A

PROJECT REPORT
ON

HORTICULTURE WORK EXPERIENCE

SUBMITTED TO:
H.N.B.GARHWAL UNIVERSITY, SRINAGAR, GARHWAL
IN THE PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT
FOR THE AWARD OF DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE
IN
HORTICULTURE (2014-17)
SUBMITTED BY:
ANJANA RAUTELA
B.sc Horticulture VIII semester

S.G.R.R (P.G) COLLEGE

PATHRI BAGH,DEHRADUN(UTTARAKHAND),
PIN- 248001 INDIA
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I cordially like to thank our principal Dr. V.A.Borai and our H.O.D .Dr.
A.K.SAXENA for their support and help during the HWE programme.

I wish to express my deep sense of gratitude to all the members ,helpers, field
workers who given us the opportunity to do our project here in Dehradun from
distinct training centres.

I also like to thank our HWE programme incharge who coordinated us

constantly to different units without whose help it would not have been a
successful one.

I wish to express my heartfelt thankfulness to all the units incharge who taught
us willingly inspire of all the days work motivating us helping us to do our
work smoothly all through the programme.

Also, I would like to mention the time given by incharge of

ORCHARD MANAGEMENT, CIRCUIT HOUSE, DEHRADUN

FOOD PRESERVATION CENTRE, RAJPUR ROAD, D.dun.and

NURSERY MANAGEMENT , CIRCUIT HOUSE, DEHRADUN

APICULTURE, MAHADEV SINGH ROAD, KANWALI, DEHRADUN

A very special thanks to faculty of Horticulture SGRR P.G College ,for their
constant support encouragement and direction ,also for their suggestion are
acknowledged without whose help my project reports would not have been
accomplished.

ANJANA RUTELA

B.Sc Horticulture

VIIIth semester
 SHRI GURU RAM RAI (P.G) COLLEGE
DEHRADUN

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project report entitled Horticulture Work
Experience

Submitted for the partial fulfillment of the requirement of degree of bachelor of

Science in Horticulture, under graduate programme in S.G.R.R (P.G) College,
Pathribagh Dehradun (UK), is a record bonafide project work carried out by
ANJANA RAUTELA D/O DARMIYAN SINGH RAUTELA (Enrolment No.
G13660051) under my supervision and no that part of report has been submitted
for any other degree or diploma course .The assistance and help obtained
during this project work has been duly acknowledged.

1. ORCHARD MANAGEMENT

2. FOOD PRESERVATION & PROCESSING.

3. NURSERY MANAGEMENT.

4. APICULTURE

DATE: Dr. A.K. SAXENA

PLACE: Head of the Department

(Department of Horticulture)
 UNIT I
ORCHARD MANAGEMENT
.1. Establishment of orchard

Establishment of an orchard is a long term investment and deserves a very

critical planning. The selection of proper location and site, planting system and
planting distance, choosing the varieties and the nursery plants have to be
considered carefully to ensure maximum production.

Location and site

Proper selection of site is important. Selection may be made based on the

following criteria.

1. The location should be in a well established fruit growing region because one
could get the benefit of experience of other growers and also get the benefit of
selling the produce through co-operative organizations with other fruit growers.
2. There should be a market close to the area.
3. The climate should be suitable to grow the chosen fruit crops.
4. Adequate water supply should be available round the year.

Before a grower selects a site for establishing a new orchard, he must have
assessed the following factors:

1. Suitability of soil, its fertility, the nature of subsoil and soil depth.
2. Site must have proper drainage and no water stagnation during rainy season
3. Irrigation water must be of good quality.
4. There must be proper transport facilities either by road or rail within the
reach.
5. Whether the climatic conditions are suitable for the fruits to be grown and
are whether site is free from the limiting factors such as cyclones, frost,
hailstorms and strong hot winds.

Preliminary operations

After selecting the suitable location and site, some preliminary operations have
to be done. Trees are felled without leaving stumps or roots. The shrubs and
other weedy growth are also cleared. Deep ploughing is essential to remove big
roots. The lands should be thoroughly ploughed, leveled and manured. Leveling
is important for economy of irrigation and preventing soil wash. In the hills, the
land should be divided into terraces depending upon the topography of the land
and the leveling is done within the terraces. Terracing protects the land from
erosion. If the soil is poor, it would be advisable to grow a green manure crop
and plough it insitu so as to improve its physical and chemical conditions
before planting operations are taken up.
Planning of an orchard

A careful plan of the orchard is necessary for the most efficient and economic
management. The following points should be borne in mind in preparing the
plan.
1. Optimum spacing to accommodate maximum number of trees per unit area.
2. Stores and office building in the orchard should be constructed at the centre
for proper supervision.

3. Wells should be located at convenient places in different parts at the rate of

one well for 2 to 4 hectares.

4. Each kind of fruit should be assigned in a separate block.

5. Fruits ripening at the same time should be grouped together.

The most effective windbreak is a double row of tall trees alternately placed.
There should be at least as much as space between the windbreak and the first
row of the fruit trees as between fruit trees. It is preferable to dig a trench of 90
cm deep at a distance of 3m from the windbreak trees and prune and cut all the
roots exposed and again fill up the trenches. This may be repeated for every 3
or 4 years in order to avoid the compe1ition between the wind breaks and fruit
trees for moisture and nutrition.

Trees suitable for windbreak should be erect, tall and quick growing, hardy and
drought resistant and mechanically strong and dense to offer maximum
resistance to wind. The trees which are suitable for growing as wind breaks
are Casuarina equisetifolia, Pterospermum acerifolium, Polyalthia longifolia,
Eucalyptus globulus, Grevillea robusta, Azadirachta indica etc.
Laying out of orchards

Any method of layout should aim at providing maximum number of trees per
hectare, adequate space for proper development of the trees and ensuring
convenience in orchard cultural practices. The system of layout can be grouped
under two broad categories viz. (a) vertical row planting pattern and (b)
alternate row planting pattern. In the former planting pattern (e.g. square
system, rectangular system), the trees set in a row is exactly perpendicular to
those. trees set in their adjacent rows. In the latter planting pattern (i.e.
Hexagonal, Quincunx and Triangular), the trees in the adjacent rows are not
exactly vertical instead the trees in the even rows are midway between those in
the odd rows.

The various layout systems used are the following:

a) Vertical row planting pattern

1. Square system: In this system, trees are planted on each comer of a square
whatever may be the planting distance. This is the most commonly followed
system and is very easy to layout. The central place between four trees may be
advantageously used to raise short lived filler trees. This system permits inter
cropping and cultivation in two directions.

2. Rectangular system:In this system, trees are planted on each corner of a

rectangle. As the distance between any two rows is more than the distance
between any two trees in a row, there is no equal distribution of space per tree.
The wider alley spaces available between rows of trees permit easy intercultural
operations and even the use of mechanical operations.

b) Alternate row planting pattern

3. Hexagonal System: In this method, the trees are planted in each comer of an
equilateral triangle. This way six trees form a hexagon with the seventh tree in
the centre. Therefore this system is also called as 'septule' as a seventh tree is
accommodated in the centre of hexagon. This system provides equal spacing
but it is difficult to layout. The perpendicular distance between any two
adjacent rows is equal to the product of 0.866 x the distance between any two
trees. As the perpendicular distance between any two row is less than unity, this
system accommodates 15% more trees than the square system. The limitations
of this system are that it is difficult to layout and the cultivation is not so easily
done as in the square system.

4. Diagonal or quincunx system: This is the square method but with one more
plant in the centre of the square. This will accommodate double the number of
plants, but does not provide equal spacing. The central (filler) tree chosen may
be a short lived one. This system can be followed when the distance between
the permanent trees is more than 10m. As there will be competition between
permanent and filler trees, the filler trees should be removed after a few years
when main trees come to bearing.

5. Triangular system: The trees are planted as in square system but the
difference being that those in the even numbered rows are midway between
those in the odd rows instead of opposite to them. Triangular system is based on
the principle of isolateral triangle. The distance between any two adjacent trees
in a row is equal to the perpendicular distance between any two adjacent rows.
However, the vertical distance, between immediate two trees in the adjacent
rows, is equal to the product of (1.118 x distance between two trees in a row).
When compared to square system, each tree occupies more area and hence it
accommodates few trees per hectare than the square system.

6. Contour system:It is generally followed on the hills where the plants are
planted along the contour across the slope. It particularly suits to land with
undulated topography, wh~re there is greater danger of erosion and irrigation of
the orchard is difficult. The main purpose of this system is to minimize land
erosion and to conserve soil moisture so as to make the slope fit for growing
fruits and plantation crops. The contour line is so designed and graded in such a
way that the flow of water in the irrigation channel becomes slow and thus finds
time to penetrate into the, soil without causing erosion. Terrace system on the
other hand refers to planting in flat strip of land formed across a sloping side of
a hill, lying level along the contours. Terraced fields rise in steps one above the
other and help to bring more area into productive use and also to prevent soil
erosion. The width of the contour terrace varies according to the nature of the
slope. If the slope becomes stiff, the width of terrace is narrower and vice-
versa. The planting distance under the contour system may not be uniform. In
South India, tea is planted in contours either in single hedge system or in double
hedge system. Double hedge contour planting system accommodates nearly 22
% higher population than single hedge system.

This system in tea helps to get early, high yield, conserve soil and suppress
weed growth.

In South Indian hills, peas and beans are sown under paired row system which
is almost similar to double hedge planting system. The seeds are sown at 10 cm
interval in each double row of 30 cm apart with the distance of 1.5m between
each pair of rows.

Planting distance

The minimum vertical distance between any two trees or plants is referred as
the planting distance and this varies depending upon many factors. The
principles in deciding the planting distances are the following.

1. Trees when fully grown, the fringes of trees should touch each other but the
branches should not interlock.
2. Trees root will spread over a much larger area than top and there should be
proper room for the roots to feed without competition.

Factors which decide the planting distance are the following.

1. Kind of fruit trees - mangoes are planted at a distance of 10m x 10m,

guavas at a distance of 5m x 5m while papayas are planted at a distance
of 2m x 2m.
2. Rainfall - wider spacing should be given in low rainfall areas than the
high rainfall areas for a kind of tree.
3. Soil type and soil fertility - in heavy soils less spacing should be given
because the top and root growth are limited.
4. Rootstocks - trees of the same variety grafted on different root stocks will
grow to different sizes and as such require different planting distances.
eg. Apple.
 5. Pruning and training - trees trained on head system requires closer
spacing than the other type of training system. 6. Irrigation system
In general, if the spacing is too wide, it is obvious that the yield per unit
area would be greatly reduced. Only in very, exceptional cases would this
be justifiable. Ordinarily it is more profitable to plant the trees closer
together and supply the needed water and food materials. If the trees are
too close together, the trees grow tall rendering pruning,spraying and
harvesting difficult. There is root competition and inadequate nutrition
and the trees as such give less yield and produce smaller fruits of poor
colour. Cultivation also becomes difficult in the closely planted orchards.
Close planting results in a greater yield per unit area in the early life of
the tree but less in the more important later years. Close planting .is
therefore a false economy.

It may be seen that hexagonal accommodates 15% more number of plants while
triangular system accommodates 11% lesser number of plants. The calculation
of the number of trees per hectare when planted under square or rectangular
system is very easy, and is obtained by dividing the total area 'by the area
occupied by each tree (a x a in square system or l x b in rectangular system).
The theoretical and the actual number of possible trees which can be planted in
an orchard depends upon the shape of the field. In practice, in large fields, the
percentage difference between the theoretical number and the actual number
possible will be less.

High density planting system

Planting of fruit trees rather at a closer spacing than the recommended one
using certain special techniques with the sole objective of obtaining maximum
productivity per unit area without sacrificing quality is often referred as 'High
density planting' or HDP. This technique was first established in apple in
Europe during sixties and now majority of the apple orchards in Europe,
America, Australia and New Zealand are grown under this system. In this
system, four planting densities are recognized for apples viz., low HDP (< 250
trees/ha), moderate HDP (250-500 tree/ha), high HDP (500 to 1250 trees/ha)
and ultra high HDP (>1250 trees/ha). Recently, super high density planting
system has been also established in apple orchards with a plant population of
20,000 trees per ha. In some orchards, still closer, planting of apple trees is
followed (say 70,000 trees/ha) which is often referred as 'meadow orchards'.

