Running head: PHONOLOGY, PHONICS, WORD STUDY, AND VOCABULARY 1

Phonology, Phonics, Word Study, and Vocabulary in Preschool and Early Elementary Classrooms

Kelsey K. Y. H. Ramirez

University of Hawaii, Manoa

The Development and Instructional Application of Phonology, Phonics, Word Study, and

Vocabulary in the Preschool and Early Elementary Classroom

Phonology, phonics, word study, and vocabulary are foundational to learning to reading.

A deficit in any of these areas can affect a students future academically, emotionally, and

socially. Access to language and reading allow us to access written and oral information.

Difficulty in reading affects both academics and self-esteem. It can leave scars that negatively

affect a childs self-esteem and belief that they are capable of academic success. Educators must

provide students with the opportunity to obtain reading proficiency, as well as the confidence to

achieve. Educators need on-going professional development and follow-up support in order to

provide students access to reading in an ever-changing society.

The research articles described below presents the developmental stages of reading

proficiency in preschool and early elementary and lists instructional recommendations that can

be implemented in the classroom. The researchers provide educators with a better understanding

of the journey students face on the road to reading proficiency. They also provide various

instructional strategies that will benefit students struggling with phonology, phonics/ word study,

and vocabulary. If educators provide students with strategies for foundational reading skills in

preschool and early elementary school, children will be able to thrive as they progress in their

education.

Phonology

Phonological awareness is the ability to understand the sound structure of words in a

language. Phonological awareness is a predictor of future reading ability therefore it plays a

large role in preschool and early elementary grade levels. The following articles present research
PHONOLOGY, PHONICS, WORD STUDY, AND VOCABULARY 3

on the development of phonological awareness for beginning to proficient readers and

instructional strategies that will assist students in reaching reading proficiency.

In the article Development of Phonological Awareness, the authors summarize the

development of phonological awareness based on research findings across multidisciplinary and

cross-cultural research (Anthony and Francis, 2005). Two patterns of the general sequence of

phonological awareness children experience are described. The first pattern demonstrated that

children become increasingly more aware of smaller and smaller parts of words. Slowly they

learn how to detect or manipulate syllables, onsets or rimes, then finally individual phonemes

with instrasyllabic word units. The second pattern showed that children could detect similar- and

dissimilar- sounds of words before being able to manipulate sounds within words. Children can

also refine phonological awareness skills they have already obtained while learning new

phonological awareness skills. Anthony and Francis (2005) emphasize that literacy instruction

should be taught in a systematic and developmentally sensitive order to effectively teach

particular phonological awareness skills, spelling patterns, and word-reading strategies. The

developmental patterns shared will assist educators in selecting more appropriate instructional

strategies that they can implement successfully in the classroom.

In the article The Development of Phonological Awareness in Preschool Children

describes a study on the progression and predictors of phonological awareness development of

67 preschool students (Carroll, Snowling, Hume, & Stevenson, 2003). The participants were

assessed on syllable, rime, phoneme awareness, speech and language skills, and letter knowledge

at three different points within the school year. The researchers discovered that children develop

syllable and rime awareness before phoneme awareness and there is little difference in the levels

of performance between syllable and rime awareness. This study indicates that there is an early
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and later stage in phoneme awareness for preschool school students. Teachers can use this model

of phonological development to assess where their students are performing and what they need to

progress further.

