RIDAR EuorNEERING

,c Principles of Radar ,c Units of Distance

Radar is an important application of microwave The RF signal (pulse) covers the distance to the target
technology. Radar is the short form of Radio Detection and twice with the speed of propagation of EM wave.
Ranging. An important property of electromagnetic signal is 1 radar mile = 2000 yard = 6000 feet.
used to detect the location of object. When electromagnetic ,o Radar Range Determination
wave encounters a sudden changes in conductivity in the Time required for EM wave to travel 't radar mile is 6'18
medium. Some part of the electromagnetic energy is observed ps. Time required for EM wave to travel to target and return is
and the rest of the energy is reflected back or re-radiated. 'l 2'36 ps/ radar mile.
This reflected electromagnetic signal is known as echo. Thus, the range of radar can be calculated as,
,o Basic Radar System
*=,*.
Any radar system consists of four major components.
These are- where, At is the time between the transmission and the
receiving of echo signal.
(1) Transmitter The Range in metres is calculated by the formula
(2) Antenna
(3) Receiver *=qf
(4) Display and control equipments. where, c is the speed of EM wave.
Transrritting
+ signal

Transmitter
,A/,'A >f,rL-
...".,.-......,,*^..,,w
<_ Target
Echo signal

Range ol rergel >l

-
Radar system
(a) Monostatic radar systerns

Transmitting

r;""**;l
I sigaal [-*--l_-
source |
ft 1/,/
ante.ona

I \

Target

Receiving
antenna
(b) Bistatic radar systems

Fig. 1 : Monostatic and Bistatic radar system

4| RADAR ENGTNEERTNG

c Maximum Unambiguous Range

Radar Range Equation
The range beyond which the targets appear as second
return echo to the radar is termed as maximum unambiguous . ptc,zl,zs .1
range.
Rrr* I l+
=
The maximum unambiguous radar range is given by LA"),p,'l
E)-c
r\max _
2fr
where, f, is pulse repetition frequency in cycles per second.
where, Gt =
14
7r2
Maximum unambiguous range (mur) in miles is given by
D
r\max -ERI
- ,l2.2 &= ed
4x
Frequency Bands of Radar
Conventional radars operate in upper UHF and micro- Also, A" = riA
wave ranges. But now-a-days, radars operate at frequencies
as low as a few megahertz (MHz). Microwave and millimeter where, q is antenna aperture efficiency
frequency band cover the range from 500 MHz to 300 GHz.
The above range of frequency is divided into several bands as & = Effective area of receiving antenna
Pr = Received power by receiving antenna
Band Designation S = Area of cross-section of target
Frequency Band -T---.
old l
New Pt = Peak value of transmitted power
-- j ----
VHF I
C
G1 = Power gain of transmitting antenna in relation to
i
I

1-2GHz L I
D the isotropic radiator
2-3 GHz S
i
E
34 GHz S F Pmin = Pr. (minimum detectable signal)
4-6 GHz C G Factors lnfluencing Range
6-8 GHz C H
8-10 GHz 1. Maximum range is proportional to the forth root of the
10-12.4 GHz
{ I
peak transmitted pulse power.
X J
12'4-18 GHz Ku J 2. Maximum range depends on the target area.
18-20 GHz K J 3. Noise affects the maximum radar range in so far as it
20-26"5 GHz K K determines the minimum power which the receiver can
26.5-40 GHz Ka K handle.
40-75 GHz Pulsed Radar System
75-110 GHz W
Pulse radar uses a pulsed microwave signal to determine
110-300 GHz mm target range-
Transrnitler section

444,
T*/&
Alltema

Detector

@ and video
ampliiier

Receiver section
Fig. 2 : Block diagram of pulsed radar system.
 RADAR ENGTNEERTNG | 5

c Moving Target lndicator (MTl)

Doppler frequency for radar,

ta=2!
A

where, v, = relative velocity and l. is transmitted wavelength.