Advantages of HDP are:

(i) Early cropping and higher yields for a long time; the average yield in apple
is about 5.0 t/ha under normal system of planting and it is about 140.0 t/ha
under HDP

(ii) Reduced labour costs

(iii) Improved fruit quality

Characteristics of HDP are:

a. The trees of HDP should have maximum number of fruiting branches and
minimum number of structural branches.
b. The trees are generally trained with a central leader surrounded by nearly
horizontal fruiting branches.
c. These branches should be so arranged and pruned in such a way that each
branch casts a minimum amount of shade on other branches.
d. The height should be one and half its diameter at the base. A key to
successful HDP depends upon the control of tree size.
This is achieved by

(a) Use of size controlling root stocks. In apple, dwarfing root stocks and
intermediate stocks like MM 106, MM 109, and MM 111 are used to control the
size of the plant. In pears, Quince A, Adam and Quince-C are commonly used
as dwarfing root stocks.

(b) Use of spur type scions - In temperate fruit crops like apple, the cultivars
can be classified into a spur type or non-spur type. The spur types which have
restricted annual growth are alone suitable for HDP.

(c) Training and pruning methods to induce dwarfness - under Indian

conditions, apple trees trained under spindle bush, dwarf pyramid, cordon
systems are found to contain the growth of the trees appreciably for HDP
systems.

(d) Mechanical device and use of chemicals to control size Growth regulators
such as daminozide, ethephon, chlormaquat and paclobutrazal are extensively
used to reduce shoot growth by 30 to 0 %. This results in increased flowering in
the subsequent years and may be useful in encouraging earlier commercial fruit
production in strongly vegetative fruitful young trees. Besides chemical
manipulation, mechanical devices employing the use of spreaders and tying
down the branches to make them grow from near horizontal to an angle of 45
from the main stem are also some of the standard practices to control tree size.

Planting system for HDP: The success of HDP depends upon the right choice
of planting system. Generally, rectangular planting with single, double and three
row plantings are followed. In single row planting, the distance within the row
is close, whereas the distance between the row is wide (4x2m). In double row
planting, a wider spacing is given after every two rows (4+2x2m) whereas in
three row planting, a wider spacing is given after every three rows (4+2x2x2m).
In meadow orchard system, a bed of 10 to 15 rows is closely
planted (nay 30x45cm) and separated by alleys of 2.5m width between beds.
This system is also called bed system.

Planting season

The season of planting varies with different fruits and local conditions. There
are two seasons of planting in vogue in India.

i) Monsoon (June - August) and

ii) Spring (February - March)

Monsoon season is considered to be the best for planting evergreen fruit

trees like citrus, mango, sapota and guava. If the trees are planted early in
the rainy season they soon establish themselves and grow vigorously.
Deciduous trees may be planted during the dormant period without shock.
Care should be taken that planting is done before the growth starts,
otherwise trees suffer severely and will be in poor condition to withstand the
next hot weather.

Planting methods

After locating the positions of the orchard trees, it is important that the trees are
planted exactly where the stakes stood. It can be easily done with the help of a
planting board. The planting board is usually of 15m long, 10 cm wide and
2.5cm thick with a central notch and one hole on either end, the central notch
and the two holes (one on either end) are in a straight line. The planting board is
placed in such a way that the stake (tree marker) fits into the central notch. Two
small stakes are inserted one in each end hole. The planting board along with
the tree marker is then lifted straight up without disturbing the end stakes. A pit
of about 1m cube or of the desired dimensions at the position of the tree marker
is then dug.
The pits are allowed to wither for few weeks before planting in some cases. The
pits are then filled with top soil already mixed with red earth and well rotten
farm yard manure. Irrigation is then applied to enable the contents of the pits to
sett1e down properly. In the event of depressions taking place as a result of
irrigation, more soil should be added to the pits to fill them to the level of the
land. The pits are then ready for planting.

Transplanting
The trees should be planted approximately where the original pegs were placed.
This is achieved by replacing the planting board in position with the help of the
guide pegs and the stem of the trees is brought to the central notch with the help
of a hand hoe.

One of the most common mistakes is that of planting the trees too deep. The
plants should be sent in such a way that the bud union remains slightly above
the ground level. The trees in the field should be planted as deep as they stood
in the nursery. The trees are irrigated soon after p1anting.This consolidates the
soil and .helps the roots to establish contact with it and to secure a supply of
water quickly. A small basin may be made around the tree for this purpose.
Planting if taken up during the rains, this basin should be demolished within a
day or two so that water will not collect around the tree. This is more dangerous
on heavy than light soils.

Spring winds cause damage to the growing p1ants by giving a constant

shaking. To prevent this, plants should be staked when p1anted. Some young
plants are subject to considerable injury from sunburn particularly if tbey have
been trained to single stem with no branches for 45cm or more from the ground.
Such trunk can be protected by wrapping them with paper or other material or
by painting them with white wash. The latter is probably best, as most
materials wrapped around the trunk would be subject to termite attack.
2. Orchard cultivation

Orchard cultivation refers to the careful management of the orchard soil in such
a way that the soil is maintained in a good condition suitable to the needs of the
tree with least expenses. This involves maintenance of the physical condition of
the soil, its moisture and nutrient content. A good system of orchard cultivation
should ensure:
l. Weed control and saving in moisture and nutrients

2. Very little disturbance to soil and preventing soil erosion and

3. Reduced cost of cultivation

Methods of soil management practices

1. Clean culture

This type of cultivation is extensively followed in India. This involves

regular ploughing and removal of weeds. The clean culture has many
disadvantages. They are:

i. Humus will be completely depleted rapidly due to frequent

cultivation.
ii. Frequent cultivation causes injury to the feeding roots, the trees may
be short lived or stunted in growth.
iii. Clean cultivation aids in more aeration leading to the depletion of
nitrogen.
iv. Hard pan is created in the soil.
v. Frequent cultivation causes more soil erosion.

The above mentioned defects in clean cultivation can be minimized by

avoiding deep and frequent cultivation and also cultivation when the soil is
too wet.

2. Clean culture with cover crops

This type of soil management involves raising of a cover crop or green

manure after removing the weeds. If clean cultivation is attempted during
the rains, considerable erosion is almost sure to occur. It is probably best to
plant a green manure crop between the trees early in the rains and plough it
into the soil towards the end of monsoon season. In India, green manure
crops like Sunhemp, Cowpea, Daincha, Lupins etc. are more commonly
used. Legume cover cropping in grape, mango, guava and other fruit crops is
becoming a common practice in the management of orchards. Cowpea and
French beans grow well under guava and sapota tree. In some places to
prevent soil erosion, certain permanent cover crops like Calapogonium
muconoides, Centrosema pubescens and Peuraria phaseoloides are raised in
 the alley spaces. They are leguminous crops, establish in a short period, dry
up during summer to conserve moisture. With summer showers they come
up again because of their profuse seeding habit and spread themselves as a
vegetative mat by the time the heavy monsoon starts pouring in. Such
permanent cover cropping is a common feature in rubber plantations of
Kerala and Kanyakumari district.

Mulching
This is one of the important soil management practices adopted in certain
countries. Crop residues like straw, cotton stalks, leaves, saw dust, pine needles,
coir dust arid other materials like polythene films or certain special kinds of
paper are spread in the tree basins and in inter spaces between trees. Main
objective of mulching is to conserve soil moisture and to control the weed
growth. The other advantages of mulching are:

1. Keeps soil cool in day; warm at night hours

2. Reduces surface run-off
3. Adds humus to the soil
4. Prevents soil erosion
5. Fruits are protected and kept clean since they fall on the mulches
6. It allows the absorption of more rain water and
7. It reduces irrigation frequency.

The following are some of the disadvantages:

 1. Dry materials used as mulches encourage the risk of fire and consequent
damage to trees.
2. Thick mulches may act as places for mice and rodents to live and
multiply. They may cause damage to tree trunks and roots by eating the
bark and burrowing to the land. The mulching materials should be placed
too close to the tree trunk and it should be spread in such a way that they
give a good cover to the root system of the trees.
3. Sod

In this method, permanent cover of grass is raised in the orchard and no tillage
is given. This type of orchard cultivation is followed in USA and Europe. This
may be useful in slopy lands for preventing soil erosion. But they compete for
soil moisture and available nitrogen. The drawbacks of this system are the need
for increased manuring and water application. They are harmful to shallow
rooted trees. Hence sod may be useful with deep rooted trees because soil
moisture will be very low on the top layers.

4. Sod mulch

This is similar to sod with the only difference is that the vegetation is cut
frequently and the cut material is allowed to remain on the ground. This is
slightly better than the previous one, as the moisture loss is not so great as in
sod. In both sod and sod mulch, more nitrogen should be applied to the fruit
trees than usual application because the vegetation utilises more soil
nitrogen.

Intercropping
In young orchards, the question of how best one can use the soil between the
trees arises. If the trees are properly spaced there is considerable land which
will not be used by the permanent trees for several years. Similarly in the case
of other long duration horticultural crops like tapioca, turmeric, ginger and
banana some area between adjacent plants will be remaining unoccupied by the
main crop for few months. It naturally appeals to the grower to get some return
from this vacant land especially when he is getting no return in the early
periods. The practice of growing any economic crop in alley spaces of the fruit
trees in the first few years or in the' unoccupied spaces of the long duration crop
in the early periods is referred as intercropping. They also act as a covercrop
and the land benefits by the cultivation, irrigation, manuring given to the
intercrops. The following important principles should be observed while
growing intercrops.

1. Intercrops should not occupy the area where the roots of the fruit trees are
concentrated.
2. Soil fertility should be maintained or improved when intercrops are grown.
3. Water requirements of the intercrops should not clash with those of the main
fruit trees. The intercrop may require an irrigation at a time when it would be
detrimental to the trees.
4. Intercrops should be selected with reference to their effect on soil moisture.
Grain crops remove excessive moisture to the detriment of fruit trees. The
intercrops selected should not exhaust the soil water and nutrients and
should not demand more water than is allowed for fruit trees.
Vegetables are the best inter crops when compared to millets. But whatever
may be the intercrop grown, it should be kept well away from the main fruit
trees and irrigated independently. The intercropping should be stopped when
trees occupy the entire orchard space. Thereafter, green manuring or cover
cropping should be only practiced.

Many growers prefer some quick growing fruit trees to grow as intercrops. A
satisfactory fruits are available for this purpose. In temperate regions
peaches are often grown between apple trees. Similarly, in properly spaced
mango orchard, guava trees can be planted to bear in two or three years and
will produce a number of crops before it is necessary to remove them. Such
short-lived trees are known as 'fillers'. Papayas, bananas or phalsa may be
well grown as fillers in orchards. The danger in using fillers is when they are
allowed to remain in the orchard for too long periods. As normally root
 system makes a faster growth than the branches, the roots of the permanent
trees come in contact with the roots of the fillers before there is any
crowding above ground. Therefore, the fillers should be removed after a few
years usually immediately after the main fruit trees have commenced
bearing.

Mixed cropping

It refers to the practice of growing certain perennial crops in the alley spaces of
the main perennial crops. The main advantage is the effective utilization of
available area and increase in the net income of the farm per unit area.
Extensive research conducted by CPCRI, Kassargode on mixed cropping in
coconut and arecanut plantations showed that cocoa, pepper, cinnamon, clove
and nutmeg can be grown as mixed crops in coconuts while nutmeg and clove
as mixed crops in between four arecanut palms on alternate rows. In all the
above cases, increase in yield (upto 10%) is obtained in the main crop due to
the synergistic effect of the crop combinations arising out of beneficial micro
organisms in the rhizosphere and the more availability of major nutrients in the
active root zone of the crop mix as compared to the pure stand.

