Introduction to Electronics

Part - III

Mrinal K Mandal
[email protected]
Department of E & ECE
I.I.T. Kharagpur. 721302.
www.ecdept.iitkgp.ernet.in
1
 Operational Amplifier (Op-amp)

An operational amplifier (op-amp) is a DC-coupled high-gain differential amplifier.

+Vps
Inverting Ro
vi1 - vi1
Ri
Non-inverting v o Ad v i 2 v i 1 . +
vdep vo
-
vi2 + vi2

-Vps
Equivalent circuit.
Circuit symbol.

Ideal op-amp characteristics:

Input resistance (Ri) is infinite, output resistance (Ro) is zero.
Open-loop voltage gain (Ad) is infinite.
Bandwidth, common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) are infinite.

2
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]
 Practical op-amp

Practical op-amp circuit: IC -741C. 3

Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]
 Practical op-amp
IC741C characteristics:
Input resistance Ri 2 M, output resistance Ro 75 .
Open-loop voltage gain Ad 105.
Can handle a few mA (take ~k resistances).

Common mode rejection ratio (CMRR):

105
Actual output voltage :
Gain

Acm
v o Ad v i 2 v i 1 v i 2 v i 1 .
1.0 2
Ad
10 Hz 1 MHz CMRR ,
A cm
Log(Freq.)
Frequency response of an IC741C. Ad
20log10 dB.
A cm
Gain B.W. = 1 MHz.

Consider ideal op-amp to solve op-amp problems:

1. Voltage difference between the inputs is zero (vi1 = vi2).
2. The input draws no current (i+ = i- = 0).
4
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]
 IC741C

Input voltage.

Output should be zero when the voltage difference between the inputs is zero
(e.g. inputs are grounded). Real op-amps have some amount of output offset
voltage.
Offset null adjustment: use a three terminals variable resistor between 1, 5 and
the variable point to +/-VCC.
5
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]
 Op-amp Applications
Non-inverting amplifier:
Rf 3
i2 + 6 Vo
R1 2
i1 2 Vi - Rf
- 6
3 Vo
+ R1
Vi Vi

Non-inverting amplifier circuit. Non-inverting amplifier circuit.

vi 0 vi v v i 2nd method:
i1 , i2 o .
R1 R1 Rf From the voltage divider formed by Rf and R1,
v v v i R1
Now, i 1 i 2 i o v v ,
R1 Rf i o
R1 Rf
v R vo Rf
o 1 f . 1 .
vi R1 vi R1
R
Av 1 f closed loop voltage gain .
R1 6
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]
 Op-amp Applications
Given that R2 = R1||Rf. Calculate the closed loop i2
Rf
voltage gain. R1
Rf i1 2
Answer: A v 1 vi 2
- 6
R1 Vo
R1 vi1 3 +
For finite Ad , v i 2 v o , v i 1 v i 2 and
R1 Rf R2
Vi
v i 2 v i 1 Ad v o .
vo 1 Rf R1
Av .
v i 1 1 Rf R1 A d
Ad Ro
Input resistance, Rin 1 Ri , output resistance, Rout .
A 1 Ad A v
v

Calculate Rin and Rout of the following non-inverting circuit.

Ad 2 105 , Ri 2M , Ro 75 , R1 1k , Rf 39 k , R2 1k , f unity 1MHz.

Answer:
Av = 40 Rin 10 G, and Rout 0.01 . 7
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]
 Op-amp Applications
Inverting amplifier:
Rf Rule 1: input 2 is at zero virtually
i2
grounded.
R1
i1 2 Rule 2: i1 = i2.
- 6
Vi 3 Vo
+ vi 0 vi
i1 .
R1 R1
Virtually Rf
grounded v o i 1Rf v i .
R1
Inverting amplifier circuit. Rf
Av closed loop voltage gain .
R1
Vi
Input resistance, Rin R1.
i1
R 2 R1
For finite Ad , Av .
1 1 R 2 R1 Ad

Design an inverting amplifier with closed loop gain of 20 and input resistance of
10 k. Answer: R1 = 10 k, Rf = 200 k.
8
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]
 Importance Of Feedback Resistor
Negative feedback:
Rf = 100 k Rf = 100 k

R1 = 10 k R1 = 10 k
2
- 6 Va
Vi 3 Vo Vi Vo
+

Inverting amplifier circuit. Voltage divider.