MTI radar system compares a set of received echoes with those received during the previous sweep. These echoes whose
phase has remained constant are then cancelled out. This applies to echoes due to stationary objects. By removing clutter due
to stationary objects, it becomes easier to determine which targets are moving, and reduces the time taken by an operator or
'take in'the display.
T,/&
antenna

Klystron
amplifier

Full wave
rectifier

u''lJ*'o:'j*'
Fig. 3 : Block diagram of MTI radar system.
Blind Speed
A radar target speed at which a moving target cannot be distinguished from a stationary target. With a radar moving target
indicator, blind speeds are those at which the radial velocity of the target is such that it traverses one half-wavelength, or
multiples of between successive pulses.
6| RADAR ENGTNEERTNG

Phased Array Radar

A radar that has a fixed array of many thousands of antennas, each with an electronically variable phase shifter which
permits steering the beam over wide angles without antenna motion.
{- CW Doppler Radar
It is possible to detect moving targets by radiating unmodulated continuous wave energy instead of radiating- in the
form of pulses. Continuous wave radar makes use of the Doppler effect for target speed measurement.

/, t/,

Transmitting
antenna

Transrnitter
rnixer

Fig. 4 : CW Doppler radar system.

OBJECTIVE PROBLEMS
1. The doppler shift when tracking a car moving away from 6. An S-band radar transmitting at 3 GHz radiates 200 kW.
radar at 100 miles/hour. lf radar is operating at 1 GHz : The signal power density at ranges 100 nautical miles if
(a) 333'34 Hz (b) 628'34 Hz theA"=9M2,is:
(c) 389'43 Hz (d) None of these (a) 5.248mwlm2 (b) 5'428 Mw/m2
(c) 24.3 Mw/m2 (d) None of these
The doppler shift causes by a vehicle moving toward a
radar at 96 km/h, if radar operates at 10 GHz : A marine radar operating at 10 GHz has a maximum
range of 50 km with an antenna gain of 4000. lf the trans-
(a) 3'98 KHz (b) 1'78 KHz
mitter has a power of 250 kW and minimum detectable
(c) 3 KHz (d) None ofthese
signal of 10-11 watt, the cross-sectional area of the target,
3. For an MTI radar, the first three blind speeds al 2GHz the radar can sight is :
when PRF is 1 KHz: (a) 45'34 m2 (b) 34'45 m2
(a) 270 km/hr, 540 km/hr, 810 km/hr (c) 40'40 m2 (d) 30'30 m2
(b) 270 km/hr, 900 km/hr, 940 km/hr The maximum range of radar which operates at a
(c) '180 km/hr,360 km/hr,540 km/hr frequency of 10 GHz, peak pulse power of 600 kW. lf the
antenna effective area is 5 m2 and the area of target is
(d) 200 km/hr,400 km/hr,600 km/hr 20 m2, minimum receivable power is 10- 13 watt, is :
4. The maximum range of a radat, when the transmitted (a) 200 km (b) 717 km
power is 250 kW, cross sectional area of the target is (c) 700 km (d) None of these
12'5 sq m, minimum power received is 10-13 watt, 9. A radar is to have a maximum range of 300 km. The
receiver gain is 2000 and operating wavelength = 16 cm : maximum allowable pulse repetition frequency for unam-
(a) 390.22 km (b) 930 km biguous range is :
(c) 200.39 km (d) None of these (a) 600 PPS (pulse per second)
A radar operating at 3 GHz radiating power of 200 kW. (b) 500 PPS (pulse per second)
The power of the reflected signal at the radar with a 20 m2 (c) 200 PPS (pulse per second)
target at 300 nautical miles, (lf A" = 9 m2) is : (d) None of these
(a) 27'Ba x 10-15watt 10. A radar system transmits pulses of duration of 2 ps and
(b) 34'027 x 10- 15 watt repetition rate of 1 KHz. The maximum and minimum
range for radar are respectively :
(c) 24'fia x 10-15watt (a) Rr", = 150 km, R*;n = 300 m
(d) None of these (b) Rr"* = 1500 km, Rr;n = 300 m
 RADAR ENGINEERING | 7