According to the article Successful Phonological Awareness Instruction With Preschool

Children: Lessons From the Classroom, phonological awareness is not a sequential-stage model

in which children must demonstrate full mastery of one skill at one level before beginning to

develop skill in the next level; rather, childrens skills in multiple levels of the continuum may

develop at the same time (p. 5 Phillips, Clancy-Menchetti, & Lonigan, 2008). The researchers

clarify phonological awareness development from a pedagogic perspective and present various

effective instructional strategies proven to benefit literacy development in preschool. Phillips et

al. (2005) suggest that there is a lack of content knowledge in the developmental levels of

phonological awareness continuum in preschool instructors. They argue that children need more

explicit and systematic instruction that is based on pre-assessments and informs small group

instruction. They also provided numerous instructional strategies that are based on research of

preschool curricula and interventions and discuss the benefits of strategies for students in

preschool classrooms. For example, they also suggest that phonological awareness skills

develop across different types of tasks with varied difficulty. Tasks that assess or teach

phonological awareness can include identity tasks (e.g., rhyme oddit, first-sound matching),

synthesis tasks (e.g., syllable segmenting or deleting, phoneme-counting tasks) (Phillips et al.,

2005, p. 5). The researchers list of effective instructional strategies and how they can be used as

tools for teachers and early childhood administrators for guidance in providing students with

meaningful preschool experiences that reflect developmentally appropriate practices.

Phonics and Word Study

Phonics and word study are two different approaches to reading instruction that can be

utilized in many different ways. Phonics is a method used to develop a students phonological

awareness which is the ability to recognize, demonstrate, and manipulate phonemes or sounds in

a language. Word study is an approach to spelling instruction that does not depend on

memorization. Student study the alphabetic layer or the relationship between single and pairs of

letters (e.g., ch) and sounds. The main goal of word study is to provide students with an

appropriate development of working knowledge of orthography, that they can later apply in their

reading and writing. The following articles describe three research findings on the development

of phonics and word study in early readers, and instructional strategies that benefit struggling

readers inside the classroom.

The article, Measuring the Dimensions of Alphabetic Principle on the Reading

Development of First Graders: The Role of Automaticity and Unitization, Harn, Stoolmiller, &

Chard, 2008) apply Ehris theory-based program of research to determine how students transition

to more advanced word reading proficiency. Ehris theory describes word reading development

as student mastery of numerous word reading phases in becoming a proficient reader. In this

study first grade students from five different schools in the Pacific Northwest school district were

assessed on nonsense word fluency (e.g. faj, sib) and oral reading fluency. Students using the

sound-by-sound reading strategy produced individual sounds (e.g. /r/ /u/ /z/) and students using

the whole word reading strategy read sounds as a unit (/ruz/). The results determined that

students who approached nonsense words with the sound-by-sound reading strategy did not

perform well as students using the whole word reading strategy in oral reading fluency.

Researchers also found that students who display unitization in the fall and winter quarters

advanced more than peers without the unitization skill. From these results Harn, Stoolmiller, and
PHONOLOGY, PHONICS, WORD STUDY, AND VOCABULARY 6

Chard (2008) predict that students using the whole-word reading strategy are using a higher level

of unitization and therefore will be more proficient readers. This article gives insight on how to

apply Ehris theory-based program to interpret student data. Teachers can analyze student data to

understand where they are in their journey to proficient reading and provide them with the

appropriate tools for academic success.

The article Word Study Instruction in the K-2 Classroom summarizes multiple studies and

presents nine tips for implementing word study in classrooms K-2 (Williams, Phillips-Birdsong,

Hufnagel, Hungler, & Lundstrom, 2009). Nine tips for implementing word study: multiple

assessment tools should be used to assess student word knowledge, use homogeneous small-

grouping, designate time to prepare for word study instruction, teach word knowledge,

demonstrate to students how to used word study during reading and writing, teach strategies that

support the application of word study, make a word wall, integrate word work activities to

allow students to interact with the categorization of words, and engage students using real life

applications. Williams et at. (2009) state that word study is teacher directed and student

centered. They present examples of materials, programs, and strategies that can be applied in the

classroom. This article provides teachers with helpful, relevant, and in depth tips that promotes

an ease in implementing word study instruction.

