceful, uncluttered, and springing curve. The form
School was able to take advantage of a unique opportun- and the polished surfaces of the blue-black Quincy granite
ity to adapt its design theories to new varieties of con- embody the f u l l expression of the architectural composi-
structionsmall public buildings and houses. t i o n . By emphasizing geometric f o r m and the nature of
material, this work became a statement of independence
The development of a second branch of the Chicago
from the Romanesque, and the basis for the break f r o m
School was the American manifestation of the inter-
historic styles. The Getty Thomb (1890) is Sullivan's
national revolt and reform which occurred in the visual
first mature work. The integrating of a structured orna-
arts during the early years of this century. Inspired by
ment into an expression of the mass and its openings is a
Louis Sullivan and given prominence by Frank Lloyd
complete statement of the philosophy and style of
Wright, members of the movement sought to achieve
architecture we call " M o d e r n . " This process of design
fresh and original architectural expression. Their designs
was quickly mirrored by younger architects. It is partic-
were characterized by precise, rectangular forms and by
ularly evident in Garden's Herrick and Madlener houses,
highly sophisticated interior arrangements w i t h a sense
Wright's Charnley House, Maher's house for John Farson,
of space that belied the actual size. The approach proved
and Perkin's work for the Chicago Board of Education.
immensely significant in residential architecture as in-
creasing land and building costs, together w i t h the absence Of the young architects in the movement, George
of domestic help required for great dwellings, led to the W. Maher was the first to develop a consistant personal
construction of smaller and more efficient houses. mode for residential architecture. Maher developed his
Previous studies have exalted the work and influence view of architecture somewhat independently of the
of Sullivan and Wright often to the exclusion of many mainstream of the Chicago School. Although he had
contributions made by their contemporaries, but scholars been an apprentice of Joseph L. Silsbee simultaneously
now are publishing books and articles on the entire w i t h Wright and Elmslie, he was not in the group at
phenomenon of the Chicago School. The comprehensive Steinway Hall or among the Eighteen. By the time he
study of the Chicago School should take into considera- began his private practice in 1888 he had established
tion not only the masters but also the works of their his philosophy that " t h e right idea of a residence (is)
colleagues and students. Included are some twenty to have it speak its f u n c t i o n . " Function for him was
architects, among whom are Walter Burley G r i f f i n , the more a psychological concept of shelter rather than
firm of Purcell and Elmslie, Barry Byrne, William E. utilitarian function. This he expressed in the massive-
D r u m m o n d , Hugh M.G. Garden, Dwight H. Perkins, ness, centralization, and substantiality of design.

19
 The culmination of this synthesis occurred in the
symmetrical, blockly masses, and slick but solid masonry
walls of the house he designed for John Farson in 1897.
Unfortunately, he considered the Farson house a "type
of an American Style." This search for an American
architectural style was later supplemented by inspira-
tions f r o m the modern architectural movement in
England and Austria.
Perhaps because of this concern for style, Maher was
unable to completely synthesize his architectural theories
into architectural solution. As a result, his work was
often awkward, repeatedly falling back on the expedient
of a tried formula until a new type was substituted in its
place. However, Maher enjoyed considerable social success,
and most of his houses were built in Chicago's.northern,
wealthiest suburbs including Kenilworth, Oak Park, and
MAGERSTADT HOUSE, 1906-08. GEORGE W. M A H E R ,
architect. Photograph by Cervin Robinson for Historic Evanston. Of Maher's nonresidential work, the Kenil-
American Buildings Survey. w o r t h Club (1906), w i t h its timber frame and long hipped
roof came closest to the design spirit of the Chicago
School. More typical of his nonresidential work were the

ROBIE HOUSE, 1908. F R A N K L L O Y D W R I G H T , architect. Photograph by Cervin Robinson for Historic American Buildings Survey.

20
several buildings for Northwestern University and the a continual f l o w of designs for houses, churches, in-
suburban office buildings which were collegiate and com- dustrial, commercial, and other public buildings that
mercial adaptations of his post-Farson house designs. A l l offered original solutions to the functional and
have the same emphatic cornice, and the same emphasis aesthetic problems presented by each building type.
on the wall surface w i t h the precise punctures of door The quality of work from this f i r m is reflected in the
and window apertures. Maher's later work showed a success of its creative exercises rather than the easier
variety which lacked direction, and by 1913 he had re- adaptations of design formulas.
linquished his spirit of independence and decisiveness. Dwight H. Perkins was an architect who provided
In spite of present day aesthetic judgment, Maher made much of the spirit of the Chicago School movement
real contributions to the Chicago School movement. although he was not an avant-garde designer. His
His work enjoyed great public favor and had a profound colleague, Thomas Tallmadge, said, "We think of
influence on other architects. He created, where others him as a citizen and a patriot almost before we
had failed, a consistent and occasionally highly personal think of him as an architect." Public service was
series of ahistorical designs. always a priority w i t h him, and he was instrumental
Some of the finest designs of the period were pro- in the establishment of the Cook County Forest
duced by Hugh M. G. Garden. Before the turn of the Preserves. He led the cause of the movement in
century he was working privately, often as a free-lance the Steinway Hall loft, at the Chicago Archi-
designer for Richard E. Schmidt, and in 1906 the tectural Club, and during his term as architect
partnership of Schmidt, Garden, and Martin was formed. for the Chicago Board of Education.
Garden had an outstanding sense of proportion in Although the designs may not always have
which he expressed strong, positive massing, a simpli- been f r o m his hand, he has justifiable claim as a
fication of basic forms, and careful attention to the specialist in school design with his concepts of
relation between solid and void. From his hand came new forms and functions for the school building.