Multitier system of cropping

Certain horticultural plants like coconut and arecanut are grown for about 50
years in a particular land. It takes nearly 4 to 7 years for the above trees to reach
the bearing stage. Adequate alley spaces (nearly 75%) are available in between
these trees and being the palm trees, their root system will not also spread
beyond one metre in diameter.

Hence, these vacant spaces can be profitably used for raising other crops,
thereby increasing the employment opportunities and profit. This is the chief
objective of the multitier system of cropping. Intercropping and mixed cropping
involve jointly multitier system of cropping and is defined as a compatible
companion of crops having varying morphological frames and rooting habits,
grown together in such a manner that their canopies intetercept solar energy at
varying heights and their roots forage the soil at different zones.

Organic farming

Excessive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides as a mean of intensive

cultivation to boost up our food production have caused considerable damages
to our soil health and the environment. This has been criticized recently by
many environmentalists. This has focused the attention of several experts in
ecologically sound viable and sustainable farming systems, known as organic
farming.

It is a production system which avoids or largely excludes the use of

synthetically compounded inorganic chemicals. This system entirely relies on
crop rotation, crop residues, animal manures, legumes, green manures, off-farm
organic wastes, biofertilizers, mechanical cultivation etc. and aspects of
biological pest control to maintain soil productivity and tilth to supply nutrients
and to control insects, weeds and other pests. This system is often, referred as
'biological farming' 'regenerative farming' and 'sustainable farming' 'eco
friendly farming' etc.
Organic fanning is essential because

1. Chemical fertilizers may have an adverse effect on soil life-they do not

supply humus, have an adverse effect on physical, chemical and
biological properties of soil
2. Chemical fertilizers are costly.
3. Indiscriminate application of pesticides could lead to residues in
horticultural crops which are consumed mostly in raw state by us.
4. The continuous use of pesticides is ecologically unsutainable as pests
acquire resistance.
5. There is a permium for the horticultural produces which are raised under
organic fanning.

Essential features of organic farming

1. Use of organic manures like FYM, compost, vermicompost and.coir

compost etc.
2. Use of biofertilizers.
3. Use of green manures and grain legumes.
4. Non-chemical weed management.
5. Use of botanicals and bio control agents in the control of crop pests.

In India, organic farming in horticultural crops especially in vegetable and

spices crops are slowly picking up, wherever premium prices are available for
organically grown quality produces. In certain horticultural crops where
productivity and total productions cannot be compromised by following strict
organic farming practices, a combination of inorganic and organic farming
practices may be followed possibly avoiding known toxic inorganic chemicals.
 UNIT II

NURSERY MANAGEMENT

INTRODUCTION

Horticulture and Horticulture are vital sciences as they fulfill the very basic
need of food for the Human beings. Qualitative and quantitative food can
essentially be produced from healthy plants which in turn are produced only
when their seedlings/saplings are vigorous and healthy. Nursery is consequently
the basic need of horticulture. Plant propagation techniques and practices is the
core of horticulture nurseries. The planting materials for horticultural
plantations are raised from seeds and vegetative parts in the nursery.

A nursery is a place where plants are propagated and grown to usable size.
They include retail nurseries which sell to the general public, wholesale
nurseries which sell only to businesses such as other nurseries and to
commercial gardeners, and private nurseries which supply the needs of
institutions or private estates. Some retail and wholesale nurseries sell by mail.

Although the popular image of a nursery is that of a supplier of garden plants.

The range of nursery functions is far wider and has vital importance to many
branches of Horticulture, forestry and conservation biology. Some nurseries
specialize in one phase of the process: propagation, growing out, or retail sale;
or in one type of plant: e.g., groundcovers, shade plants, or rock garden plants.
Some produce bulk stock, whether seedlings or grafted, of particular varieties
for purposes such as fruit trees for orchards, or timber trees for forestry. Some
produce stock seasonally, ready in springtime for export to colder regions where
propagation could not have been started so early, or to regions where seasonal
pests prevent profitable growing early in the season.

NURSERY AND ITS TYPES

DEFINITION OFNURSERY
Nursery is a place where plants are grown, nurtured and sold out. Generally,
various commercial crop growers require a good quality saplings or grafts of
genuine type.

TYPES OF NURSERY

Nurseries are categorized in different ways.

According to time duration nurseries are classified in two types:

1) TEMPORARY NURSERY This type of nursery is developed only to fulfill

the requirement of the season or a targeted project. The nurseries for production
of seedlings of transplanted vegetables and flower crops are of temporary
nature. Likewise temporary arrangement for growing forest seedlings for
planting in particular area can also be done in temporary nursery.

2) PERMANENT NURSERY This type of the nursery is placed permanently

so as to produce plants continuously. These nurseries have all the permanent
features. The permanent nursery has permanent mother plants. The work goes
on continuously all the year round in this nursery.

According to type of plants produced nurseries are classified in to

following types:

1) Fruit plant nurseries:- In this nursery seedlings and grafts of fruit crops are
developed.

2) Vegetable nurseries: - In this nursery seedlings of cauliflower, cabbage,

brinjal and tomato are prepared.

3) Flowers plants nurseries: - The seedlings of flowering plants like gerbera,

carnation, petunia, salvia, rose, chrysanthemum, coleus, aster, dianthus are
developed in this nurseries.
4) Forest nurseries: - The seedlings of plants useful for forestation like pine,
oak, teak, eucalyptus, casuarinas are prepared and sold.

5) Miscellaneous nurseries: - In such type of nurseries plants with great

economic value, rare and medicinal, herbal plants are propagated. In this
nursery plants like geranium, rose, calendula, and marigold are propagated.

According to type of plant grown

1.) Fruit plant nursery
Fruit crops are mainly propagated vegetatively and need special techniques for
Propagations as well as maintenance. Mango, Guava, Pomegranate, Sapota,
Oranges etc. are propagated with vegetative means. Fruit nurseries are essential
for production of grafts as well as the mother plants of scions and rootstocks.

2. Vegetable Nurseries
All vegetables except few like potatoes, sweet potato, bulbous vegetables and
some other are raised by seedlings. Very few vegetables are perennials like,
little gourd, drumsticks, Alocasia etc. Seedlings are to be produced on a large
scale in short period.

3. Ornamental Plant Nurseries

Ornamental and floricultural crops are numerous and are propagated
vegetatively, like gladiolus, carnation, roses, lilies etc. There is a large group of
ornamental plants, which is propagated by seeds and seedling; Asters,
Marigolds, Salvias, etc. are some of them.

4. Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Nurseries

There is considerable increase in people adopting ayurvedic medicines with the
changing life style. It is also necessary to conserve the fast depleting precious
medicinal and aromatic plants. To save and multiply the valuable medicinal and
other.auspicious plants, nurseries specializing in these plants have begun to
flourish. These plants are also demanded by the Ayurvedic medicinal
practitioners.

5. Forest Plant Nursery

Forest plants are essential for synthesis of gums, honey, timber and fuel. There
is lack of forest plant nurseries. To save and multiply the entire lot of valuable
forest plants it is very essential to preserve and multiply those plants for which
special type of nurseries are to be established. This is also needed for medicinal
purposes.

6. Hi-Tech Nurseries
There is sudden increase in the demand for certain commercial plants. For
example., tissue cultured banana, gerbera and carnation etcThere is necessity to
have special techniques and methods to meet the demand and only Hi-tech
nurseries can satisfy this type of demand. These nurseries grow plants in
greenhouse, building of glass or a plastic tunnel, designed to protect young
plants from harsh weather, while allowing access to light and ventilation.
Modern greenhouses allow automated control temperature, ventilation, light,
watering and feeding. Some also have fold-back roofs to allow "hardening-off"
of plants without the need for manual transfer of plants to the outdoor beds.

Importance of Plant Nursery

1. Seedlings and grafts are produced in nursery and the fruit orchards and
ornamental gardens can be established with minimum care, cost and
maintenance.
2. The nursery planting materials are available at the beginning of the planting
season. This saves the time, money and efforts of the farmers to raise seedlings.

3. There is a wide scope for fruit orchards, ornamental, vegetable, and

landscape gardens at public gardens, highways and co-operative housing
societies.

PLANNING OF NURSERY

To plan for a nursery one has to decide

Which type of nursery is to be started.

The durations and type of plants propagated should be finalized.
Selection of site.

Site is the basic requirement of a nursery. Site is a place upon which one can
produce seedlings of plants. Qualities of a good site are:

1) Nearness of road

2) Near a habitat

3) Suitable climate

4) Neither shady nor exposed area

5) Sufficient sunlight

6) Good irrigation facilities

7) Good soil condition

8) Good transport facility.

MANAGEMENT OF NURSERY
Nursery plants require due care and attention after having either emerged from
the seeds or have been raised from other sources like rootstock or through tissue
culture technique. Generally they are grown in the open field under the
protection of mother nature where, they should be able to face the local
environment.

It is the duty & main objective of a commercial nursery grower to supply the
nursery plants with suitable conditions necessary for their development &
growth. This is the major work of management in the nursery which includes all
such operations right from the emergence of young plantlet till they are fully
grown-up or are ready for uprooting & transplanting in the main fields.

1) Potting the seedling:

Before planting of sapling in the pots, the pots should be filled up with proper
potting mixture. Now a days different size of earthen pots or plastic containers
are used for propagation. For filling of pots loamy soil, sand and compost can
be used in 1:1:1 proportion. Sprouted cuttings, bulbs, corms or polythene bag
grown plants can be transferred in earthen pots for further growth. All the
necessary precautions are taken before filling the pots and planting of sapling in
it.

2) Manuring& Irrigation:-

Generally sufficient quantity of nutrients is not available in the soil used for
seedbed. Hence, well rotten F.Y.M / compost and leaf mould is added to soil.
Rooted cuttings, layers or grafted plants till they are transferred to the
permanent location, require fertilizers. Addition of fertilizers will give healthy
& vigorous plants with good root & shoot system. It is recommended that each
nursery bed of 10 X 10m area should be given 300 gm of ammonium sulphate,
500 gm of Single super phosphate and 100 gm of Muriate of potash. Irrigation
either in the nursery beds or watering the pots is an important operation. For
potted plants hand watering is done & for beds low pressure irrigation by hose
pipe is usually given. Heavy irrigation should be avoided.

3) Plant protection measures: -

Adoption of plant protection measures, well in advance and in a planned
manner is necessary for the efficient raising of nursery plants. For better
protection from pest and diseases regular observation is essential. Disease
control in seedbed is essential for better growth of the plant. The major disease
of nursery stage plant is damping off. For its control good sanitation
conditions are necessary. Preventive measures like treatment with 50% ethyl
alcohol, 0.2% calcium hypo chloride and 0.01% mercury chloride is done.
These treatments are given for 5 to 30 minutes.

Some of the seed treatment are as follows:

i) Disinfection The infection within the seed is eliminated by use of

formaldehyde, hot water or mercuric chloride.

ii) Hot water treatment Dry seeds are placed in hot water having a
temperature of 480C 550C for 10-30 minutes.

iii) Protection In dry seed treatment organo mercuric and non-mercuric

compounds like agallal, aretan 6, and tafasan-6. For this the seeds are shaken
within the seed container. While in wet method, the seeds are immersed for
certain period in liquid suspension.

iv) Soil treatment Soil contains harmful fungi, bacteria, nematodes and even
weeds seeds, which affect the growth and further development of plant. These
can be eliminated by heat, chemical treatment. For that soil is disinfected by
heating to the temperature of about 600C for 30 minutes. v) Chemical treatment
the chemicals like formaldehyde, methyl bromide, chloropicrin, vapam are
used. Other diseases like rust, powdery mildew, leaf spot, bacterial blight,
yellow vein mosaic are also observed. For control of these diseases Bordeaux
mixture, Carbendazime, Redomil can be used. Tricodermaviridi a bio-fungicide
can also be tried out.