(c) Rm"* = 3000 km, Rrln = 150 m (c) Use monopulse

(d) None of these (d) Use MTI
11. ln a radar system it is observed that the echo received in 23. The quartz delay line in a MTI radar is used to :

after 9'15 p sec. The distance of the stationary object from (a) Match the signal with echo
the radar is : (b) Subtract a complete scan from previous scan
(a) 1'372km (b) 2'372km (c) Match the phase of COHO and STALO
(c) 2'444 km (d) None of these (d) Match the phase of COHO and output oscillator
12. The maximum range of pulsed radar depends on : 24. The type of radar that is used to eliminate clutter in
(a) Pulse peak power (b) Pulse duration navigational application is :

(c) Pulse energy (d) Pulse repetition rate (a) Pulse radar (b) Tracking radar
13 lf the peak transmitted power in a radar system is (c) MTI radar (d) Monopulse radar
increased by a factor of 16, the maximum range will be 25. ln case of a radar receiver the lF bandwidth inversely
increased by a factor of : proportional to :

(a) 2 (b) 4 (a) Pulse interval

(c) 8 (d) 16 (b) Pulse repetition frequency
14. lf the target cross-section keeps changing, the best (c) Square root of the peak transmitted power
is-
system for tracking (d) Pulse width
(a) Conical scanning (b) Lobe scanning 26. After a target has been acquired by a Radar, the best
(c) Helicalscanning (d) Monopulse scanning system for tracking is :
(e) Lobe switching (a) Conical (b) Spiral
15. The lnstrument Landing System (lLS) uses : (c) Helical (d) None of these
(a) Glide path localizer 27. The Doppler shift is given by :

(b) Master and slave stations

(c) MTI (a) at=f ,ol o,=ff
(d) None ofthe above
16. The COHO is MTI radar operates at :
(c) ar=f (d) lr =
r^)f
(a) Transmittedfrequency (b) lntermediate frequency
(c) Received frequency (d) None of these 28. Blind speed causes target appear:
(a) Moving (b) Stationary
17 Frequency in UHF range propagate by means of :
(c) Distinguish correctly (d) None of these
(a) Ground waves (b) Sky waves
(c) Sulface waves (d) Space waves 29. Which of the following diode is used as a detector in a
radar ?
18. The following instrument is used in aeroplane to measure (a) Gunn diode (b) Schottky diode
its height above ground :
(c) IMPATT diode (d) Any of the above
(a) MTI (b) CW Radar
(c) Doppler Radar (d) Radar Altimeter 30. Most of the aircraft Surveillance Radars operated in :

(a) X-band (b) C-band

19. Type A scope in Radar system displays :

(a) Target azimuth angle and range

(c) L-band (d) S-band
(b) Target range alone 31. lndicate which one of the following application or
(c) Target azimuth angle alone advantages of radar becomes false :

(d) None of these (a) Targetidentification

20. Radar becons are used for :
(b) Navigation
(a) Targetidentification (c) Very significant extension of the maximum range
(b) Navigation (d) More accurate tracking of enemy target
(c) Causing significant extensions of the maximum range 32. LORAN system uses :

(d) All of these (a) Master and slave stations

21. The Doppler effect is used is : (b) Localizer and glide path
(a) Pulsed radar (b) CW radar (c) Homing path
(c) MTI (d) Both (a) and (c) (d) Two radars
A solution of the blind speed problem is to : 33. The term MDAR stands for:
(a) Change the Doppler frequency (a) Radio direction and reflection
(b) Vary the PRF (b) Radio waves despatching and receiving
8l RADAR ENGINEERING