B R O O K F I E L D K I N D E R G A R T E N , 1 9 1 1 . W I L L I A M E. D R U M M O N D , architect. Photograph by Richard Nickel for Historic American

Buildings Survey.

21
 K E N I L W O R T H CLUB, 1906.
GEORGE W. M A H E R , architect.
Photograph for Historic
American Buildings Survey.

Of the projects that came from his five-year f o r m was modified by broad space-defining planes,
tenure w i t h the Board of Education, the Carl and the traditional wall was all but eliminated. The
Schurz High School and the Grover Cleveland roof as a function of shelter was emphasized w i t h
Elementary School are perhaps the most dramatic. broad overhangs, and its low pitch hip or slab-like
His buildings are sometimes expressionistic, with form accented the horizontal line and intensified the
vigorous plasticity of f o r m and rich warm tone of play of light and shadow.
brick in a tapestry of masonry. The schools have The form of the roof was echoed in terraces or canti-
a dignity and repose in design that is monumental levered balconies until the whole composition of interior
w i t h o u t being formidable. and exterior space became a lively interplay between
The evolution of Wright's design from the horizontals and verticals, culminating in a linear quality
Shingle Style, through the static forms of the rec- of repose on the land.
tilinear, to his fully developed prairie house and his Wright's solutions were what he called "organic"the
experiments in new material, such as the exposed, adaptation of natural principles to the organization of
reinforced concrete structure of Unity Temple can architectural space. He conceived of the form of his
be traced in the limited geographic area of Oak buildings as an organic outgrowth of its function. Un-
Park-River Forest. His complete and personalized fortunately Wright communicated his methods and
transformation of building forms can be seen in his principles of designs as formal solutions which were
Winslow, Thomas, and Mrs. Thomas Gale houses. accepted as stylisms of his organic architecture.
However, the greatest works of his mature period The maturing phase of the Chicago School was domi-
(1900-09), called by Grant C. Manson "the first nated by Wright, and the production of his prolific
golden age," are outside this districtthe Willits studio until 1909, when he left the city never to re-
House in Highland Park, the Coonley House in River- turn. During this phase his influence was evident in
side, and the Robie House in Chicago. the independent work of his former studio staff including
Wright had re-thought the problem of the single- Byrne, Drummond, and G r i f f i n . As a result the
family house by that time, and the result was the diversity of architectural form at this period was made
destruction of the box. He opened the house within by designers who were not subject to Wright's thoughts.
itself and opened it out to nature. The closed cubic The road to independence for architectural design

22
and the final fulfillment of the Chicago School as the pression of modern architectural ideas that stemmed
basis for modern architecture came in accepting Wright's entirely from non-Wrightian sourceshouses by Tallmadge
forms, which resulted f r o m his personal design process, and Watson, bank buildings and houses by Purcell
and then in applying Sullivan's manner of thinking to and Elmslie, and Maher's houses, schools, and small
gain an individual solution and a more individual public buildings.
expression. This stage was epitomized by the mature Thus by 1914, after the stimulation and assimilation
work of Byrne, Drummond, and G r i f f i n , although of many and varied influences, the Chicago School
many of these commissions are outside the Chicago movement reached full maturity and found fulfillment
area. Within metropolitan Chicago there are splendid in creating often distinguished designs. Self-supporting,
examples of their developing personal style, including vital, and strong, the School seemed destined to a
such remarkable designs as the River Forest Women's brilliant future. Then, w i t h the interruption of build-
Club by Drummond, and the Frederick Carter House ing construction during World War I, the movement
by G r i f f i n . T o this somewhat limited volume of lost momentum. The very forces that created it f i f t y
quality work the movement produced a great quantity years earlier now led to its demise. After the war
of work by lesser known designers including Marion different values were of more importance, and Mid-
Mahony (who later married Griffin) and John S. Van westerners increasingly rejected individuality in favor
Bergen, who never broke away from the Wrightian of conformity. The impact of the spirit of the move-
motif. Added to this was a wealth of personal ex- ment was not t o be felt again in Chicago for t h i r t y years.

Left to right: C H A R N L E Y HOUSE, 1 8 9 1 . A D L E R A N D S U L L I V A N , architects; F R A N K L L O Y D W R I G H T , designer. Photograph by

Chicago Architectural Photo Co. CARTER HOUSE, 1910. W A L T E R BURLEY G R I F F I N , architect. Photograph by Richard Nickel for
Historic American Buildings Survey. M A D L E N E R HOUSE, 1902. R I C H A R D E. S C H M I D T , architect; H U G H M. G. G A R D E N , designer.
Photograph by Harold Allen for Historic American Buildings Survey.

Left to right: Detail f r o m ROBIE HOUSE. Photograph by Cervin Robinson for Historic American Buildings Survey. ROBIE HOUSE,
1908. F R A N K L L O Y D W R I G H T , architect. Photograph by Chicago Architectural Photo Co. Detail from MAGERSTADT HOUSE.
Photograph by Cervin Robinson for Historic American Buildings Survey.