4) Weed control: -
Weeds compete with plants for food, space and other essentials. So, timely
control of weeds is necessary. For weed control weeding, use of cover crops,
mulching, use of chemicals (weedicides) are practiced. Pre-emergence
weedicides like Basalin or post-emergence weedicide like 2, 4-D and Roundup
are useful.
5) Measures against heat and cold: -
The younger seedling is susceptible to strong sun and low temperature. For
protection from strong sun, shading with the help of timber framework of 1
meter height may be used. Net house and green house structures can also be
used.
6) Packing of nursery plants:
Packing is the method or way in which the young plants are tied or kept
together till they are transplanted. So they have to be packed in such a way that
they do not lose their turgidity and are able to establish themselves on the new
site. At the same time, good packing ensures their success on transplanting. For
packing baskets, wooden boxes, plastic bags are used. In some parts of the
country banana leaves are also used for packing the plants with their earth ball.
This is useful for local transportation.
7) Sale management
In general the main demand for nursery plants is during rainy season. A proper
strategy should be followed for sale of nursery plants. For that advertisement in
local daily newspapers, posters, hand bills, catalogue and appointment of
commission agents can be followed.

8) Management of mother plants

Care of mother plants is necessary so as to get good quality propagules and
scion. A. Labeling and records B. Certification C. Irrigation D. Fertilization E.
Pruning F. Protection from pests and diseases Collection and development of
new mother plants Fruit Nurseries

ROLE OF NURSERIES
IN HORTICULTUREDEVELOPMNENNT

1. Production of Genetically Pure Nursery Stock

Genetically pure planting material is essential for healthy and vigorous plant
growth. Both stock and scion should be genetically pure. The planting material
should be satisfactory in quantity and quality and easily available for further
multiplication.

2. Export of Nursery Stock

Globalization has improved the chances of export of quality planting material to
other countries. Special techniques and care is required for exporting the
nursery material. Similarly, great care is necessary while importing nursery
material from outside.

3. Employment Generation
There is a huge demand of skilled professionals for grafting, budding, potting,
repotting and other nursery operations. Nursery provides employment
opportunities for technical, skilled, semi-skilled, and unskilled labor. Nursery
can itself be a very remunerative enterprise in the changing national scenario.

4. Role of Nurseries in Dry Land Horticulture

Like India, there are many countries in this world, which face droughts every
other year. Growing drought tolerant fruit crops provide assured income to
farmers. Horticultural plantations play an essential part in afforestation and
thereby help to reduce the global warming
RESOURCES OF NURSERY
Nursery is the base for future development of Horticulture. Nursery can be a
profitable venture only when it is thoroughly planned. Nursery depends on its
physical resources as well as the financial resources.

The physical resources include, land, water, labour and other supporting items
such as transport, market communication facilities and availability of required
technical knowledge.

Second resource is finance. The capital requirement of a nursery should be

fulfilled sufficiently and timely. There are several sources for finance, like, the
banks, co-operative societies, personal loans, Govt. subsidies etc.

Nurseries are highly labor-intensive. Although some processes have been

mechanized and automated, others have not. So plant care requires observation,
judgment and personal skill; selection for sale requires comparison and
judgment. Plants may be propagated by seeds, but often desirable cultivars are
propagated vegetatively by budding, grafting, layering, or other nursery
techniques.
(A) Physical Resources for Nursery
1. Land- Land is the basic and fundamental physical resource for plant nursery.
The areaavailable must be considered before planning the nursery and the
products. Soil sample testing should be done to avoid problematic and
unmanageable soils. Soil should be well drained, porous and light to medium in
texture. Soil pH should be 6.5 7.5. Heavy, black cotton soil, sandy, ill drained
and soils having high pH more than 8 are strictly avoided. Low lying land
should not be selected. The soils should be free from salts and other harmful
elements. The selected site should be close to railway station or bus station.
Wind breaks and shelter belts should be raised prior to planting nursery plants.
2. Irrigation Facilities- Required land with sufficient and assured supply of
irrigation is the most importantbasic resource. Quality of irrigation water should
be at prescribed level. Harmful factorscan be tested by water testing in
laboratory. The pH and electrical conductivity (EC) ofirrigation water should be
tested.
3. Labour- Labour is another important resource. Degree of mechanization
must be consideredbefore estimating the labor requirement. Skilled as well as
unskilled man power isnecessary for grafting, budding, weeding, irrigation,
spraying, dusting, training, pruning,etc. Technically sound gardeners are also
necessary. Labour should be available atreasonable rates.
4. Electricity
The availability of power or electricity is also very important and is in
accordance with the man power available. Load shedding should be minimum
possible. Regular supply of electricity is very essential. Electricity is required
for water pumps, spraying, dusting and many other operations.
5. Road and Transport
Once the nursery stock is ready for sale, there should be good roads and
transport facilities. These facilities are also required for timely importing of
stock and other material for the nursery.
6. Mother Plants
Mother plants are the most important factor for successful nursery. Separate
planting of mother plants is necessary. Different varieties of mother plants are
planted in different plots. Pests and diseases are controlled regularly by
spraying pesticides and fungicides.
Mother plants should be authentic and selected from Government nurseries or
from Agricultural Universities. Mother plants should be selected very carefully
as the sale of the nursery stock depends on the mother plants used for the
propagation.

7. Propagation Structures:
Propagation structures are very essential for production of grafts or seedlings.
They are useful for multiplication of grafts and seedlings. Hardening of plants is
done with the help of propagation structures.

8. Hedges and Compound

Thorny plants like Chilar (thorny creeper), golden duranta (thorny shrub), and
agave are used as hedges in nurseries. Barbed wire fencing is also used. Hedges
protect the nursery plants from wild and stray animals, theft, etc. They fix the
borders of the nursery and are ornamental and decorative.

9. Space for Hardening of Nursery Plants

Small shade net houses are required for hardening of nursery plants. Young,
pampered seedlings that were grown either indoors or in a greenhouse will need
a period to adjust and acclimatize to outdoor conditions, prior to planting. This
transition period is called "hardening off".
Hardening off gradually exposes the tender plants to wind, sun and rain and
toughens them up by thickening the cuticle on the leaves so that the leaves lose
less water. This helps prevent transplant shock in which the seedlings have a
stunted growth or they die from sudden changes in temperature. Hardenings off
time depend on the type of plants grown and the temperature fluctuations.

10. Store and Office

Garden tools, implements, raw materials, insecticides, fungicides, manures,
fertilizers, boards, polythene bags etc are stored in store house. An ideal nursery
has at least one well managed office for keeping all registers, notebooks,
information books and for instructing the team. The record of mother plants,
progeny, Stock of plants, etc is preserved in office.
Other Resources Required:

1. Seeds/Seedlings/Saplings/Budlings: The best quality pure planting materials

are brought from authorized and well known sources.

2. Containers: This may simply be "peat cups" for seasonal vegetable or flower
nurseries, or plastic pots and containers for growing potted shrubs and
ornamental trees.

3. Landscape Fabric, Mulch, and Soil Conditioners: These resources are also
required in nursery business and made available by registered stores.

4. Equipment and Implements: The various equipments and implements are

required in a horticultural nursery. These may be bullock-drawn; man-operated
or power driven. One should not depend on a single type of power. Small
tractors with suitable
trolleys, spray pumps, dusters, sprinklers, cranes, etc are very useful in nursery
operations. These facilities can be bought, borrowed or hired on contract as and
when needed. But the hiring, borrowing and sale agencies should be nearby and
reliable.

5.Media for Vegetative Propagation

There are several media and media mixtures that are available for use in
propagation particularly for rooting and growing of container plants.

Characteristics for Good Media

The growth media should have the following characteristics for good results.
1. The growth medium must be sufficiently firm to hold the cutting in place
during rooting. The volume must be fairly constant when it is dry or wet.
2. It must be sufficiently retentive of moisture so that frequency in watering can
be minimized.
3. It must be porous so that excess of water can be drained out.
4. The media should be free from weed seeds, pathogens, termites, nematodes
etc.
5. The media should be capable or suitable for getting sterilized.
Some Important Media:

Soil: Soil is a very common easily available and comparatively cheaper

medium used in nursery. The soil contains both organic and inorganic
matters. The organic part is the residues of living and dead parts of
plants, animals, and microbes. The liquid part of the soil is the soil
solution containing water, dissolved minerals as well as O2 and Co2.
The gaseous portion of the soil is important to keep the balance of air
and water in proper and desired condition. The nursery soil must have a
good texture and structure.
Sand: Sand is generally used in plant propagation media. The sand used
in plastering is very much suitable for rooting of cuttings. The sand
should be heated or fumigated before being used as media. Generally
sand does not contain any mineral nutrients and has no buffering
capacity.
Peat: Peat consists of the residues from a marsh swamp. Vegetative peat
moss is available but should be broken into fine parts before used in
mixtures or as media. It contains some organic nitrogen and is favorable
for newly rooted cuttings or germinated seeds.
Sphagnum Moss: Sphagnum moss is the dehydrated remains of acid
hog plants and has three genera, growing naturally in damp humid forest
lands. Normally, it absorbs and holds water 20 times to its weight. It also
contains a fungistatic substance which is useful to inhibit damping off.
Moss is soaked in solution containing fungicide and is enriched with
nutrient solution before being used for propagation. It is used for air
layering in woody perennials like pomegranate and figs.
Vermiculite, Perlite, Leaf Mold, Saw Dust, Grain Husk, Coco Peat.

PLANT PROPAGATION
Introduction
Plant propagation means multiplication of plants with the aim to achieve
increase in number and preserve the essential characteristics of the mother
plant.
It is essentially of two types:
A. Sexual Propagation
B. Asexual Propagation

A. Sexual Propagation
Refers to multiplication of plants by seeds. Seeds are formed after successful
pollination and fertilization by the union of male and female gametes. Meiosis
division takes place in the course of fusion and the chromosome numbers are
reduced to half, which after fertilization becomes normal.
The plants raised through seed are called seedling plant. It involves careful
management of germination conditions and facilities and knowledge of the
requirements of individual kind of seeds.

Success of seed propagation depends upon fulfilling the following

conditions:
1. Using seed of proper genetic characteristics to produce the desired cultivar or
species. This can be accomplished by obtaining seed from a reliable source or
dealer.
2. Using good quality seeds which germinate rapidly and vigorously to
withstand possible adverse environmental conditions in the seed bed and
provide a high percentage of usable seedlings.
3. Manipulating the seed dormancy by applying pre-germination treatments or
proper timing of planting.
4. Providing proper environment for seed germination i.e., supplying sufficient
water, proper temperature, adequate oxygen and either light or darkness
(depending upon kind of seed) to the seeds and resulting seedlings until they are
well established.
Advantages
Propagation by seeds is simple and easy. Seed propagation is only mean
of diversity particularly in the selection of chance seedlings.
Seedling plants are long lived, productive and have greater tolerance to
adverse soil and climatic conditions and diseases.
Seed propagation makes feasible to propagate plants like papaya and
coconut in which asexual means of propagation is not common.
Hybrids can only be developed by sexual means.
Sexual propagation offers opportunities of polyembryony (citrus, mango
or jamun) and apomixis (Malussikkimensis, Malushupehensis,
Malussargentii), which produces true- to - type plants.
Seed is the source for production of rootstocks for asexual propagation.
Seeds, if stored properly can be kept for longer duration /period for future
use.

Disadvantages
Seedling plants are not true to type to the mother plants due to
heterozygous nature of fruit plants.
Seedling plants have long juvenile phase (6-10 years) and hence
flowering and fruiting commences very late in them.
Sexually raised plants are generally tall and spreading type and thus are
cumbersome for carrying out various management practices like
pruning, spraying, harvesting etc.
Seeds of many fruits are to be sown immediately after extraction from
the fruits as they lose their viability very soon e.g. cashew nut, jamun,
jackfruit, citrus, mango and papaya.
The beneficial influences of rootstocks on scion variety cannot be
exploited in sexual propagation.
Seedling plants usually produce fruits inferior quality.

