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Basic Feedback Guide

Content contributed by Motor Consultants, LLC

Feedback is used in closed loop systems in Tachometer

applications all over the world to control speed
and/or position, and it has an important role Tachometers are rotating electromagnetic devices
in keeping equipment operating smoothly and typically connected to a motor shaft, and when the
accurately. Feedback is available in a variety tachometer shaft is rotated, it outputs a signal, ie
of devices as well as models. It is important to output a voltage. The faster the tach shaft is turned,
understand how feedback operates, so the the larger the magnitude of voltage developed (i.e.
best benefits can be used in the application.
the output signal is directly proportional to speed).
This output voltage also provides a polarity (+ or -)
Open Loop VS Closed Loop which indicates direction of rotation (CW or CCW). A
basic tachometer assembly is illustrated in figure 1 and
Many applications operate open loop and many operate consists of a tach rotor, magnets and brushes.
closed loop. In an open loop system, the operation
can become uncontrolled; in a closed loop system the
process is controlled. The difference is feedback.
An open loop system is a process in which the signal
travels from the control to the motor. An example of
an open loop system is as follows: a motor is used in
a bin sorting application, and everything proceeds as
expected as long as the motor can pick and place parts
in the proper bin. However if for some reason the
mechanism jams and the motor cant move, the control
is not aware of the situation and will continue sending
commands that are essentially ignored, so the parts do
not get sorted.

In a closed loop system the signal travels from the

control to the motor, as above, however the difference
Figure 1 Typical tachometer construction
is that there is another signal, a feedback signal, which
returns to the control, thus informing the control the
Analog, or DC tachometers as they are often termed,
operation was successfully. If the feedback informs the
play an important role because of their ability
control that the operation was not successful, then the
to provide speed and direction information. This
control could alert an operator that the process was not
information can be fed to a meter (for visual speed
completed correctly. Closed loop systems use feedback
readings) or used in servo control for stabilization
for speed/position information and process control in
purposes. The DC tach provides the simplest, most
many applications.
direct method of acquiring this information.
There are a variety of devices available in the
As an example of utilizing a tach for velocity
marketplaces which are employed to derived
information, consider a conveyor which must move
information about the applications speed and/or
loads at a constant speed. The motor is required
position thus controlling and guaranteeing that the
to rotate at 3600 rpm. With a tachometer voltage
process occurs correctly. These include: tachometer, Hall
constant of 2.5 volts/Krpm, the voltage read on the tach
sensors, encoder, and resolver.
terminals should be:

3.600 Krpm x 2.5 volts/Krpm = 9 volts.

If the voltage is indeed 9 volts, then the motor is Time between these pulses is used to derive data for
rotating at the correct speed. The control will monitor speed control or speed regulation. This scheme works
this voltage assuring desired speed is maintained. best at higher speeds. At very low speeds the pulses
are far apart, thus it becomes extremely difficult to
Hall Sensors accurately regulate speed. Note that since position of
the Halls on the motor housing are known, therefore
Hall sensors are solid state devices which are used to rotor position is known.
sense or detect magnetic fields. As a magnet passes by
the Hall sensor, the sensors output changes from on As an example of using Hall sensors consider a brushless
to off- - its a digital signal and the output is either motor application. Hall sensors used for electronic
high or low. commutation are turning on and off as a
magnetic field passes by, providing information about
The basic Hall assembly illustrated in figure 2 consists rotor position. The control uses this information to
of three (3) Hall sensors (placed 60 mechanical degrees turn on specific power devices applying power to
apart), a magnet wheel (attached to the motor shaft) specific stator windings. This maintains the relationship
and parts to hold the sensors in place. In some motors, between the rotor permanent magnet field and the
the design is arranged so the Halls sense or detect the stator winding field at the proper angle for rotation.
motor magnets thus eliminating the magnet wheel.

Encoder

An encoder may be termed a rotary encoder, digital

encoder, optical encoder, digital tachometer or
incremental encoder. Its simply a mechanical-to-
electrical conversion device, turning mechanical motion
into velocity or position information for motion control
systems.

A basic encoder illustrated in figure 4 consists of a

light source, a mask, a coded disk (with opaque lines),
photo sensors (also termed photo array) and electronics.
The path of light is thru the mask, thru the coded disk
and is detected by the photo sensors. As the encoders
shaft is rotated, the light is alternately passed thru or
blocked, thus an alternate light and dark pattern is
Figure 2 Typical Hall sensor and magnetic wheel assembly
detected by the sensors. The electronics convert this
into an electrical signal representing square waves
As the shaft rotates, the magnet wheel passes by (light passing thru or blocked converts to high
the Hall sensors, and as illustrated in figure 3 the Hall or low pattern). Note this example explanation uses a
output change state. These square wave signals provide light source to explain how an encoder works, however
information to the control. there are other technologies available such as magnetic.