23
TOWN PLANNING . . .
 Architecture in the Landscape
Even prior to the 1871 fire there was an awareness The concept of the village was based on its function
of parks and open lands in Chicago. The great West- as a satellite town in relation to the city. The plan-
ern Parks of Chicago were established as a means of ning of the business and civic center for the village was
creating open space to enhance the real estate values focused on the railroad stationthe first out-of-town
of new residential areas to the west of the city's core, stop on the main line of the Burlington. Although it
and concurrent with the beginning of the Chicago was never exploited, the plan also encompassed a six-
School movement there was the general interest of mile pleasure parkway, connecting the village with
romanticists in relating nature and open country t o Chicago for the benefit of commuters.
the city. This interest was intensified by Frederick Riverside became a model for the later development
Law Olmsted, Sr., and Horace W. S. Cleveland, t w o of suburban towns. However, planners of modern sub-
pioneers in the young profession of landscape archi- divisions generally use only the basic curving streets,
tecture, who brought to Chicago their mature ex- while ignoring the creative use of topography and the
perience in designing w i t h the land. Their projects role of small parks in suburban living.
and writings, models of appropriate adaptation of The significant early planning projects of Chicago
basic design principles to local conditions, created the School architects were concerned with architectural solu-
rationale for the evolution of modern landscape design. tions t o the socioeconomic plight of factory workers,
Olmsted's plan of 1868 for the Village of Riverside, such as Beman's design of Pullman, or the overall
Illinois, was not only a landmark as the first planned organization of urban spaces into a unified scheme, such
commuter suburb, but the inventive design of its road as Burnham's plan for the Columbian Exposition and
system was a major contribution to town planning on his later city master plans. Although these planning
a global scale. Olmsted had set out to create for the projects had little effect on the advancement of modern
Riverside Development Association a community that design precepts, they were of international consequence.
represented "the best application of the A r t of Civili- In 1879 the Chicago industrialist George M. Pullman
zation t o which Mankind has yet attained." With his commissioned architect Solon S. Beman and landscaper
partner, Calvert Vaux, Olmsted used careful site plan- Nathan F. Barrett to design the t o w n of Pullman. This
ning t o make the Chicago suburb a place to foster project was conceived as a complete manufacturing t o w n ,
"harmonious cooperation of man in a community and having not only the factories and the workers' homes
the ultimate in relationship contrast, in a course inter- but also convenient shopping facilities, theaters, schools,
dependent between families." In its physical aspects and churches. Recreational activities were provided in
and social concepts, Olmsted's plan is a classic. playgrounds and athletic fields on the shores of Lake
Abandoning the customary grid street pattern of the Calumet. Complete city services were also provided,
city, Olmsted merged the form of the street into the including sewers and fire protection. Although the
topography of the landscape. He reinforced the general scheme followed a regular urban grid pattern, there were
layout of the street by planting roadside trees in regular several planned open spaces. The public buildings were
clusters to give spontaneous effect and exploit the beauty grouped around a park across f r o m the railroad station,
of the mass foliage. He also insisted that each house- and the Pullman Company Administration Building faced
holder maintain living trees between the house and the a lagoon which formed an extension of the park.
highway line.
Architecturally Beman's work had a high standard of
In further efforts to create a rural atmosphere, consistency and provided striking public and company
Olmsted and Vaux stressed unfenced parks and recreation buildings, plus a variety of houses for families of
grounds within informal village greens, and interior managers and workers and dormitories for single,
roadways that wound around interesting natural features transient workers. Although there was no breakthrough
and focused on the river. The roads were often de- into new architectural design, the complete development
pressed to create a less disturbing effect on sightlines. of the social and physical complex of the town by one
For the first time the streets were deliberately curved, team of designers was a significant milestone in city
the idea being to suggest, in Olmsted's words, "an planning. There is no doubt that as an example of a
implied leisure complacentness and happy t r a n q u i l i t y . " satellite town Pullman had an influence on Sir Ebenezer
In other parts of the development there is the suggestion Howard and his Garden City Movement in London in
of separation of business from pleasure traffic. the late nineteenth century.

25
 The World's Columbian Exposition of 1893, coordi- simultaneously, proved an unqualified success.
nated by Daniel Burnham, brought together all the One of the most important contributions of the
major architects in the United States to design, as in- Columbian Exposition to the future of American cities
dividual commissions, the major exposition buildings in was its influence on the art of city planning and land-
a u n i f o r m , neo-classical style. Many designers and critics scape architecture. For the first time in American
felt the exposition was an aesthetic disaster, since it history a complete city, equipped with all the public
turned public taste once more to the admiration of facilities attendant upon a population of thousands,
historic styles. Despite Sullivan's prediction that it was built as a unit on a single common architectural
would set American architecture back f i f t y years, the scale. Sociologists acclaimed the "White C i t y " a great
fair had a positive effect in the scope of its physical social achievement, "the result of many minds inspired
plan, mammoth buildings set within a man-made land- by a common aim working for the common good . . . .
scape and related and supported by an integrated in- The World's Fair was a miniature of the ideal c i t y . "
frastructure of transportation and public services. Burn- Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr., together w i t h his associate
ham's effort to bring together the architectural, engineer- Henry Sargent Codlin, formulated the landscape design
ing, and construction talent of the entire country into of the World's Fair, which was superimposed over his
a single concentrated work, to be completed earlier design for Jackson Park and the Midway Plaisance.