In the article Intensive Remedial Instruction for Children with Severe Reading

Disabilities: Immediate and Long-term Outcomes From Two Instructional Approaches the

researchers examined the conditions needed to target reading difficulties for students with severe

learning disabilities (Torgesen, Alexander, Wagner, Rashotta, Voeller, & Conway, 2001). 60

children were provided two instructional approaches that are explicit and systematic in their

instruction, but spent different amounts of time and emphasis on different instructional activities.
PHONOLOGY, PHONICS, WORD STUDY, AND VOCABULARY 7

Auditory Discrimination in Depth Program (ADD) focused on phonemic awareness and word-

reading skills. Embedded Phonics (EP) stimulated phonemic awareness though writing and

spelling instruction. Both programs showed equally positive results which prove that structured

language approaches with sound instruction principles benefit children with reading difficulties.

Torgesen et al. (2001) appear to have found commonalities among the instructional approaches

to phonemic awareness and phonemic decoding. The results acknowledge the importance of

effective instruction because all literacy programs have the potential to be effective for students.

Vocabulary

Vocabulary refers to the words we must know in order to communicate effectively.

Through vocabulary children construct a range of meaning and ideas that words represent.

Vocabulary plays an essential role in the development of reading proficiency therefore it has

become a crucial focus in preschool and early elementary education. The following articles

present the development of vocabulary in teachers, and instructional strategies that educators can

utilize to increase proficiency in academic and social skills.

In the article Teacher qualifications, classroom practices, family characteristics, and

preschool experience: Complex effects on first graders vocabulary and early reading outcomes

the researchers identify the relationship between teacher qualifications and student achievement

in vocabulary and early reading skills (Connor, Son, Hindman, & Morrison, 2005). 787 first

grade students and their families participated. This study examined classroom environment

quality, teacher warmth and responsiveness to students, and instruction in early reading skills and

vocabulary. Researchers found that teachers with more experience were more likely to interact

with students in a sensitive and responsive way. Teachers with less experience exhibited greater

warmth and responsiveness to students, which resulted in stronger vocabulary skills. The results
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also showed that students whose teachers had more years of education demonstrated higher

vocabulary scores. Connor et al. (2005) reveal the effect of positive personal rapport on student

academic success. Both beginning and more experienced teachers can use this information to

improve their instruction and rapport with students.

According to the article Effects of Teachers Reading-Aloud Styles on Vocabulary

Acquisition and Comprehension of Students in the Early Elementary Grades, reading aloud is an

important aspect of literacy instruction for all students (Brabham & Lynch-Brown, 2002).

Brabham and Lynch-Brown (2002) analyzed the effects of different read-aloud styles on learning

outcomes in vocabulary and comprehension skills. Readers read two books using an

interactional, performance, and just reading styles of read aloud to 117 first grade students and

129 third grade students. Students were given a vocabulary pre-assessment and post assessment

and a comprehension post assessment. The results revealed that students who received a read-

aloud with an interactional and performance style were more proficient in vocabulary and

comprehension. Brabham and Lynch-Brown (2002) found that teacher explanation and student

discussion are critical components in learning words and constructing meaning of texts. This

article examined a critical aspect of literacy instruction in all elementary classrooms. The

researchers presented educators with effective read-aloud styles that will further develop

students vocabulary and comprehension skills.

In the article Missing in Action: Vocabulary Instruction in Pre-K researchers evaluated if

and how vocabulary instruction is taught in commercially prepared early literacy curriculum

(Neuman & Dwyer, 2009). Ten different early literacy curriculums were implemented. The

results determined that teachers should supplement vocabulary instruction because only two out

of ten curriculums focused on vocabulary weekly. The researchers emphasized that word
PHONOLOGY, PHONICS, WORD STUDY, AND VOCABULARY 9

knowledge instruction needs to be deliberate and systematic because students are shown to

benefit from frequent practice. The results also concluded that students benefit from

instructional strategies that introduce new words in engaging and meaningful context. Neuman

and Dwyer (2009) identify a lack of systematic vocabulary instruction in current commercially

prepared curriculums. Given its substantial role in reading development and the significant

vocabulary gap prior to age 4, one would expect to find an emphasis on vocabulary early on,

especially in the preschool and primary grade years (p. 384 Neuman & Dwyer, 2009. Based on

the results of this study, teachers can make positive changes in their program and instruction to

provide students with the word knowledge they need to be successful.