Figure 3 Hall sensor output signals

Figure 4 Basic encoder construction
The number of lines etched on the coded disk is dependent on the resolution desired for the application - - increasing
resolution increases accuracy in the application. If the disk has 1000 lines, there would be 1000 high/low cycles or 1000
pulses per revolution (ppr). By counting the number of pulses, the position of the shaft relative to its starting position is
known. Adding another measured value (ie time) to the information, it is possible to determine velocity.

Another pattern of lines is added to the coded disk; and these two lines are usually termed A channel and B channel.
They are arranged with an offset of cycle (ie quadrature) as illustrated in figure 5. When the encoder reverses direction,
then channel B goes high before channel A, thus using this relationship its possible to determine direction of rotation.
Sometimes a third channel is added; this channel has one pulse per revolution and is typically referred to as an index or
home pulse (Z channel). Additionally some encoder models include a channel that simulates Hall sensors.

Figure 5 Encoder signals

Controls will read positive and negative transitions of the encoder pulses, resulting in the number of pulses/revolution
(ppr) being multiplied by 4 times - - thus the counts per revolution (cpr) for a 1000 ppr encoder will be 4000 cpr. This is the
resolution of the encoder which is used to determine accuracy.

Encoders are classified into two basic types: incremental and absolute. The discussion above covered incremental encoder.
The absolute encoder provides a specific address or whole word for each shaft position throughout 360 degrees. This
code is derived from independent multiple tracks on the disc.

Absolute encoders can provide different types of output. The most common are parallel absolute output and serial
synchronous interface (SSI). For parallel output, each bit of the data word is output in parallel on a separate data line. SSI
transmits encoder position information on a single pair of conductors rather than one conductor per bit. A clock pulse train
from a control tells the encoder when to send out data bits.

Since position information is directly on the coded disk assembly, the disk has a builtin memory system and a power
failure will not cause position information to be lost. Therefore, it will not be required to return to a home or start
position upon reenergizing machine power.

As an example of using an encoder consider a cut-to-length application. An encoder is connected to a measuring

wheel that rests on the uncut material. As the material moves along a conveyor, the encoder outputs a series of pulses
representing the distance the material has moved. The control counts these pulses and when the appropriate number of
pulses has been received, the control sends a command to a blade to cut at the measured length.

Resolver

Resolvers are similar to motors - that is, there is a rotor and stator. A reference signal is placed on the rotor, and as it
revolves, the output of the signal changes directly proportional to the angle thru which the rotor has moved.
A simple resolver, as illustrated in figure 6, contains a single input winding, and two output windings. A reference
AC signal is applied onto the input winding (R1R2), which is then induced onto the rotor and then passes onto
the output windings (S1-S2 and S3-S4). The windings are 90 degrees apart and the envelope of the signal provides
a sine and cosine output. These signals are then fed into the control.

Figure 6 A basic resolver

The magnitude of the output voltage of the sine and cosine signals is proportional to the angle the resolver rotor
has moved thru and thus provides position information. The leading or lagging sine/cosine relationship provides
direction information.
There are various types of resolvers. The type described above would be termed a single speed resolver; that is, the
output signal goes through one sine wave as the rotor goes through 360 mechanical degrees. If the output signal
went through four sine waves, as the rotor goes through 360 mechanical degrees, it would be termed a 4-speed
resolver.

Each feedback device has its own characteristics, parameters, operating range, and advantages. Figure 7 presents
an overview of feedback devices.

Incremental Absolute
Tachometer Hall Sensors Resolver
Encoder Encoder
Primary Use Speed
Electronic Relative Absolute Relative
Commutation Position Position Position
Secondary Speed,
Speed, Speed, Speed,
Electronic Electronic Electronic
Use Position
Commutation Commutation Commutation
Output Voltage Digital Sinusoidal
Proportional to Digital Digital Serial / Parallel Output
Speed Communication (Analog)
Advantages Digital Works Digital Absolute,
No Internal
Lowest Cost, Electronics,
Low Cost Easily With Remembers
No parts to wear Withstand Higher
Electronics Position
Temperatures

Figure 7 Overview of various feedback devices

Each application should be reviewed to determine needs, and then the best features and advantages of the
feedback device can be used in the application.