COON LEY HOUSE, 1908. F R A N K L L O Y D W R I G H T , architect. JENS JENSEN, landscape architect. Photograph by Chicago
Architectural Photographing Co.

26
Plan of R I V E R S I D E , 1869. OLMSTED, V A U X A N D CO., landscape architects. Plan courtesy of Frederick Law Olmsted Society of Riverside.

27
 Montgomery Schuyler wrote the following year: commodate this rigid pattern. His solutions to the problems
of Chicago were not heeded in the rapid rebuilding that
The landscape plan is the key to the pictorial process was in progress, and thus was lost an excellent opportunity
of the Fair as a whole, and we say it generated the for a new system of streets and boulevards more imagina-
architecture of the water court by supplying indica-
tive than the old grid pattern. Working in the romantic
tions which sensitive architects had no choice but to
follow. In no point was the skill of Mr. Olmsted traditions of Olmsted, Cleveland did much to awaken his
and his associates more conspicuous than in the contemporaries in Chicago and the Midwest to the necessity
transition f r o m the symmetrical and stately treat- of comprehensive solutions to the problems of town
ment of the basin to the irregular winding of the planning and the provisions of adequate park systems.
lagoon.
Several architects active in the Chicago School move-
The work of Olmsted and Codlin at the Fair was an ment were also directly involved in landscape design.
outstanding example of the " C i t y Beautiful" and a The development of the Western Park system occupied
powerful influence on the art of city planning. William Le Baron Jenney when he first arrived in Chicago
It was from his associations gained as administrator and led him to an active role as designer for parks, gardens,
for the World's Fair that Burnham derived his interest and ancillary structures. He was later associated with
in city planning. He visited Europe and studied plans Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr., as the local supervisor for the
for all the great European cities, particularly Paris. In construction of Riverside. So imbued was Jenney with the
1902 he found himself working w i t h Frederick Law romantic concepts of merging suburban town into the
Olmsted, Jr., and his associates f r o m the World's Fair, landscape and the ethos of nature, that he built his own
Charles F. McKim and Augustus Saint-Gaudens, as home in Riverside and wrote and propagandized for the
members of the McMillian Commission to study and romantic point of view.
suggest plans for the District of Columbia. The in- Another important figure in early American landscape
fluence of Paris and the neo-classic style is to be seen, architecture was Ossian C. Simonds, a civil engineer, who
not only in the city of Washington, but in all of was at one time a partner in the f i r m of Holabird, Simonds
Burnham's plans. He made master plans for Cleveland, and Roche. He was the only Chicagoan at the meeting in
San Francisco, and Manila, but the capstone of his New York on January 4, 1899, to organize the American
planning career was his Chicago Plan of 1909. Society of Landscape Architects, and for the next thirty
Whatever criticism may be made of the Chicago years he was active in the profession and the Society. His
Plan w i t h its heavy overtones of classicism, Burnham work in landscape design included the layout of Fort
had unusual technical and administrative ability to Sheridan, Illinois, and his masterpiece, Graceland Cemetery
organize such stupendous operations. He enlisted in Chicago. The remarkable parklike design of Graceland
broad support from political and business leaders was planned on a large scale as a spatial entity. Because
of Chicago and received publicity that even reached to of his preference for the use of midwestern informality in
the schools explaining the reasons for a new city plan. his planning, and his insistence on a plan in sympathy with
The published brochures w i t h sumptuous drawings de- the environment, Simonds must be considered a pioneer
picted the integration of business and industrial and resi- in the development of what became a new school of land-
dential centers into a whole planned unit. Burnham scape architecture.
came as close as anyone in modern times to changing One of the few landscape designers directly associated
the appearance of a major city. Although realized only with the younger architects of the Chicago School move-
in partmost notably the lakeshore areathis most ment was Jens Jensen. In his long career of more than
ambitious of American city plans remains a goal of f i f t y years in Chicago, Jensen landscaped houses and
Chicago even today. designed parks that are the illustrations of his affinity to
More direct in its influence on members of the Chicago the early works and thinking of Cleveland and Simonds.
School was the work and writings of Horace W. S. Cleveland. But Jensen's talent was original, springing from the ar-
Cleveland moved to Chicago in 1869 when he learned that tistic, intellectual, and prairie milieu of Chicago.
Chicago had purchased land for public parks. He was Jensen's philosophy is best revealed in his writings:
appointed landscape architect of the South Park and con- I use m a n y s y m b o l s of t h e prairie . . . p l a n t s with
necting boulevards to carry out Olmsted's plan. For almost s t r o n g l y h o r i z o n t a l branches or f l o w e r clusters t h a t
twenty years he practiced landscape design and theorized repeat in o b v i o u s or s u b t l e ways the h o r i z o n t a l line
on t o w n planning. After the fire he became very much of the l a n d and the sky w h i c h is t h e m o s t impressive
p h e n o m e n o n of the boundless p l a i n s .
occupied w i t h new designs for the city. In 1873 Cleveland
published forceful arguments against the design of towns His attitude was uncompromisingly against the use of
with the typical gridiron plan on land that could not ac- rare and exotic plants. Their inclusion, except in a special