B. Asexual Propagation
There is no involvement of sex organs. It takes place due to mitotic division.
Mitotic division continues in shoot tip, root tip and cambium. When some
portion of plant is wounded, mitotic division takes place. Under mitotic
division, chromosomes divide longitudinally to form two daughter cells. This
forms the basis of asexual propagation. The plants raised through asexual
 process are identical to mother plants. Cutting, division, layering, budding and
grafting are main techniques of asexual propagation.

Advantages
Asexually propagated plants are true to type to their mother plants.
Asexually propagated plants have short juvenile phase and bear flowers
and fruits in the early age (3-4 years) than seedling plants.
The vegetatively propagated plants are smaller in stature and hence
management operations like spraying, pruning and harvesting etc.
become easy.
Plants in which seed setting does not take place (e.g. pineapple and
banana), asexual propagation serves as a substitute for sexual
propagation.
Using asexual methods, desirable characters of a mother plant can be
perpetuated/ multiplied easily.
Repairing of damaged portion of plant is possible through asexual
propagation as in case of bridge grafting.
It is possible to convert a non-productive local variety into productive
improved variety by using asexual methods.
It is possible to grow several varieties on one plant or change variety of
existing plant by top working.

Disadvantages

Asexual propagated plants have shorter life-span.

Asexual propagation restricts diversity.
Sometimes asexual propagation disseminates diseases e.g. Tristezavirus
in citrus.
Technical skill is required

NURSERY BEDS

A nursery beds are of three types

o Flat nursery bed

 o Raised nursery bed

o Sunken nursery bed

Flat nursery bed:

o It is prepared during spring-summer when there is no risk of rain

and in the areas where the soil is light sandy to sandy loam and has

no problem of water stagnation.

o The area selected for nursery is well prepared till the pulverization

of land and well rotten FYM at the rate of 10 kg per square meter

area and is thoroughly mixed in the soil. The field is divided into

small plots comprising of beds of uniform size depending upon the

requirement, with the help of layout rope and measuring tape.

Ridges are prepared around each bed, which facilitate the cultural

practices. In between two rows of beds, control irrigation channel

is prepared through which each bed is connected.

Raised nursery bed:

 It is especially useful for raising seedlings during rainy season when

stagnation of water becomes problematic and causes damping off disease.

All the stumps, stones, pebbles, weeds etc. are removed from the bed and

FYM at the rate of 10kg per square meter is mixed in the soil.

In between two rows, a space of 45 to 60cm is left so as to carry out

cultural practices easily. The seeds are sown in lines in the bed.

Sunken nursery bed:

o This type of bed is useful and prepared during winter season. This

type of nursery is prepared 10 to 15cm downwards from the soil

surface.

o The air blows across the surface of soil and the seedlings in sunken

bed is not hit by the cool breeze of the air.

o Further, covering of sunken bed with polyethylene sheets becomes

easy which is required for protecting the seedlings from cool air.

o Sowing of seeds: Till the soil to a fine tilth by removing stones,

pebbles, crop residues etc.Break the clods and level the land/bed.

Mix FYM@ 3 to 4kg, 250 g ammonium sulphate and 250 g super

phosphate per square meter area.

o The seeds are sown about 2 to 4 cm deep and 8 to 10 cm apart. The

depth of the furrow depends upon the size of seeds.

 17

o Bigger are the seeds, deeper the furrow. After sowing, the seeds

should be covered with a mixture of FYM and coarse sand in the

ratio of 3:1.

o Level the bed and sprinkle water after mulching the seed beds, as

per requirement.

o Over watering should be avoided, as excess moisture encourages

root rot disease.

In situ sowing:In situ sowing refers to sowing of seeds directly in the

field and grafting and budding are performed there itself.It is particularly

important in some fruits like walnut, pecan nut, jackfruit and ber, which

has long tap root system, In situ sowing enables to avoid the damage to

tap root at the time of transplanting or uprooting of plants from the

nursery.

o Similarly, for high density planting in Amrapali mango, in situ

orchard establishment is recommended.

Precautions:1. The seed source should be genuine and good quality.

2. The depth of sowing should be decided carefully depending upon the size of
seed.

3. Avoid over watering of nursery beds and stress conditions.

Nursery tools and implements

For carrying out day-to-day routine cultural operations in the nursery, various
tools, implements and accessories are required. Some tools are simple and are
used for simple operations, whereas for carrying out specific operations, special
types of equipments are required. These are listed and briefly described below:

Tools for land preparation and other basic works

Hoe: It is a simple but important tool used for digging of soil, pits or any basic
digging work prior to preparation of nursery beds. It has a metal (iron) blade
attached to a wooden handle. It is operated manually.

Garden fork: Garden fork is used for breaking of soil clods and separation of
medium size soil during preparation of nursery bed or fields.

Weeding fork: It loosens the soil and helps in weeding also. It consists of a
long handle with a blade of handle teeth. It is drawn manually with the help of
handle to collect the weeds and cops of plants etc.

Crow bar: It is an iron rod with one end pointed and other as a wedge shaped.
It is used for digging out large or hand boulders from the soil and digging of
pits. It is also used for breaking hard soil pan.

Shovel: It has iron blade of spoon shape and wooden handle and is used for
within field transport of dug out soil required for leveling of field for
preparation of nursery beds.

Pick-Axe: It is made of carbon steel. Pick axe has two edges with provision of
axial hole for attachment with handle. One edge of pick axe is pointed and
another is broadened. Pick axe is used for digging hard, compact and stony
soils.

Spade: It is used for lifting and turning the soil. Also used for digging the pit,
preparing channel for irrigation and drainage lines.
Hoe-cum-Rake: It is of rectangular shape metal blade with fork like fore edge.
It is used for digging, hoeing, earthing, leveling and collecting weeds.

Furrow opener: It is used for opening narrow and shallow furrow after sowing
seeds in nursery.

Hand leveler: It consists of narrow rectangular metal blade attached to long

wooden handle.

Trowel (Khurpi): It is of shovel shape but small in size with iron blade and
wooden handle. It can be made in many shapes as per local designs and
requirements. It is used for hoeing, weeding and nursery plants and also for
transplanting seedlings.

Axe: Iron blade, fastened to wooden handle. It is used for felling trees and
cutting branches.

Bill Hook (Darat): It is made of iron curved at the far end or used for cutting
hardy branches of plant and other woody shrubs in the field.

Sickle: It is used for cutting grass and leafy vegetables.

Wheel-Barrow: It is manually operated small trolly, used for carrying nursery

plants, compost, fertilizes, leaf litter, horticultural produce, stones etc. from one
place to another place. It can be designed into different shapes according to
requirement.

Cultivator: It is a tractor drawn implement used for tilling the soil efficiently. It
has tynes of quality carbon comprising of different sizes depending upon the
plough depth. These days, hand driven small cultivator is more popular. It can
plough upto to 1 feet depth.

Disc harrow: It is used for pulverizing the soil. It is also used for turning crop
residues, weeds and other debris in the soil. It is used for deep ploughing and
turning of soil.

Grafting and budding tools

Knife: Knives having combined blade for grafting and budding purposes. A
grafting/budding knife has a straight 7.5cm long blade and strong long handle.
It has a spatula at the end of a handle, which is used for lifting the bark during
budding operation. Sometimes knife has two parallel double blades, used
specially for lifting or removing the patch of a bud from the budwood.
Generally these knives have either a folding or fixed blade. The blade of knife
should be made from high carbon steel and should always be very sharp.
Secateurs: Secateurs are considered as the most important tool for a propagator
or a nursery man. It is used for removing scions, lopping off the rootstock,
preparation of scion sticks, removal of undesirable shoots/sprouts from the
stock and training and pruning operations. The blades of secateurs should be of
high quality carbon blade for giving smooth cuts to the stock and scions.

Pruning saw: Several types of saws are required for performing different
operations involved in propagation of horticultural plants. The commonly used
are crescent saws, tapered saws and straight saws. All of them have long and
widely set teeth to facilitate pruning or cutting of green wood. Its blades should
be narrow so that it can pass through the narrow or closely spaced branches.

Ladders: In propagation work, ladder is required for operations like cutting of

bud wood, training of vigorous plants, performing layering operations and top
working of declining plants. In general, step ladder or straight ladder or hook
ladders are used for such operations in the field of propagation.

Tying and wrapping materials: It is essential to hold scion and stock firmly
together to have successful graft/bud union. For this purpose a suitable tying or
wrapping material is required. Generally polyethylene tapes/strips, waxed string
and cloth and rubber strips are used for this purpose. In addition, adhesive tapes
similar to surgical adhesive tapes but lighter in weight are also used by
commercial nursery men.

Grafting wax: Wax is used by propagator to seal the graft union for preventing
moisture loss and desiccation of cells at cut surface and to prevent the decay of
wood by way of checking the entry of pathogens. Waxes are of two types i) Hot
wax ii) Cold wax.

Labels: Labels are used for proper labeling of plants, before sale. Labels may
be made of paper, card board, wooden, celluloid, aluminum and plastic etc.

Pots: Pots of different shapes and sizes are used in nursery. They may be of
clay, metal or plastic usually 10cm, 15cm or 20cm for single specimen. Pots are
of different types, tube pots, size,1/2 size,3/4 size and full size, thali and urn.
These are used for potting ornamental plants, fruit plants, saplings etc. Iron
pots/ plastic pots are used for irrigation purpose also.

Spray-pumps: To spray protective material i.e. insecticides/pesticides/

fungicides to eliminate the infection of pathogens or insects, spray pumps are
very important tools.
Pumps are of different shapes, size and types. Commonly used sprays are knap-
sack sprayer, rocker sprayer, foot sprayer, hand sprayers or power sprayers.
Depending upon the volume of nursery and specific purpose different types of
sprayers are put in operation.
Chain weeder: It is operated by petrol/diesel/kerosene. It is used to slash the
weeds on large scale.

Rose can: A tubular pipe with rose i.e. fitted into the can through which water
is sprinkled over the nursery beds until the germination of seeds and to avoid
splashing of seeds from the nursery beds due to loose pipe irrigation and flood
irrigation.

Iron pan: It is made of iron and used for transporting pot mixtures, potted
plants through head load from one place to another for short distance.

Hose pipe: This is available in convenient length. Irrigation to nursery plants is

made possible to any extent.

Pruning shear: It is made of iron fitted with wooden handle. It is used to prune
unwanted branches, collection of scion, trimming of the edges and hedges and
topiary work.
 UNIT III

FOOD PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY

.
Introduction

Fruits and vegetables are among perishable commodity with important

ingredient in human diet due to high nutritive value and significant nutritional
contribution. So if they are supplied whole year then the status of national
dietary picture will improve. There production and wastage is of very large
amount due to absence of facilities. This is result in market glut and become
unavailable during off season. It has been engagingthe attention of policy
makes as it can contribute to the economic development of rural population.
The post harvest losses of these commodity are estimated to be 40% and only
1% can be processed. All processed products are not in reach in the rural
population. In order to avoid the glut and utilize the surplus of during the season
it is necessary to employ the modern techniques of preservation.

The fruits and vegetables processing have been set up or have to be set up
in developing countries due to the following reasons:

Economic diversification
Reduce dependence on expert commodity
Reduce losses
Simulate Horticulture production
General employment
Improve nutrition status
Fruit and vegetable processing industries in India
Fruits and vegetables and their products have gained considerable importance
by contributing significantly to the economy of many countries in the world. In
developing countries Horticulture is the main stay of economy. Among the
various activities, which are termed agriculturally based, fruits and vegetables
processing are the most important. India has arable land of 184 million hectares
producing various agro stocks including fruits and vegetables (151.5 MT) and is
considered as a goldmine as far as raw material base for food processing
industries is concerned. India is the second largest producers of fruits in the
world producing 50 million tonnes and accounting for 10% of the worlds fruit
production. It is also the second largest producers of vegetables, producing 101
million tonnes accounting for 15% of the worlds production. Apart from fruits
and vegetables, India also produces about 20 million tonnes of root and tuber
crops. Depending on factors like availability, socio-economic conditions,
tradition, taste and culture, some of these fruits and vegetables are regularly
consumed in the fresh and processed forms.