Conclusion

It is important for educators to understand of the development of phonology, phonics,

word study, and vocabulary in proficient readers and instructional strategies that will benefit

those who struggle. If assessments demonstrate little to no progression in student reading

development, educators can implement various evidence-based instructional strategies to help

students reach proficiency. Although the literature provides a wide range of helpful models and

examples of application, the research fails to identify which strategies are beneficial to students

at specific stages of development. If educators knew which strategies are proven to benefit

students in a certain stage of reading development, they would spend less time evaluating which

strategy would be appropriate.

The next steps for researchers and educators would be professional development of active

teachers and the continued assessment of models of reading development and the effectiveness of

instructional strategies in an ever-changing field of education. All educators should be provided

with the current knowledge of the developmental stages of readers and relatable evidence-based
PHONOLOGY, PHONICS, WORD STUDY, AND VOCABULARY 10

practices that can enrich student learning and increase student success. Also, the development of

reading proficiency and effectiveness of instructional strategies might change in the future.

There are many other factors that affect literature and the ability to read such as technology. The

research needs to continue to assess the development stages of readers and the effectiveness of

instructional strategies for phonology, phonics, word study, and vocabulary in order to provide

every generation with proficient reading skills.

REFERENCES
PHONOLOGY, PHONICS, WORD STUDY, AND VOCABULARY 11

Anthony, J. L., Francis, D. J. (2005). Development of phonological awareness. Current

Directions in Psychological Science, 14(5), 255-259.

Brabham, E. G., Lynch-Brown, C. (2002). Effects of teachers reading-aloud styles on

vocabulary acquisition and comprehension of students in the early elementary grades.

Journal of Psychology, 94(3), 465-473. doi:10.1037//0022-0663.94.3.465

Carroll, J. M., Snowling, M. J., Hulme, C., Stevenson, J. (2003). The development of

phonological awareness in preschool children. Developmental Psychology, 39(5), 913-

923. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.39.5.913

Connor, C. M., Son, S., Hindman, A. H., Morrison, F. J. (2005). Teacher qualifications,

classroom practices, family characteristics, and preschool experience: Complex effects on

first graders vocabulary and early reading outcomes. Journal of School Psychology,

43(4), 343-375.

Harn, B. A., Stoolmiller, M., Chard, D. J. (2008). Measuring the dimensions of alphabetic

principle on the reading development of first graders: The role of automaticity and

unitization. Journal of Leaning Disabilities, 41(2), 143-157. doi:

10.1177/0022219407313585

Neuman, S. B., Dwyer, J. (2009). Missing in action: vocabulary instruction in pre-k. The

Reading Teacher, 62(5), 384-392. doi: 10.1598/RT.62.5.2

Phillips, B. M., Clancy-Menchetti, J., Lonigan, C. J. (2008). Successful phonological awareness

instruction with preschool children: Lessons from the classroom. Topics in Early

Childhood Special Education, 28(1), 3-17.

Torgesen, J. K., Alexander, A. W., Wagner, R. K., Rashotta, C. A., Voeller, K. K. S., Conway, T.

(2001). Intensive remedial instruction for children with severe reading disabilities:
PHONOLOGY, PHONICS, WORD STUDY, AND VOCABULARY 12

Immediate and long-term outcomes from two instructional approaches. Journal of

Learning Disabilities, 34(1), 33-78.

Williams, C., Phillips-Birdsong, C., Hufnagel, K., Hungler, D., Lundstrom, R. P. (2009). Word

study instruction in the k-2 classroom. The Reading Teacher, 62(7), 570-578.