(c) Radio waves despatching and receiving (c) Pulse repetition rate of the transmitted signal
(d) Random detection and Reradiation (d) Signal to noise ratio of the radar receiver
(e) Radio detection and Ranging 43. ln one of the following radar, the transmitted beam is
34. ln a radar, in case the return echo arrives after the steered in angle electronically :

allewed pulse interval, then : (a) Monopulse radar

(a) lt will not be received (b) Pulse compressor radar
(b) The receiver will get over loaded (c) Phased arrary radar
(c) lt may interfere with the operation of the transmitter (d) MTr
(d) The target will appear closer than it really is 44. ln radar systems, the term 'rat-race' is used in connection
35. Flat topped rectangular pulses are used in Radar with:
transmitter to : (a) Modulator (b) Pulse characteristics
(a) Allow good minimum range and accurate range (c) Receiver bandwidth (d) Duplexer
transmission
45. Some times microwave signals follow the earth's curva-
(b) Prevent frequency changes in magnetron ture. This is due to :
(c) Get better echos free from noise (a) lonosphericreflection
(d) Both (b) and (c) (b) Faraday rotation
36. PPI in a radar system stands for : (c) Ducting
(a) Plan position indicator (d) lonosphericscalter
(b) Pulse position indicator 46. An ideal pulse radar receiver :

(c) Plan position image (a) Should have a very large BW

(d) Prior position identification (b) Should not have a very large BW
37. Radar detection is limited to line of sight because : (c) Should have a small BW
(a) Of curvature of the earth (d) None ofthese
(b) The waves are not reflected by the ionosphere 47. ln both sequential lobing and conical scan tracking
(c) Long wavelengths are used techniques of radar, the measurements of angular errors
(d) Short wavelengths are used in two orthogonal co-ovelinates (azimuth and elivation)
require that a minimum of :
38. The polarization required in ground wave propagation is :

(a) (linear) (a) Three pulses be processed

Horizontal (b) Vertical (linear)
(c) Circular (d) Elliptical
(b) Two pulses be processed
(c) Four pulses be processed
39. An altimeter in basically :
(d) Only one pulse be processed
(a) A CW radar
(b) 48. ln antenna measurements using two aperature antenna
A PM radar
(c) of dimensions D1 and D2, the minimum separation
A Doppler raciar
between the two should be (1" in free space wavelength of
(d) A device to indicate the direction at height
radiation used) :
40. ln case the ratio of the antenna diameter to the (a) (Dr + Dz)l2L (b) o|ynx
(D? +
wavelength in radar system is high, this likely not to result
in: (c) (o? + ol1rx (d) (D? + of yrzx
(a) lncreased capture area 49. Fading is :

(b) Good target discrimination (a) Change in polarization only at receiver end
(c) Difficult target acquistion (b) Change in frequency only at receiver end
(d) Large maximum range (c) Fluctuation in signal strength at receiver

41. The resolution of a pulsed radar can be improved by

(d) Change in phase only at receiver end
:

(a) lncreasing pulse width 50. Doppler effect is employed in which of the following ?
(b) Decreasing pulse width (1) Moving target plotting on PPI
(c) lncreasing the pulse amplitude (2) The MTI system
(d) Decreasing the pulse repetition frequency (3) FM radar
The maximum unambiguous range of a pulsed radar
(4) CW radar
depends upon : Select the correct answer using the codes given below :

(a) Width of transmitted pulses (a) 2,3 and 4 (b) 1, 2 and 3

(b) Peak power of the transmitted signal (c) 1,2 and 4 (d) 1, 3 and 4
 RADAR ENGINEERING I 9

ANSWERS WITH EXPLANATORY NOTES

1. (a) Given : 100 miles/hr 6. (a) Given : t = 3GHz=3x109H2
f 1 GHz = 2OO kW = 200 x 10s watts
P1

1 mile/hr 0'5 m/s R= 100 nauticalmiles (100 nm)