Transient response:
At t 0, V i 0.1 V and Vo 0.
From the voltage divider,
100 k
VA 0.1 0.091V .
100 k 10 k
Op-amp sees enormous input unbalance inputs force output to go negative
Va decreases continues until Vo = -1 V and Va = 0 V.
9
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]
 Op-amp Applications
Voltage follower:
Non-inverting amplifier with R1 , Rf 0.
2 Rf
- 6 Av 1 1.
3 Vo R1
+
Unity gain amplifier with 100% negative feedback.
Vi
Rin , Rout 0.
Inverting amplifier circuit.

V1 V V
Weighted summer: I1 , I 2 2 , ... I n n .
R1 R2 Rn
R1 I1
Rf Applying KCL,
V1 If
R2 I2 I f I 1 I 2 ... I n
V2
0 Vo V1 V 2 V

2
- ... n
Vn
Rn In 6 Rf R1 R2 Rn
3 Vo
+
V V V
Vo Rf 1 2 ... n
R 1 R2 Rn

Weighted summer circuit. V1 V 2 ... V n For R 1 R 2 ... Rn Rf
10
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]
 Op-amp Applications
Implement the following function. The biasing voltage is 10 V. Current through
the feedback resistor should not exceed 1 mA.
v o v 1 5v 2 .
Answer:
10 10 k
Rf 10 k . V1 10 k
min
10 3
v1 v 2 2 k
v o Rf v 1 5v 2 2
R 1 R 2
V2 - 6
3 Vo
+
R 1 Rf 10 k , and
R 2 Rf 5 2 k .

Weighted summer circuit.

11
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]
 Op-amp Applications
Capacitor-coupled inverting amplifier:

IB1 Rf Non-inverting terminal must be

C1 R1 grounded via a resistor to provide
vi
2 C2 a dc bias path for the input base
- 6 vo
3 current.
IB2 + RL
IB1 flows through Rf. Therefore.
R2 take Rf = R2 to avoid the offset
effect.
Capacitor-coupled inverting
amplifier circuit. Z in R1 X C 1 R1(at f 1 C
. )1
For C 2 , X C 2 R1 RL .
R
A v f .
R1

12
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]
 Op-amp Applications
Capacitor-coupled non-inverting amplifier:

IB1 Rf Non-inverting terminal is grounded

R1 via R2 to provide a dc bias path for
2 C2 the input base current.
- 6 vo
C1 3 Take R2 = Rf ||R1 to avoid the offset
+ RL
vi effect.
IB2 R2
The input C1 and R2 behave like a
high pass filter.
Capacitor-coupled non-
inverting amplifier circuit. Z in R1 X C 1 R1(at f
1 .C)1

Calculate the capacitances from the following relationships:

At lowest frequency of operation,
X C 1 R 2 rs 10 ( rsis the source resistance. )
X C 2 Ro R L .
R
A v 1 f .
R1
13
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]
 Op-amp Applications
Capacitor-coupled voltage follower:

IB1 Rf R2: same reason as before.

IB1 flows through Rf. Therefore.
2 C2
- 6 vo take Rf = R2 to avoid the offset
C1 3 effect.
+ RL
Z in R2 X C 1 R2(at f
1 .C)1
vi
IB2 R2
Therefore, choose high values for
R1and R2 in comparison to RL
Capacitor-coupled non-
inverting amplifier circuit. (typically more than 100 k).

Calculate the capacitances as before:

At lowest frequency of operation,
X C 1 R 2 rs 10 ( rsis the source resistance. )
X C 2 Ro R L .
A v 1.