28
garden was termed by Jensen a "nature f a k i n g , " and
throughout his career he maintained that only the local
varieties were proper material for landscaping archi-
tecture.
Jensen's direct associations with the Chicago School
were many. He worked w i t h Sullivan at the Babson House
and w i t h Wright at the Coonley House, both in Riverside.
He did the landscape design for the Harry Rubens Estate,
which was designed by Maher in Glencoe; he created the
HENRY BABSON ESTATE - SERVICE B U I L D I N G S ,
landscape design for dwellings by Robert C. Spencer, and 1915-16. PURCELL & ELMSLIE, architects. JENS
was associated w i t h Hugh Garden's numerous architectural JENSEN, landscape architect. Photograph by Richard
designs in Humboldt Park. Nickel for Historic American Buildings Survey.
Wright declared:
the development of Canberra, traveling also to Delhi, India,
as a consultant for the new city. Griffin left a lasting im-
In Jensen's landscape a r c h i t e c t u r e C h i c a g o has a
native n a t u r e p o e t w h o has made t h e Western Park
pression on the country of his choice. As an advocate of
system a d e l i g h t in t h e c o u n t r y . He is a true i n - town planning, he tirelessly worked in the planning
t e r p r e t e r of the p a r t i c u l a r c h a r m of o u r p r a i r i e movement, designing not only the capital city, but also a
landscape. number of small suburbs and two major projects in other
parts of Australia.
While Cleveland, Simonds, Jensen, and Burnham each Griffin played an additional important role in the archi-
contributed in his o w n way to the t o w n planning-land- tectural development of Australia, both as a practicing
scape architecture movement in the United States, it was architect and as an outspoken critic of t i m i d traditionalism
the Chicagoan Walter Burley Griffin who brought the in building. He demanded that the style of government
landscape and city planning concepts of the Chicago buildings in Canberra be designed w i t h o u t reference to the
School to international attention. Griffin was concerned past, but in the true spirit of Australia w i t h native materials
w i t h buildings in the landscape, and f r o m the time he and natural colors. He strove to achieve an ideal architec-
began his private practice he considered himself an architect tural style where there was no relationship to the past.
and a landscape architect. Although he was hardly design- His work was important as an extension of the philosophies
ing on the scale of Burnham, his work in planning small of the Chicago School.
communities and towns was not without importance In landscape architecture and town planning the work
from the point of view of design as well as social thinking. of Jensen and Griffin stand out. Jensen was one of the
Late in 1911 Griffin entered the international competi- primary designers of Chicago's superb system of public
tion for the design of the new Australian capital as a plan- parks. He was the craftsman of the prairie garden, creating
ning exercise. On May 25, 1912, headlines in The Chicago a natural architecture out of trees and shrubs, to compliment
Tribune announced that a Chicagoan, Walter Burley the structures of stone and glass.
Griffin, had won the international competition for the Griffin was, of course, the most creative town planner
design of the city of Canberra. This plan brought into of the Chicago School. Starting w i t h modest subdivisions
focus all aspects of city planning philosophy to that date in the Chicago area and landscape plans for midwestern
in the United States. Strongly influenced by the Columbian colleges, his career expanded to the planning of a national
Exposition and the work of Burnham, the plan had a capital.
definite geometric character w i t h avenues of vistas set in Griffin recognized the need for intellectually planned,
three f o c i : the House of Parliament, the Municipal semi-autonomous suburbs, which, although connected
Center, and the Commercial Center. However, the economically to the metropolis, preserved their own way
emphasis of the plan was on the site of the citya large of life. Although Griffin was aware of the English Garden
amphitheatre w i t h a natural f l o w of river dammed t o City Movement, he saw that the American suburbs demanded
create lagoons. There was a throw-back to the romance a planned solution quite unlike that projected by Sir Ebenezar
of the natural scene and always a consciousness of the Howard and his followers. Realizing the inevitability of
relation of the man-made structures to the land. Griffin the American suburb, a fact never accepted by Wright,
introduced into planning, as a science and an art, some- Griffin sought to retain the social advantages of a small
thing of the ultimate importance for orderly and healthy town within the urban framework. By expanding this
growth of towns and cities. theme, which was Olmsted's philosophy in the design of
As a result of winning this competition. Griffin moved Riverside, Griffin exemplified the progressive spirit which
to Australia and spent the remainder of his life working for had been so much a part of his Chicago heritage.

29
 THE LOOP CHICAGO SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE BUILDINGS

In the central business district of Chicago, there remains a concentration of buildings representing the evolution of design
principles and construction systems basic to modern architecture. The following buildings trace the development of the
skyscraper - an architectural form that has shaped urban life throughout the modern world:

1. A u d i t o r i u m Building, 1887-89, Adler and Sullivan, Architects

2. Carson Pirie Scott Co. Department Store, 1899, 1903-04, Louis H. Sullivan, Architect
3. Fisher Building, 1895-96, D.H. Burnham and Co., Architects
4. Gage Block, 1898, Holabird and Roche, Architects (Facade at No. 18 by Louis H. Sullivan, Architect)
5. Leiter II Building (Sears Roebuck and Co. Store), 1889-91, William LeBaron Jenney, Architect
6. McClurg Building, 1899-1900, Holabird and Roche, Architects
7. Manhattan Building, 1889-91, William LeBaron Jenney, Architect
8. Marquette Building, 1893-94, Holabird and Roche, Architects
9. Monadnock Block, 1889-91, Burnham and Root, Architects (South A d d i t i o n , 1893, Holabird and Roche, Architects)
10. Railway Exchange Building, 1903-04, D.H. Burnham and Co., Architects
11. Reliance Building, 1894-95, D.H. Burnham and Co., Architects
12. Rookery Building, 1885-85, Burnham and Root, Architects
13. Champlain Building, 1903, Holabird and Roche, Architects
14. Chapin and Gore Building, 1904, Richard E. Schmidt, Architect (Design by Hugh M.G. Garden)
15. Jewelers Building, 1881-82, Adler and Sullivan, Architects
16. Mandel Brothers Annex, 1900, 1905, Holabird and Roche, Architects
17. Marshall Field and Co. Store (portion), 1892, Charles B. A t w o o d , Architect
18. Montgomery Ward Building, 1397-99, Richard E. Schmidt, Architect
19. Old Colony Building, 1893-94, Holabird and Roche, Architects
20. Reid, Murdoch and Co. Building, 1912-13, George C. Nimmons, Architect
21. Troescher Building, 1884, Adler and Sullivan, Architects

31
THE PLAN
 A New Park Concept

Chicago's architectural monuments can be saved only these economic forces so that they encourage preservation
by a concerted effort combining both public and private of selected structures, whether or not as part of the park
resources. The Federal Government could, and should, itself.
participate. The experiment has application to other cities The concept of development rights transfers appears
suffering the loss of important landmarks to economic to offer a means of achieving this redirection. The most
forces. However, no plan can be successful that does not detailed elaboration of such a scheme is the "Chicago
rest on f i r m municipal commitment and command mean- Plan." This is described in detail in John J. Costonis,
ingful support of the city's civic and business leadership. "The Chicago Plan: Incentive Zoning and Preservation of
In short, these local elements must create the conditions, Urban Landmarks," Harvard Law Review, V o l . 85, No. 3
both economic and attitudinal, that will favor the retention (January 1972), 574-84. The article is available in reprint.
of landmarks in viable, largely self-sufficient modern use. Essentially, the Chicago Plan provides for the sale of any
Without such commitment, Federal help is bound to be unused development rights to build on land occupied by
unsuccessful; w i t h such commitment. Federal participa- landmark properties within designated districts. Subject
tion becomes feasible and appropriate. to density controls and planning review, purchasers of the
The national cultural park concept offers a framework development rights would be permitted to use the rights
of sufficient flexibility in Chicago to test new dimensions in building beyond heights, space, or other limitations
of Federal, municipal, and private cooperation in the pre- that would normally apply. By eliminating unused
servation and interpretation of outstanding segments of development rights from landmark buildings, the develop-
America's cultural patrimony. Under the Historic Sites ment pressures based on potential rather than on present
Act of 1935 and additional authorizing legislation that value would be eased, if not altogether removed, and real
would be needed f r o m the Congress, the Secretary of the estate taxes would probably be lowered.
Interior would be empowered to enter into a series of A t the same time, the sale of rights for use elsewhere
cooperative agreements with the City of Chicago and other would provide substantial cash income to the landmark
municipalities, as well as w i t h public and private entities owner, compensating him for loss of development values
which would be responsible for properties to be included and assisting in preservation and restoration work. Owners
in the park. These agreements would specify the obligations of landmark buildings thus relieved of speculative interest
of the signatories in preserving and interpreting the properties would subscribe to a document setting forth preservation
and establish the mechanism for Federal financial assistance restrictions.
in those instances where deemed essential to the purposes The Chicago Plan, as implemented in downtown Chicago,
of the Park. would apply to all landmarks designated by the city within
The Federal Government itself would acquire and ad- a defined preservation district, not solely to those struc-
minister little if any historic property. Most structures tures of national significance ultimately to be included in
would remain in private ownership under the protection the park.
of cooperative agreements. However, the National Park The city's role would be to accord to each structure in
Service would operate visitor center facilities where the the park the protection of the Chicago Landmarks ordi-
history and significance of Chicago's architectural monu- nance through official designation; to implement the de-
ments would be interpreted to visitors through museum, velopment rights transfer proposal order; to administer a
audiovisual, and publications media and where guided and "development rights bank" and related revolving preser-
self-guiding tours of landmark buildings would be organized. vation f u n d ; and to supervise the system of preservation
The most d i f f i c u l t and complex challenge is in the high restrictions. A cooperative agreement between the city
density, d o w n t o w n area, where economic forces relent- and the Secretary of the Interior would specify the terms
lessly destroy buildings that do not use the full development on which the park units would benefit from Chicago Plan
potential allowed their sites by municipal zoning and financing and the interest of the Secretary in standards of
building regulations. The key to the national cultural preservation, restoration, renovation, maintenance, and
park proposal, therefore, is city action aimed at redirecting use.