.'. '100 miles/hr 100 x 0'5 = 50 m/sec R = 100 nm = 1'852 x 105 m

o'3 mlsec tu = 9m2

?=
1,

l. = 0'1 m
Car is moving away from radar, therefore
4nA^
0= 0o and cos 0'= 1 Gl
Lz
2v cos e
DopplershiftAf = = 333.34 Hz Now, power density by directive antenna is given by,
I
(b)Given: v = 96 km/h D - Plqt
2. ' 4nR2
l= 10x1dHz
_ 200 x 103 x 11'3x 103
96 x 1000 m/hr
"= 26'7 mlsec
4nx(1-852 r 105)2

[= 0'03 m = 5.248mWm2
7. (b) Given f = 10x10eHz
Af= 4=
:
1'78KHz
l" Rr"* = 50 x 103 m
3. (a)Given: f = 2x1CpHz Pt = 250 x103watt
PRF = 1x103Hz Gt = 4000
l.- i = o.',u , Pmin = 10 x 10-11 W

Blind speeds are given by r = ci=10r1on=o'o3m

3x1d

", = (*)
PRF R*u, x (4r)3 x Pr;n
^
Now,forn=1 vo = 270kmlhr Pt Gt2 1.2

forn=2 vu = 540 km/hr = 34'45 m2

forn=3 vo = 810 km/hr 8. (b) Given : = 600 kW
P1
7
IP, G-2]r2s 4 = 600 x 1d watts
P1
4. (c) R'"" = S = 2Om2
l1o"l'e*-
Ae = 5m2
Put given values as,
Pt= 250 xld watt, S = 12'5 m2, f = 10x109H2
)" = 0'03 m
P=
r mtn 10- 13, G1 = 2000, ). = 0'16 m
Rrr, Pmin = 10- 13 watts
= 200.39 km
5. (a) Given '. t = 3x1dHz O, =
P1 = 2OO x'ldwatt P=69'813x103
S
R
= 2Om2
= 300 nm
R'"*=tffi]l
= 300 x 1852 m
f (ooo
' 103X69.813 x 103X5 ,2oll
= 555600 m
= 5'556 x 105m
=
L (4"'zx10- 13) l
717'639 x103
= ?=o''
'n 717 km
4nA^
Gt= e. (b) Rra, = 300 km (given)
i=11'3x10r c
PtGd.S P=
r \max
D= 2f,
(4n)2 R4
c
= 27.034 x 10-15watt
fr= 2Rr",
10 | RADAR ENGTNEERING

3x1d 16. (b) The COHO or coherent oscillator, operating at the

2"300r10' same frequency as the intermediate frequency and
providing the coherent signal.
= 500 pulse per second
17. (d) Frequency in the UHF range propagate by means of
10. (a) Pulse repelition freq. space waves.
f,= 1x1dHz 18. (d) Radar Altimeter.
P.W. (pulse width) = 2p sec 19. (b) The output of a radar receiver may be displayed in
c 3x1d any of a number of ways, the following three being the
Rr",. = 150 x '103 m most common : deflection modulation of a cathode-ray-
*=ffi= tube screen as in the A scope, intensity modulation of
CxPW CRT as in the PPI or direct feeding to a computer.
Rmin =
2 20. (d) A radar becon is a small radar set consisting of a
3x 1d x 2 x 10-6 receiver, a separate transmitter and an antenna which is
2 often omnidirectional. Radar becons are used for target
identification, navigation and causing for significant
= 300 m
extensions of the maximum range.
11. (a) At= 9'15 p sec
21. (d) By the Doppler effect the apparent frequency of
CAt electromagnetic or sound waves depends on the relative
ft= 2 radial motion of the source and the observer. lf source
3x1dx9'15x10-6 and observer are moving away from each other, the
ft; apparent frequency will decrease, while if they are
moving toward each other, the apparent frequency will
= 1.372km
increase.
12. (a) The maximum range of pulsed radar depends
This effect is used in Pulsed Radar and MTl.
pulse peak power
(b) A solution of the blind speed problem is to vary PRF.