There are so many problems faces by food and vegetables industries

these are as follows:The basic problem associated with the industry is the
sustained availability of suitable raw material for processing. Moreover,
the productivity is also very low as compared to many other countries.
The cost of raw material used for processing is 3 to 4 times more as
compared to costs in the world market.
With the increasing competition from the international trade, quality of
imported products will become more available in the developing
countries. Therefore, to compete, the developing countries require proper
post harvest management, distribution and processing chains. Hence, it is
necessary to have better human resource capabilities in technology,
management and marketing.

Clustering of small and medium units can reduce cost of production.

Cluster project initiated by MOFPI may be of great help and it should be
enforced.
PRINCIPLES AND METHOD OF PRESERVATION

Food preservation can be defined as the science which deals with the methods
of prevention of decay or spoilage of food, thus allowing it to be stored in a fit
condition for future use. It is better if the following directions are kept in mind
to control the spoilage.

1. Raw materials should be thoroughly examined and handled hygienic

conditions to avoid microbial spoilage.

2. Equipments must be cleaned every time before use.

3. The cans should be carefully filled and exhausted sufficiently to produce a

good vacuum.

4. Processing should take place as soon as possible after sealing of cans or

bottles. The cooling process should also be done in such a manner that the cans
are left sufficiently warm to dry off surplus moisture but not hot enough to
cause "stack" burning.

5. Use of contaminated water should be avoided.

6. The finished products after canning or bottling should be stored in well-

ventilated rooms in a cool and dry place. High storage temperature should be
avoided. Freshly prepared products are highly attractive in appearance and
possess good taste and aroma, but deteriorate rapidly if kept for some time. This
is on account of several reasons such as. fermentation caused by moulds, yeasts
and bacteria, enzymes present in the product may affect the colour and flavour
adversely, e.g. apple juice turns brown due to the activity of oxidative enzymes
in it, chemicals present in the pulp/juice may react with one another and spoil
its taste and aroma, air coming in contact with the product, may react with the
glucosidal materials present in it and render the product bitter, e.g., Navel
orange and sweet lime juices often turn bitter when they are exposed to air even
for a short time. and traces of metal from the equipment may get into the
product and spoil its taste and aroma.

Principles of preservation

Prevention or Delay of microoraganism

Prevention or delay of self decomposition of food
Damage by physical and biological injury
Methods of preservation

Based on different principles of preservation there are several methods of

preservation .on the basis of most general used method of preservation they are
as follows

Asepsis(absence of infection)
Prevention by high temperature

Asepsis

Asepsis means preventing the entry of microorganisms. Maintaining of general

cleanliness while, picking, grading, packing and transporting of fruits and
vegetables increases their keeping quality and the products prepared from them
will be of superior quality. Washing or wiping of the fruits and vegetables
before processing should be strictly followed as dust particles adhering to the
raw material contain microorganisms and by doing so the number of organisms
can be reduced considerably

Preservation by temperature

Coagulation of protein and in activation of enzymes by the application of the

temperature treatments leads to preservation of food

Types of organisms to be eliminated

Nature of food
Other means of preservation other than temperature

CLASSIFICATION OF TEMPERATURE TREATMENTS

High temperature treatment Low temperature treatment

Pasteurization Sterilization

Refrigeration Freezing
Preservation by chemicals

Microorganism spoilage can also be controlled by application of class I and II

preservation . The Inhibitory action of preservation is due to interfering with
biological activities of microorganism dehydration.

Pasteurized squashes, cordials and crushes have a cooked flavour. After the
container is opened, they ferment and spoil within a short period, particularly in
a tropical climate. To avoid this, it is necessary to use chemical preservatives.
Chemically preserved squashes and crushes can be kept for a fairly long time
even after opening the seal of the bottle. It is, however, essential that the use of
chemicals is properly controlled, as their indiscriminate use is likely to be
harmful. The preservative used should not be injurious to health and should be
non-irritant. It should be easy to detect and estimate.

The two important chemical preservatives permitted in many countries are :

(i) sulphur dioxide (including sulphites), and

(ii) benzoic acid (include benzoates)

Preservation by Drying

Microorganisms need moisture to grow so when the concentration of water

in the .food is brought down below a certain level, they are unable to grow.
Moisture can be removed by the application of heat as in sun-drying or by
mechanical drying (dehydration). Sundrying is the most popular and oldest
method of preservation. In 'these days, mechanical drying has replaced sun-
drying. This is a more rapid process as artificial heat under controlled
conditions of temperature, humidity and air flow is provided and fruits and
vegetables, e.g., green peas, cauliflower, mango, mahua, etc., are dried to such
an extent that the microorganisms present in them fail to survive.In this method,
juices are preserved in the form of powder. The juice is sprayed as a very fine
mist into an evaporating chamber through which hot air is passed. The
temperature of the chamber and the-flow of air are so regulated that dried juice
falls to the floor of the chamber in the form of a dry powder. The powder is.
collected and packed in dry containers which are then closed airtight. The
powder when dissolved in water makes a fruit drink almost similar to the
original fresh juice. Fruit juice powders are highly hygroscopic and require
special care in packing. All juices cannot, however, be dried readily without
special treatment. Mango juice powder is prepared by this technique but the
method is very expensive and not popular in India
Preservation by Irradiation

Sterilization of food by ionizing radiations is a recently developed

method of preservation which has not yet gained general acceptance. The
unacceptable flavour of some irradiated foods and the fear that radioactivity
might be induced in such food has come in the way of its greater use. The
harmful effects on the human body of radiation from nuclear explosions have
given rise to such apprehension in the minds of many people. When gamma
rays or electron beams pass through foods there are collisions between the
ionizing radiation and food particles at atomic and molecular levels, resulting in
the production of ion pairs and free radicals. The reactions of these products
among themselves and with other molecules result in physical and chemical
phenomena which inactivate microorganisms in the food. Thus irradiation of
food can be considered to be a method of "cold sterilization", i.e., food is free of
microorganisms without high temperature treatment.

Preservation by Fermentation

Decomposition of carbohydrates by microorganisms or enzymes is called

'fermentation'. This is one of the oldest methods of preservation. By this
method, foods are preserved by the alcohol or organic acid formed by
microbial action. The keeping quality of alcoholic beverages, vinegars and
fermented pickles de-pends upon the presence of alcohol, acetic acid and
lactic acid, respectively. Care should be taken to seal the fermented products
from air to avoid further unwanted or secondary fermentation. Wines, beers,
vinegar, fermented drinks, fermented pickles, etc., are prepared by these
processes. .

Fourteen per cent alcohol acts as a preservative in wines because yeasts, etc.,
cannot grow at that concentration. About 2 per cent acetic acid prevents
spoilage in many products.

PROCESSED FOOD PRODUCTS & THEIR PREPARATION

The production of fruits & vegetables products in India are:

Canned, bottled fruits & vegetables

Fruit juice concentrated
Crystallized fruits and peel
Dehydrated fruits and vegetables,
Ready to serve (RTS) fruit beverges
Jelly
Jam
Marmalade
Juices
Squashes
Crashes
Cordials
Fruit syrup
Fruit nectars
Chutneys
Pickles
Tomato products
Frozen fruits
Sauces, soups
Chips and snacks
Candy
 FRUIT BEVERAGES

Fruit beverages are easily digestible, highly refreshing, thirst-

quenching, appetizing and nutritionally far superior to many
synthetic and aerated drinks. They can be classified into two
groups:
fermented beverage
unfermented beverage

GENERAL PROCESS FOR PREPARATION OF BEVERAGES

Selection

Sorting

Washing

Juice Extraction

De-aeration

Filteration

Clarification

Addition

Fortification

Preservation

Bottling

Storing
 ORANGE SQUASH

Ingredient Quantity

Oranges 2kg

Sugar 1.5kg

Water 1lt

Citric acid 20gm

KMS 2.5gm

Colour 2gm

Essence 5ml

NaO 2gm
Flow Sheet

Oranges

Washing

Grating

Peeling

Straining

Juice extraction

Straining

Measuring

Syrup preparation

Straining

Mixing

Addition

Bottling

Capping

Storing
JAM

Jam is a product made by boiling fruit pulp with sufficient sugar to a

reasonably thick consistency, firm enough to hold the fruit tissues in position,
Apple, pear, sapota (chiku), apricot, loquat, peach, papaya, karonda, carrot,
plum, straw- berry, raspberry, mango, tomato, grapes and muskmelon are used
for preparation of jams. It can be prepared from one kind of fruit or from' two
or more kinds. Commercial jams such as tutti-frutti can be prepared from pieces
of fruit, fruit scraping and pulp adhering to cores of fruits which are available in
plenty in canning factories.

Apple jam

Ingredient Quantity

Apples 2kg

Sugar 3kg

citric acid 40gm

Colour 2gm

Essence 6ml

Sodium benzoate 2gm

FLOW SHEET

Apples

Washing

pulping

Sugar addition

boiling

citric acid addition

judging end point

Syrup preparation

Hot fill

Cooling

Waxing

Capping

Storing
PICKLES
The preservation of fruits by class I preservatives is called pickles.

It is the most acientmethod of preservation. Pickles are result of

Fermentation of lactic acid bacteria.

GENERAL PROCESSES OF PREPARATION

Selection

Sorting

Washing

Peeling

Cutting

Paste preparation

Addition

Cooking

Storage
MANGO PICKLE

Ingredients Quantity
Mango 5kg
Salt 750gm
Turmeric 300gm
Chile 50gm
Cumin 50gm
Cinnamon 20gm
Cardamom 20gm
Pepper 20gm
Clove 20gm
Nigelle 75gm
Aniseed 75gm
Asafoetida 10gm
Mustard oil 2lt
Sodium benzoate 2gm

FLOW SHEET

Mango

Washing
 Peeling, cutting & slicing

Kernel remove

Dipping in 2%NaCL soln

Draining

Drying

Heating &Cooking

Paste preparation
14

Paste application

Jar filling

Sun treatment

Storing

LIME PICKLE
Ingredients Quantity
Lime 1kg
Salt 200gm
Sugar 250gm
 Chilli powder 20gm
Cumin 10gm
Cinnamon 10gm
Cardamom 10gm
Pepper 10gm
Clove 10gm
Sodium benzoate 2gm

FLOW SHEET

Lime

Washing

cutting into 4 pieces

squeezing out juice from amount of fruit

mixing spices and salt with juices

15
filling in jar

covering in air tight container

keeping in sun for 4-5 day

(shaking a jar atleast twice a day)

Store in ambient temperature

(Cool and dry temperature)
CHUTNEY AND SAUCES
Papaya chutney

Ingredients Quantity
Papaya 3kg
 Salt 100gm
Sugar 3kg
Chille 50gm
Cinnamon 20gm
Cardamom 20gm
Pepper 50gm
Clove 20gm
Onion 100gm
Acetic acid 20gm
Dry fruits 300gm
Sodium benzoate 2gm
FLOWSHEET

Papaya

Washing

Peeling, cutting & slicing

Remove Kernel

Addition of ingredient

cooking

hot filling

Sealing

Storing

TOMATO SAUCES

Ingredients Quantity
Tomato 3kg
Salt 100gm
 Sugar 3kg
Chile 50gm
Cinnamon 20gm
Cardamom 20gm
Pepper 50gm
Clove 20gm
Onion 100gm
Garlic 100gm
Acetic acid 20gm
Dry fruits 300gm
Sodium benzoate 2gm

FLOW SHEET

Tomato

Washing , sorting ,trimming

cutting& chopping

cooking

juice extraction

cooking

judging end point

hot filling

Storing
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CHUTNEY AND SAUCES

Chutney Sauces
Have thin consistency Have thick consistency

total solid content is low Total solid content is high

Rich in fruit pulp Pulp and fruit extract are present

 UNIT IV

APICULTURE

BEEKEEPING
Beekeeping is the maintenance of honey bee colonies, commonly in man-
made hives, by humans. A beekeeper (or apiarist) keeps bees in order to collect
their honey and other products that the hive produces (including beeswax,
propolis, pollen, and royal jelly), to pollinate crops, or to produce bees for sale
to other beekeepers. A location where bees are kept is called an apiary or "bee
yard".