33
 The private sector would be expected to administer a and feasibility is evaluated in relation to the total context
private preservation revolving f u n d ; to operate the struc- and purpose of the Park. The following list should not be
tures, whether for profit or not for p r o f i t ; and t o work considered definitive, but only an indication of the scope
closely w i t h the City and the National Park Service in all of the park resources.
phases of implementation.
It is the premise of this study that, once the park is Champlain Building
established w i t h proper design, the development rights Chapin and Gore Building
bank and related revolving funds, together with the earn- Colgate Building (now Playboy Building)
ing power of the structures and moderate real estate tax Dwight Building
relief, will entirely support the costs of preserving the Jewelers Building
buildings. Costs to the Federal Government would be Mandel Store Annex
those associated with administration, technical advice Marshall Field & Co. Store (at Washington and
and assistance, interpretive facilities, and visitor ser- Wabash Sts.)
vices. Montgomery Ward Co. Building
The Loop Unit is the cornerstone of the park pro- Montgomery Ward Co. Warehouse
posal. Unless a satisfactory formula is reached for Old Colony Building
preserving and interpreting the Chicago School buildings Pontiac Building
in the d o w n t o w n area, the park would not be regarded as Reid, Murdoch & Co. Building (now the City of
feasible. Chicago Central Office Building)
The buildings, parks, and planned towns that make up
the potential elements of the Chicago School theme are The park interpretive theme of the search for the uni-
many. The individual buildings that remain in the Chicago versal adoption of the principles of architectural design
area and grew out of the work of this School form a basis that matured in the second phase of the Chicago School,
for scholarly assessment of each architect's contribution and its activities in landscape design and town planning,
to the movement as a whole. The total resource reflected is depicted in structures and districts in the residential
in the School as a unit mirrors the course of the move- sections of Chicago and in the suburbs to the west and
ment itself, the architectural theme of the style change, north. There are sufficient resources t o interpret the scope
and, in retrospect, its significance to our modern culture. of the Chicago School movement w i t h a variety of sepa-
rate buildings and geographic groupings of buildings and
THE PARK RESOURCES districts. As individual owners and citizen groups indicate
their interest in participating in the park plan, new oper-
The park resources in the Loop include the primary ating units can be added.
surviving office buildings that portray the evolution of As a concept, among the units included in Chicago
the skyscraper and the ensuing style change in modern would be the Kenwood-Hyde Park Unit w i t h the first
architecture. A t a minimum the following buildings are houses designed by Frank Lloyd Wright the development
considered basic to the interpretation of the Loop unit of of a new house form in his Heller and Robie houses, and
the park: Hugh Garden's Herrick House. Also in this area are several
early houses by George Maher, the f i r m of Tallmadge and
A u d i t o r i u m Building
Watson, and the f i r m of Nimmons and Fellows. In this dis-
Carson Pirie Scott Co. Department Store
trict is one of Barry Byrne's few churches in ChicagoSt.
Fisher Building
Thomas the Apostle and the First Congregational Church
Gage Block (18-30 South Michigan Ave,)
by Drummond. The site of the World's Columbian Ex-
Leiter Building II (now Sears Building)
position of 1893 could f o r m the southeast boundary of
McClurg Building
this Unit.
Manhattan Building
There could also be in the city a unit north of the Loop,
Marquette Building
generally the Near North Shore-Uptown areas; a unit on the
Monadnock Block (including the southern
west that follows the historic growth of the city around
addition)
the Western Park system; and units in the Near South Side
Railway Exchange Building
and in Pullman. Included in the unit north of the Loop
Reliance Building
would be Wright's Charnley House, Garden's Madlener
Rookery Building
House, several houses by Maher, a Byrne school, and Sul-
The theme of the park would be further enhanced by the livan's Ryerson and Getty tombs in Simonds' Graceland
addition of buildings in or near the Loop as their suitability Cemetery.

34
 The resources in the western portion of the city are public buildings dating from the end of the nineteenth
loosely connected but could include Dwight Perkins' Carl century to the First World Warworks of Jenney, Wright,
Schurz High School and his Grover Cleveland Elemem- Maher, Drummond, and the architectural firms of Tall-
tary School, Garden's Humboldt Park Pavilion in the West- madge and Watson, Purcell and Elmslie, and Spencer and
ern Park system (a system in which both William Le Baron Powers. The Village of Riverside, the design of Olmsted
Jenney and Jens Jensen had a hand), Wright's Francisco and Vaux, is now a National Historic District.
Terrace Apartments, and Sullivan's Holy T r i n i t y Russian If sufficient interest by the owners and municipalities
Orthodox Cathedral. is shown, a park unit could be organized to show the com-
plete evolution of architectural style change in a major
phase of the Chicago School movement. Most important
resources in such a unit would include Wright's own
house and studio, the Unity Temple, and his Winslow,
Roberts, Thomas, Mrs. Gale, and Coonley houses, Maher's
Farson House, Spencer's McCready House, Tallmadge's
Golback and Carroll houses, and the River Forest Women's
Club by Drummond and the Village of Riverside as a
planned community.
In the suburbs north of the city, from Evanston to
Highland Park, a similar theme of the house and small
public building could be developed from over 80 build-
ings, with emphasis on the work of Griffin, Maher, Van
Bergen, and Tallmadge and Watson. Important work of
Myron Hunt and Wright are also represented here.