14
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]
 Op-amp Applications
Difference amplifier:
Inverting amplifier R 1, R 2 , Vi 1.
R2
Non-inverting amplifier R 1, R 2 , VR 4 .
R1 2
Vi1 - 6 Use superposition theorem:
R3
3 Vo R2
Vi2 + For V i2 = 0, output voltage V 01 V i 1.
VR4 R1
R4
R
For V i1= 0, output voltage V 02 1 2 VR 4 .
Difference amplifier circuit.
R1
R4 R R4
Now, VR 4 V i 2 V 02 1 2 V i 2 .
R3 R 4 R1 R 3 R 4
R R2 R4 R
Vo V 01 V 02 1 Vi 2 2 Vi 1
R1 R 3 R 4 R1
R
For R 3 R1 and R 4 R 2 , Vo 2 V i 2 V i 1 .
R1

Non-ideal op-amp: Vo Ad V3 V 2 Ac V3 V 2 2.
15
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]
 Op-amp Applications
Differential input impedance:
R2 R2 R1 i 2

R1 2 R1 Virtually
Rin1 -
2
- Vi +-
6 6 R1 i short
R1 Vi + R1 3
3 - 3
Rin2 + Vo + Vo
VR2 R2
VR2 R2 VR2 R2

Difference amplifier circuit. Difference amplifier with a single source.

Inverting amplifier R in 1 R 1.
Non-inverting amplifier R in 2 R 1 R 2 .

Ridiff: differential resistance as seen by the source Vi.

Applying KVL, v i i R 1 i R 1.
vi
Ridiff 2R 1.
i 16
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]
 Op-amp Applications
Amplifier with a T-network:
vi 0
i1 i 2. (1)
vx R1
R2 i2 R3 i 3
i4 Applying KCL at the T-junction,
R1
R4 i2 i4 i3
0 v x 0 v x v x v o
2
vi -
i1
6
3 +
Vo R2 R4 R3
1 1 1 vo
v x (2 )
The amplifier circuit. R
2 R 3 R 4 R 3

R2
Also v x 0 i 2R 2 v i (from eqn.1)
R1
R2 1 1 1 vo
v i
R1 R 2 R 3 R 4 R 3
RR 1 1 1
Av 2 3
R1 R 2 R 3 R 4
17
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]
 Op-amp Applications
Current-to-voltage converter:
i2 Rf i 2 i1 is .
i1
v o i 2Rf i s Rf .
2
- 6
3 Vo 2nd method:
is Rs +
Transform the current source to a voltage
source becomes an inverting amplifier
The circuit. with v i i s Rs , R 1 Rs , R 2 Rf .

i2 Rf

iD
Applications: widely used in different types
2 of detectors, sensor applications.
- 6
3 Vo
+

Simplified transimpedance amplifier.

18
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]
 Op-amp Applications
Voltage-to-current converter:

iL
RL
vi
iL i1 .
i1
R1
2 R1
- 6
3 Vo Problem: floating load.
+
Vi vi

The circuit.

i2 Rf Modified circuit for a grounded load:

i1 R1 2
v 1 v 2 v L i LR L .
vi - 6 vo
Now, i 1 i 2
v1 3 + i3
R3 v v v v v v
v2 vL i 1 1 o L o
i4
iL R1 Rf Rf
R2 RL
Rf
v L v o v i v 1 (1)
The circuit. R1 19
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]
 Op-amp Applications
Rf
i2 Applying KCL at the load-end,
i1 R1 2 i3 iL i 4
vi - 6 vo v v v
v1 3 i3 o L iL L
+
R3 R3 R2
v2 vL
i4
iL v
v L v o R 3 i L L (2 )
R2 RL R 2

The circuit.