Depictions of humans collecting honey from wild bees date to 15,000 years
ago. Beekeeping in pottery vessels began about 9,000 years ago in North Africa.
Domestication is shown in Egyptian art from around 4,500 years ago. Simple
hives and smoke were used and honey was stored in jars, some of which were
found in the tombs of pharaohs such as Tutankhamun. It wasn't until the 18th
century that European understanding of the colonies and biology of bees
allowed the construction of the moveable comb hive so that honey could be
harvested without destroying the entire colony.

History of beekeeping

At some point humans began to attempt to domesticate wild bees in

artificial hives made from hollow logs, wooden boxes, pottery vessels, and
woven straw baskets or "skeps". Traces of beeswax are found in pot sherds
throughout the Middle East beginning about 7000 BCE.

Honeybees were kept in Egypt from antiquity. On the walls of the sun
temple of Nyuserre Ini from the Fifth Dynasty, before 2422 BCE, workers are
depicted blowing smoke into hives as they are
removing honeycombs. Inscriptions detailing the production of honey are found
on the tomb of Pabasa from the Twenty-sixth Dynasty (c. 650 BCE), depicting
pouring honey in jars and cylindrical hives.[6] Sealed pots of honey were found
in the grave goods of pharaohs such as Tutankhamun.

Stele showing Shamash-resh-uur praying to the gods Adad and Ishtar with an
inscription about beekeeping in Babylonian cuneiform. I am Shamash-resh-uur
, the governor of Suhu and the land of Mari. Bees that collect honey, which
none of my ancestors had ever seen or brought into the land of Suhu, I brought
down from the mountain of the men of Habha, and made them settle in the
orchards of the town 'Gabbari-built-it'. They collect honey and wax, and I know
how to melt the honey and wax and the gardeners know too. Whoever comes
in the future, may he ask the old men of the town, (who will say) thus: "They
are the buildings of Shamash-resh-uur, the governor of Suhu, who introduced
honey bees into the land of Suhu."translated text from stele, (Dalley, 2002)

In prehistoric Greece (Crete and Mycenae), there existed a system of high-

status apiculture, as can be concluded from the finds of hives, smoking pots,
honey extractors and other beekeeping paraphernalia in Knossos. Beekeeping
was considered a highly valued industry controlled by beekeeping overseers
owners of gold rings depicting apiculture scenes rather than religious ones as
they have been reinterpreted recently, contra Sir Arthur Evans.

Archaeological finds relating to beekeeping have been discovered at Rehov,

a Bronze and Iron Age archaeological site in the Jordan Valley, Israel. Thirty
intact hives, made of straw and unbaked clay, were discovered
by archaeologist Amihai Mazar in the ruins of the city, dating from about 900
BCE. The hives were found in orderly rows, three high, in a manner that could
have accommodated around 100 hives, held more than 1 million bees and had a
potential annual yield of 500 kilograms of honey and 70 kilograms of beeswax,
according to Mazar, and are evidence that an advanced honey industry existed
in ancient Israel 3,000 years ago.

The Beekeepers, 1568, by Pieter Bruegel the Elder

In ancient Greece, aspects of the lives of bees and beekeeping are discussed at
length by Aristotle. Beekeeping was also documented by the Roman writers
Virgil, Gaius Julius Hyginus, Varro, and Columella.
Beekeeping has also been practiced in ancient China since antiquity. In the book
"Golden Rules of Business Success" written by Fan Li (or Tao Zhu Gong)
during the Spring and Autumn period there are sections describing the art of
beekeeping, stressing the importance of the quality of the wooden box used and
how this can affect the quality of the honey.

The ancient Maya domesticated a separate species of stingless bee. The use of
stingless bees is referred to as meliponiculture, named after bees of the
tribe Meliponinisuch as Melipona quadrifasciata in Brazil. This variation of
bee keeping still occurs around the world today. For instance, in Australia, the
stingless bee Tetragonula carbonaria is kept for production of their honey.

Origins

There are more than 20,000 species of wild bees. Many species are
solitary[16] (e.g., mason bees, leafcutter bees (Megachilidae), carpenter bees and
other ground-nesting bees). Many others rear their young in burrows and small
colonies (e.g., bumblebees and stingless bees). Some honey bees are wild e.g.
the little honeybee (Apis florea), giant honeybee (Apis dorsata) and rock bee
(Apis laboriosa). Beekeeping, or apiculture, is concerned with the practical
management of the social species of honey bees, which live in large colonies of
up to 100,000 individuals. In Europe and America the species universally
managed by beekeepers is the Western honey bee (Apis mellifera). This species
has several sub-species or regional varieties, such as the Italian bee (Apis
mellifera ligustica ), European dark bee (Apis mellifera mellifera), and
the Carniolan honey bee (Apis mellifera carnica). In the tropics, other species of
social bees are managed for honey production, including the Asiatic honey bee
(Apis cerana).

All of the Apis mellifera sub-species are capable of inter-breeding

and hybridizing. Many bee breeding companies strive to selectively breed and
hybridize varieties to produce desirable qualities: disease and parasite
resistance, good honey production, swarming behaviour reduction, prolific
breeding, and mild disposition. Some of these hybrids are marketed under
specific brand names, such as the Buckfast Bee or Midnite Bee. The advantages
of the initial F1 hybrids produced by these crosses include: hybrid vigor,
increased honey productivity, and greater disease resistance. The disadvantage
is that in subsequent generations these advantages may fade away and hybrids
tend to be very defensive and aggressive.

Wild honey harvesting

Collecting honey from wild bee colonies is one of the most ancient human
activities and is still practiced by aboriginal societies in parts of Africa, Asia,
Australia, and South America. In Africa, honeyguide birds have evolved
a mutualist relationship with humans, leading them to hives and participating in
the feast. This suggests honey harvesting by humans may be of great antiquity.
Some of the earliest evidence of gathering honey from wild colonies is
from rock paintings, dating to around Upper Paleolithic (13,000 BCE).
Gathering honey from wild bee colonies is usually done by subduing the bees
with smoke and breaking open the tree or rocks where the colony is located,
often resulting in the physical destruction of the nest.

Study of honey bees

It was not until the 18th century that European natural philosophers undertook
the scientific study of bee colonies and began to understand the complex and
hidden world of bee biology. Preeminent among these scientific pioneers
were Swammerdam, Ren Antoine Ferchault de Raumur, Charles Bonnet,
and Franois Huber. Swammerdam and Raumur were among the first to use a
microscope and dissection to understand the internal biology of honey bees.
Raumur was among the first to construct a glass walled observation hive to
better observe activities within hives. He observed queens laying eggs in open
cells, but still had no idea of how a queen was fertilized; nobody had ever
witnessed the mating of a queen and drone and many theories held that queens
were "self-fertile," while others believed that a vapor or "miasma" emanating
from the drones fertilized queens without direct physical contact. Huber was the
first to prove by observation and experiment that queens are physically
inseminated by drones outside the confines of hives, usually a great distance
away.

Following Raumur's design, Huber built improved glass-walled observation

hives and sectional hives that could be opened like the leaves of a book. This
allowed inspecting individual wax combs and greatly improved direct
observation of hive activity. Although he went blind before he was twenty,
Huber employed a secretary, Franois Burnens, to make daily observations,
conduct careful experiments, and keep accurate notes over more than twenty
years. Huber confirmed that a hive consists of one queen who is the mother of
all the female workers and male drones in the colony. He was also the first to
confirm that mating with drones takes place outside of hives and that queens are
inseminated by a number of successive matings with male drones, high in the
air at a great distance from their hive. Together, he and Burnens dissected bees
under the microscope and were among the first to describe
the ovaries and spermatheca, or sperm store, of queens as well as the penis of
male drones. Huber is universally regarded as "the father of modern bee-
science" and his "Nouvelles Observations sur Les Abeilles (or "New
Observations on Bees") revealed all the basic scientific truths for the biology
and ecology of honeybees.
Honey spinner

Major Francesco De Hruschka was an Italian military officer who made one
crucial invention that catalyzed the commercial honey industry. In 1865 he
invented a simple machine for extracting honey from the comb by means of
centrifugal force. His original idea was simply to support combs in a metal
framework and then spin them around within a container to collect honey as it
was thrown out by centrifugal force. This meant that honeycombs could be
returned to a hive undamaged but empty, saving the bees a vast amount of
work, time, and materials. This single invention greatly improved the efficiency
of honey harvesting and catalysed the modern honey industry.

Walter T. Kelley was an American pioneer of modern beekeeping in the early

and mid-20th century. He greatly improved upon beekeeping equipment and
clothing and went on to manufacture these items as well as other equipment.
His company sold via catalog worldwide and his book, How to Keep Bees &
Sell Honey, an introductory book of apiculture and marketing, allowed for a
boom in beekeeping following World War II.

In the U.K. practical beekeeping was led in the early 20th century by a few
men, pre-eminently Brother Adam and his Buckfast bee and R.O.B. Manley,
author of many titles, including Honey Production in the British Isles and
inventor of the Manley frame, still universally popular in the U.K. Other
notable British pioneers include William Herrod-Hempsall and Gale.

Dr. Ahmed Zaky Abushady (18921955), was an Egyptian poet, medical

doctor, bacteriologist and bee scientist who was active in England and in Egypt
in the early part of the twentieth century. In 1919, Abushady patented a
removable, standardized aluminum honeycomb. In 1919 he also founded The
Apis Club in Benson, Oxfordshire, and its periodical Bee World, which was to
be edited by Annie D. Betts and later by Dr. Eva Crane. The Apis Club was
transitioned to the International Bee Research Association (IBRA). Its archives
are held in the National Library of Wales. In Egypt in the 1930s, Abushady
established The Bee Kingdom League and its organ, The Bee Kingdom.

In India, R. N. Mattoo was the pioneer worker in starting beekeeping with

Indian honeybee, (Apis cerana indica) in early 1930s. Beekeeping with
European honeybee, (Apis mellifera) was started by Dr. A. S. Atwal and his
team members, O. P. Sharma and N. P. Goyal in Punjab in early 1960s.It
remained confined to Punjab and Himachal Pradesh up to late 1970s. Later on
in 1982, Dr. R. C. Sihag, working at Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar
(Haryana), introduced and established this honeybee in Haryana and
standardized its management practices for semi-arid-subtropical climates.On
the basis of these practices, beekeeping with this honeybee could be extended to
the rest of the country. Now beekeeping with Apis mellifera predominates in
India.

Traditional beekeeping
Fixed comb hives

A fixed comb hive is a hive in which the combs cannot be removed or

manipulated for management or harvesting without permanently damaging the
comb. Almost any hollow structure can be used for this purpose, such as a log
gum, skep, wooden box, or a clay pot or tube. Fixed comb hives are no longer
in common use in industrialized countries, and are illegal in places that require
movable combs to inspect for problems such as varroa and American foulbrood.
In many developing countries fixed comb hives are widely used and, because
they can be made from any locally available material, are very inexpensive.

Beekeeping using fixed comb hives is an essential part of the livelihoods of

many communities in poor countries. The charity Bees for
Development recognizes that local skills to manage bees in fixed comb
hives are widespread in Africa, Asia, and South America. Internal size of fixed
comb hives range from 32.7 liters (2000 cubic inches) typical of the clay tube
hives used in Egypt to 282 liters (17209 cubic inches) for the Perone hive.
Straw skeps, bee gums, and unframed box hives are unlawful in most US states,
as the comb and brood cannot be inspected for diseases. However, skeps are
still used for collecting swarms by hobbyists in the UK, before moving them
into standard hives. Quinby used box hives to produce so much honey that he
saturated the New York market in the 1860s. His writings contain excellent
advice for management of bees in fixed comb hives.