An Interpretive Plan

The park interpretive programs are conceived as a

chain with accent on the links. The interpretation of the
central theme will be introduced at the major visitor center.
The interpretation of the subthemes will be indepen-
dently developed at the sites of resource concentration.
Each story will stand on its o w n . The central theme will
connect the subthemes to demonstrate their interrela-
tions within the Chicago School movement.
Detail from EDISON SHOP, 1912 (now demo- Alternative means of transportation rather than cir-
lished). PURCELL, FEICK A N D E L M S L I E ,
culation by private vehicle would be encouraged. This will
architects. Photograph by Harold Allen for Historic
minimize the impact of visitation and public use on the
American Buildings Survey.
elements of resource that are in residential areas. Such a
The Near South Side Unit should be included in the visitor transportation system will also expand the op-
Park to interpret the point of departure for the Chicago portunities for interpretation while enroute to the sites.
School's house design with H. H. Richardson's Glessner The central theme will show the development of the
House and S. S. Beman's Kimball House. Located across Chicago School movement. The major site interpretive
the street from each other, these houses are dramatic themes will relate this movement to the forces that were
contrasts of life styles and taste in the affluent society of conducive to the development of new architectural forms,
the late nineteenth century. Nearby is Richard E. Schmidt new concepts of landscape design and town planning. The
and Hugh Garden's Schoenhafen Brewery Company new architectural styles as a product of the socioecono-
powerhouse and Schmidt, Garden, and Martin's Michael mic environment and the physical response and expan-
Reese Hospital. The Pullman National Historic District, sive growth will be subthemes to be interpreted within
important to the theme as a landmark of social and the framework of the central theme.
physical planning of an integrated satellite town should Continuity in the time span of all themes will be in-
be included in the Park as a separate unit. terpreted in terms of the international impact of the
In the western suburbs of Oak Park, River Forest, and phenomenon, its eclipse, and its rebirth in the modern
Riverside, there are over a hundred houses and small history of Chicago.
35
 Daniel H . Burn ham William Le B a r o n Jenney

Louis Sullivan D a n k m a r A d ler G e o r g e W. M a h e r

Frank Lloyd Wright Wa I t e r B u r l e y Griffin Hugh M G. Garden

Louis G uenzeI Wi l l i a m Holabird G e o r g e E Ims I ie

William Drummond Martin Roche W i I l i a m P u r e e II

36
 LIST OF PLATES

CARSON PIRIE SCOTT & CO. D E P A R T M E N T STORE, 1899, 1903-4. LOUIS S U L L I V A N , vi

architect. (Later additions by D. H. Burnham and Co., 1906. Holabird and Root, 1961).
Photograph by Hedrich-Blessing.

R E L I A N C E B U I L D I N G , 1894-95. D. H. B U R N H A M CO., architects. Photograph by Cervin 10

Robinson for Historic American Buildings Survey.

M A R Q U E T T E B U I L D I N G , 1893-94, 1905. H O L A B I R D A N D ROCHE, architects. Photo- 17

graphs: (upper right and left and center), courtesy of Holabird and Root, architects, and the
Landmarks Preservation Service of Chicago, (lower left) Chicago Architectural Photography
Co., courtesy Landmarks Preservation Council, Chicago, (lower right). Jack Boucher for
Historic American Buildings Survey.

RIVER FOREST WOMEN'S CLUB, 1913. G U E N Z E L A N D D R U M M O N D , architects. Photo- 18

graph by Richard A. Miller for Landmarks Preservation Council, Chicago.

THE CHICAGO P L A N , 1909. A Suggested Arrangement of Streets on the South Branch of 24

the Chicago River. D. H. B U R N H A M , architect-planner. Painting by Jules Guerin.

Detail f r o m A U D I T O R I U M B U I L D I N G . Photograph by Cervin Robinson for Historic American 32

Buildings Survey.

Architects of the Chicago School. Photographs courtesy of The Prairie School Press, Inc., and 36
Chicago Historical Society.

37
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Brooks, H. Allen, The Prairie School. T o r o n t o : University of Toronto Press, 1972.

Condit, Carl W., The Chicago School of Architecture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964.

Costonis, John J., "The Chicago Plan: Incentive Zoning and the Preservation of Urban Landmarks," Harvard Law Review, V o l . 85, No.
3, Jan. 1972.

Eaton, Leonard K., Two Chicago Architects and Their Clients. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1969.

, Landscape Artist in America, The Life and Work of Jens Jenson. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964.

Fabos, Julius Guy, Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr., Founder of Landscape Architecture in America. Amherst, Mass.: University of
Massachusetts Press, 1968.

Hitchcock, Henry-Russell, Architecture; Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1958.

Giedion, Sigfried, Space, Time and Architecture. 3d ed. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1954.

Kaufman, Edgar, Jr., ed. The Rise of an American Architecture. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1970.

Manson, Grant C , Frank Lloyd Wright to 1910. New Y o r k : Reinhold Publishing Corp., 1958.

Morrison, Hugh, Louis Sullivan, Prophet of Modern Architecture. New Y o r k : W. W. Norton and Co., 1935.

Newton, Norman T., Design on the Land. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971.

Peisch, Mark L., The Chicago School of Architecture. New York: Random House, 1964.

Turak, Theodore, " T h e Ecole Centrale and Modern Architecture: The Education of William Le Baron Jenney, "Journal of the Society
of Architectural Historians, V o l . X X I X , No. 1 , March 1970.

, "Jenney's Lesser Works: Prelude to the Prairie Style?", The Prairie School Review, V o l . V I I , No. 3, Third Quarter, 1970.
As the Nation's principal conservation agency, the
Department of the Interior has basic responsibilities for
water, fish, wildlife, mineral, land, park, and recreational
resources.
Indian and Territorial affairs are other major concerns of
America's "Department of Natural Resources."
The Department works to assure the wisest choice in
managing all our resources so each will make its full
contribution to a better United Statesnow and in the
future.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

National Park Service
The
Chicago
School
of
Architecture