.'1#ffi]'
1

The variable PRF presents no difficulty, but varying the

lmax =
delay in the MTI radar does. lt can be done by having two
delay lines and compensating amplifiers.
where, Imax = Maximum radar range, km
23. (b) ln MTI radar, the most commonly used material for the
Pt= Peak pulse power, w delay line is fused quartz. The quartz delay line subtract a
p= Antenna diameter, m complete scan from previous scan.
$= Effective cross-sectional area of
24. (c) MTI radar is used to distinguish between stationary
target, m2
and moving targets and eliminate the blips due to
)"= wavelength, m stationary targets or clutter.
Ef= Receiver bandwidth, Hz (d) The lF bandwidth is inversely proportional to the pulse
F- Noise figure width.
13. (a) Since rru, * Pf/a (a) The conical scanning is a logical extension of lobe
switching. ln this case, the echo strength will be the same
'rer
rmax2= /lr"V for both antenna positions and the target will have been
tracked with much greater accuracy then would be
\P,r/
achieved by merely pointing the antenna to it.
lf Ptr = Pt
and P1, = 16 P1 (According to question) 27. (c) nf =U
A

then where, Af = Doppler shift

ffi= (#)1 Vr = Relative velocity
1
rmaxl = ?r = Transmitted wavelength
2lmax2
28. (b) lf the target happens to have a velocity whose radial
;. (rmax2)=2(rr"rt)
component results in a phase difference of exactly 2r
14. (d) lf the target cross-section is changing, because of its radian between successive pulses, this is the same as
change in attitude or for other reasons, the echo power having no phase shift at all. The target thus appears
will be changing also. Hence effect of conical scanning stationary. A radial velocity corresponding to this situation
(or sequential lobing, for that matter) will be largely is known as a blind speed.
nullified. From this point of view, the ideal system would
29. (c) IMPATT diode is used as a detector in a radar.
be one in which all the information obtained by conical
scanning and tracking could be achieved with just one 30. (c) L band is operated in most of the aircraft surveillance
pulse. This system is called 'monopulse'. radar.
15. (a) lnstrument Landing Systems uses glide path localizer. 31. (d)
 RADAR ENGTNEERTNG | 11

32. (c) LORAN system uses homing path. 42. (c) The maximum unambiguous range of a pulsed radar
33. (b) depends upon pulse repetition rate of the transmitted
signal.
34. (d) When the return echo arrives after the allowed pulse
interval, then the target will appear closer than it really is.
43. (c) The difficulty caused by the fact that the single
antenna can point in only one direction at a time,
35. (d) therefore, sending out one beame at a time. This makes
36. (a) The PPI (Plane-position indicator) display shows a difficulty to track a large number of targets simultaneously
map of the target area. and accurately. This problem can be overcome by the
37. (a) Radar detection is limited to line of sight because of use of an array consisting of a large number of individual
curvature of the earth. radiators. Beam steering can be achieved by the
introduction of variable phase differences in the individual
38. (b) The ploarization required in ground wave propagation
antenna feeders, and electronic variation of the phase
is vertical (linear).
shifts.
39. (b) The altimeter is a major application of FMCW rador. lt 44. (b)
is used in preference to pulsed radar because of the short
45. (c) Microwaves are continuously refracted in the duct and
ranges (i.e.-heights) involved, since CW radar has no reflected by the ground, so that they are propagated
limit on the minimum range, whereas pulsed radar does
around the curvature of the earth for distances which
have such a limit.
sometimes exceed 1000 km.
40. (a) Whenever the ratio of antenna diameter to the wave 46. (a) 47. (d) a8. (c)
length in high, it is likely to result in increased capture a9. (c) Fading is the fluctuation in signal strength at a
area. receiver and may be rapid or slow, general or frequency
41. (b) The resolution of a pulsed radar can be improved by selective.
decreasing pulse width. 50. (a)