Modern beekeeping
Top-bar hives

Top bar hives have been widely adopted in Africa where they are used to keep
tropical honeybee ecotypes. Their advantages include being light weight,
adaptable, easy to harvest honey, and less stressful for the bees. Disadvantages
include combs that are fragile and cannot usually be extracted and returned to
the bees to be refilled and that they cannot easily be expanded for additional
honey storage.

A growing number of amateur beekeepers are adopting various top-bar

hives similar to the type commonly found in Africa. Top bar hives were
originally used as a traditional beekeeping method in Greece and Vietnam with
a history dating back over 2000 years. These hives have no frames and the
honey-filled comb is not returned after extraction. Because of this, the
production of honey is likely to be somewhat less than that of a frame and super
based hive such as Langstroth or Dadant. Top bar hives are mostly kept by
people who are more interested in having bees in their garden than in honey
production per se. Some of the most well known top-bar hive designs are the
Kenyan Top Bar Hive with sloping sides, the Tanzanian Top Bar Hive with
straight sides, and Vertical Top Bar Hives, such as the Warre or "People's Hive"
designed by Abbe Warre in the mid-1900s.

The initial costs and equipment requirements are typically much less than other
hive designs. Scrap wood or #2 or #3 pine can often be used to build a nice
hive. Top-bar hives also offer some advantages to interacting with the bees and
the amount of weight that must be lifted is greatly reduced. Top-bar hives are
being widely used in developing countries in Africa and Asia as a result of
the Bees for Development program. Since 2011, a growing number of
beekeepers in the U.S. are using various top-bar hives.

Horizontal frame hives

The De-Layens hive, Jackson Horizontal Hive, and various chest type hives are
widely used in Spain, France, Ukraine, Belarus, Africa, and parts of Russia.
They are a step up from fixed comb and top bar hives because they have
movable frames that can be extracted. Their limitation is primarily that volume
is fixed and not easily expanded. Honey has to be removed one frame at a time,
extracted or crushed, and the empty frames returned to be refilled. Various
horizontal hives have been adapted and widely used for commercial migratory
beekeeping. The Jackson Horizontal Hive is particularly well adapted for
tropical Horticulture. The De-Layens hive is popular in parts of Spain.

Vertical stackable frame hives

In the United States, the Langstroth hive is commonly used. The Langstroth
was the first successful top-opened hive with movable frames. Many other hive
designs are based on the principle of bee space first described by Langstroth.
The Langstroth hive is a descendant of Jan Dzierzons Polish hive designs. In
the United Kingdom, the most common type of hive is the British National,
which can hold Hoffman, British Standard or Manley frames. It is not unusual
to see some other sorts of hive (Smith, Commercial, WBC, Langstroth, and
Rose). Dadant and Modified Dadant hives are widely used in France and Italy
where their large size is an advantage. Square Dadant hives - often called 12
frame Dadant or Brother Adam hives - are used in large parts of Germany and
other parts of Europe by commercial beekeepers. The Rose hive is a modern
design that attempts to address many of the flaws and limitations of other
movable frame hives. The only significant weakness of the Rose design is that
it requires 2 or 3 boxes as a brood nest which infers a large number of frames to
be worked when managing the bees. The major advantage shared by these
designs is that additional brood and honey storage space can be added via boxes
of frames added to the hive. This also simplifies honey collection since an
entire box of honey can be removed instead of removing one frame at a time.
Protective clothing

Beekeepers often wear protective clothing to protect themselves from stings

Most beekeepers also wear some protective clothing. Novice beekeepers

usually wear gloves and a hooded suit or hat and veil. Experienced beekeepers
sometimes elect not to use gloves because they inhibit delicate manipulations.
The face and neck are the most important areas to protect, so most beekeepers
wear at least a veil. Defensive bees are attracted to the breath, and a sting on the
face can lead to much more pain and swelling than a sting elsewhere, while a
sting on a bare hand can usually be quickly removed by fingernail scrape to
reduce the amount of venom injected.

The protective clothing is generally light colored (but not colorful) and of a
smooth material. This provides the maximum differentiation from the colony's
natural predators (such as bears and skunks) which tend to be dark-colored and
furry.

'Stings' retained in clothing fabric continue to pump out an alarm

pheromone that attracts aggressive action and further stinging attacks. Washing
suits regularly, and rinsing gloved hands in vinegar minimizes attraction.

Queen bee (center)

The queen is the only sexually mature female in the hive and all of the female
worker bees and male drones are her offspring. The queen may live for up to
three years or more and may be capable of laying half a million eggs or more in
her lifetime. At the peak of the breeding season, late spring to summer, a good
queen may be capable of laying 3,000 eggs in one day, more than her own body
weight. This would be exceptional however; a prolific queen might peak at
2,000 eggs a day, but a more average queen might lay just 1,500 eggs per day.
The queen is raised from a normal worker egg, but is fed a larger amount
of royal jelly than a normal worker bee, resulting in a radically different growth
and metamorphosis. The queen influences the colony by the production and
dissemination of a variety of pheromones or "queen substances". One of these
chemicals suppresses the development of ovaries in all the female worker bees
in the hive and prevents them from laying eggs.

Mating of queens

The queen emerges from her cell after 15 days of development and she remains
in the hive for 37 days before venturing out on a mating flight. Mating flight is
otherwise known as 'nuptial flight'. Her first orientation flight may only last a
few seconds, just enough to mark the position of the hive. Subsequent mating
flights may last from 5 minutes to 30 minutes, and she may mate with a number
of male drones on each flight. Over several matings, possibly a dozen or more,
the queen receives and stores enough sperm from a succession of drones to
fertilize hundreds of thousands of eggs. If she does not manage to leave the hive
to matepossibly due to bad weather or being trapped in part of the hiveshe
remains infertile and become a drone layer, incapable of producing female
worker bees. Worker bees sometimes kill a non-performing queen and produce
another. Without a properly performing queen, the hive is doomed.

Mating takes place at some distance from the hive and often several hundred
feet in the air; it is thought that this separates the strongest drones from the
weaker ones, ensuring that only the fastest and strongest drones get to pass on
their genes.

Worker bees

Most of the bees in a hive are female worker bees. At the height of summer
when activity in the hive is frantic and work goes on non-stop, the life of a
worker bee may be as short as 6 weeks; in late autumn, when no brood is being
raised and no nectar is being harvested, a young bee may live for 16 weeks,
right through the winter.

Over the course of their lives, worker bees' duties are dictated by age. For the
first few weeks of their lifespan, they perform basic chores within the hive:
cleaning empty brood cells, removing debris and other housekeeping tasks,
making wax for building or repairing comb, and feeding larvae. Later, they may
ventilate the hive or guard the entrance. Older workers leave the hive daily,
weather permitting, to forage for nectar, pollen, water, and propolis.
Drones

Larger drones compared to smaller workers

Drones are the largest bees in the hive (except for the queen), at almost twice
the size of a worker bee. Note in the picture that they have much larger eyes
than the workers have, presumably to better locate the queen during the mating
flight. They do not work, do not forage for pollen or nectar, are unable to sting,
and have no other known function than to mate with new queens and fertilize
them on their mating flights. A bee colony generally starts to raise drones a few
weeks before building queen cells so they can supersede a failing queen or
prepare for swarming. When queen-raising for the season is over, bees in colder
climates drive drones out of the hive to die, biting and tearing their legs and
wings.

Differing stages of development

Stage of
Queen Worker Drone
development

Egg 3 days 3 days 3 days

10 13 days :Successive moults occur within

Larva 8 days
days this period 8 to 13 day period

Cell Capped day 8 day 8 day 10

Pupa 4 days 8 days 8 days

15 21
Total 24 days
days days

Structure of a bee colony

A domesticated bee colony is normally housed in a rectangular hive body,

within which eight to ten parallel frames house the vertical plates of honeycomb
that contain the eggs, larvae, pupae and food for the colony. If one were to cut a
vertical cross-section through the hive from side to side, the brood nest would
appear as a roughly ovoid ball spanning 5-8 frames of comb. The two outside
combs at each side of the hive tend to be exclusively used for long-term storage
of honey and pollen.

Within the central brood nest, a single frame of comb typically has a central
disk of eggs, larvae and sealed brood cells that may extend almost to the edges
of the frame. Immediately above the brood patch an arch of pollen-filled cells
extends from side to side, and above that again a broader arch of honey-filled
cells extends to the frame tops. The pollen is protein-rich food for developing
larvae, while honey is also food but largely energy rich rather than protein rich.
The nurse bees that care for the developing brood secrete a special food called
'royal jelly' after feeding themselves on honey and pollen. The amount of royal
jelly fed to a larva determines whether it develops into a worker bee or a queen.

Apart from the honey stored within the central brood frames, the bees store
surplus honey in combs above the brood nest. In modern hives the beekeeper
places separate boxes, called 'supers', above the brood box, in which a series of
shallower combs is provided for storage of honey. This enables the beekeeper to
remove some of the supers in the late summer, and to extract the surplus honey
harvest, without damaging the colony of bees and its brood nest below. If all the
honey is 'stolen', including the amount of honey needed to survive winter, the
beekeeper must replace these stores by feeding the bees sugar or corn syrup in
autumn.

Annual cycle of a bee colony

The development of a bee colony follows an annual cycle of growth that begins
in spring with a rapid expansion of the brood nest, as soon as pollen is available
for feeding larvae. Some production of brood may begin as early as January,
even in a cold winter, but breeding accelerates towards a peak in May (in the
northern hemisphere), producing an abundance of harvesting bees synchronized
to the main nectar flow in that region. Each race of bees times this build-up
slightly differently, depending on how the flora of its original region blooms.
Some regions of Europe have two nectar flows: one in late spring and another
in late August. Other regions have only a single nectar flow. The skill of the
beekeeper lies in predicting when the nectar flow will occur in his area and in
trying to ensure that his colonies achieve a maximum population of harvesters
at exactly the right time.
The key factor in this is the prevention or skillful management of the swarming
impulse. If a colony swarms unexpectedly and the beekeeper does not manage
to capture the resulting swarm, he is likely to harvest significantly less honey
from that hive, since he has lost half his worker bees at a single stroke. If,
however, he can use the swarming impulse to breed a new queen but keep all
the bees in the colony together, he maximizes his chances of a good harvest. It
takes many years of learning and experience to be able to manage all these
aspects successfully, though owing to variable circumstances many beginners
often achieve a good honey harvest.

Formation of new colonies

All colonies are totally dependent on their queen, who is the only egg-layer.
However, even the best queens live only a few years and one or two years
longevity is the norm. She can choose whether or not to fertilize an egg as she
lays it; if she does so, it develops into a female worker bee; if she lays an
unfertilized egg it becomes a male drone. She decides which type of egg to lay
depending on the size of the open brood cell she encounters on the comb. In a
small worker cell, she lays a fertilized egg; if she finds a larger drone cell, she
lays an unfertilized drone egg.

All the time that the queen is fertile and laying eggs she produces a variety of
pheromones, which control the behavior of the bees in the hive. These are
commonly called queen substance, but there are various pheromones with
different functions. As the queen ages, she begins to run out of stored sperm,
and her pheromones begin to fail.

Inevitably, the queen begins to falter, and the bees decide to replace her by
creating a new queen from one of her worker eggs. They may do this because
she has been damaged (lost a leg or an antenna), because she has run out of
sperm and cannot lay fertilized eggs (has become a 'drone laying queen'), or
because her pheromones have dwindled to where they cannot control all the
bees in the hive. At this juncture, the bees produce one or more queen cells by
modifying existing worker cells that contain a normal female egg. They then
pursue one of two ways to replace the queen: supersedure, replacing or
superseding the queen without swarming, or swarm cell production, dividing
the hive into two colonies through swarming.

Supersedure is highly valued as a behavioral trait by beekeepers. A hive that

supersedes its old queen does not lose any stock. Instead it creates a new queen
and the old one fades away or is killed when the new queen emerges. In these
hives, the bees produce just one or two queen cells, characteristically in the
center of the face of a broodcomb.

Swarm cell production involves creating many queen cells, typically a dozen or
more. These are located around the edges of a broodcomb, often at the sides and
the bottom.