From(1)and(2)
, R LRf R R
iL 1 L f v i (3 )
R3 R 1 R 2 R 1 R3
Rf vL
v i v 1 R 3 i L
R1 R
2 iL must be independent of RL: co-efficient of
i LR L RL = 0.
Rf
v i i LR L R 3 i L R 1
R1 R f . (must be satisfied)
2
R3 R 1 R 2
Rf R L Rf
iL R L R3 R 3 v i Rf 1
R1 R R1 iL vi vi .
2 R3 R 1 R2
20
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]
 Op-amp Applications
Zero crossing detector: Rf
iL
2 R1
- 6 i1 2
Vo - 6
3 +
vi 3 Vo
+
vi

The circuit.
The non-inverting amplifier.
For Ad 10 , biasing voltage 12 V,
5

Vsat 12 1 11 V Take Rf /R1 according to

Vth condition.
Vth 11 105 0.11 mV.
Problem: noise voltage can trigger the change in output voltage.

vth
Vo t (mS) vo
Vi t(mS) (V)
(mV)
t
Input voltage. Output voltage.
Non-ideal op-amp takes finite time to respond because of bandwidth limitation.21
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]
 Op-amp Applications
Negative impedance converter:
Vs
R2 Rin
Is
R1 i2 Vs Vo V V I R
2
- Now , I s o s 2 2
6
Vo
R3 R3 R3
3 +
Vs R 2
is is .
R3
R1R 3
Vs
R2
Rin .
Negative impedance R1R 3
converter.

22
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]
 RC Integrator
Consider the output across the capacitor at high frequency i.e. f >>1/Ton.

vin
Loop current is i ...(1)
R 1 jC

The frequency condition, 1 C R gives

Integrator circuit vin
i ...(2)
R
Now, voltage across the capacitor is
1 t
vC i dt ...(3)
C 0

1 t
vC
RC 0
vin dt ...(4) Low pass filter at high frequency

At high frequency, the voltage across the capacitor is proportional to the time
integration of the input voltage.
23
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]
 RC Integrator Waveforms

Integrator circuit

at very high Input:

vc frequency

Output:
at medium
vc frequency

24
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]
 Op-amp Applications
Integrator:
+ vc -
R C
iR 2
- 6
vi + Vo
- 3 +

Op-amp integrator circuit (simplified). Frequency response.

vi dv
iR i C C o v C v o
R dt
t
1
v o v i t dt .
RC 0

25
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]
 Op-amp Applications
Problem with the integrator circuit:
The output saturates if
input Vin has a non-zero DC component,
input bias current is non-zero,
input offset voltage is non-zero.

Off-set voltage effect:

- vc + Let at t = 0, vc = 0,
t1
R 1
v i t dt
RC 0
C
iR 2 v o Vos v C Vos
- 6
Vo
3 + Vos
Vos t1 v i Vos .
Vos
RC

Therefore, in steady state, the op-amp output

Effect of off-set voltage. voltage will saturate. 26

Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]

 Op-amp Applications
Integrator: The feedback resistance Rf provides a
Rf discharging path for vc.
+ vc - t1
1
v i t dt
RC t0
R1 v o( t)1 ( V)o t 0
C
2
vi - 6
Rf
3 +
Vo Here, Vo( t)0 1 VOS.
Vos R1
R2 vo has a DC component but the saturation
problem can be avoided.
A practical op-amp integrator
circuit when both Vos and IBs are When both IB and Vos are present:
present. t1
1
v o( t)1 ( V)o t 0 v i t dt
RC t 0
To avoid affecting normal integration
Rf
operation, take Rf 10R1. Here, V ( t
o 0) 1
VOS I B R
|| f R.1
R1

To negate the effect, take R2 R1 || Rf .

27
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]
 Op-amp Applications
Integrator: frequency response
Rf 100 dB

+ vc -
R1 C
2
vi - 6 Rf /R1 dB
3 Vo
R2=R1 ||Rf
+

R2 0 dB
fa fb Log (f)

A practical op-amp integrator circuit. Frequency response of the integrator.

Lower cut-off frequency (good shape:) Higher cutoff frequency:

v o Rf || 1 sC Rf R vo Rf
f . 1.
vi R1 vi R1 1 C Rf
2 2 2
R1 1 2C 2Rf 2 R1 2
2
1 Rf
fa . 2C 2Rf 2 1.
2 R f C R 1

1
fb .
2 R 1 C 28
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]
 Op-amp Applications
Draw the output voltage waveforms for the two following cases:
1 M
vc vc

1V 10 k 10 nF 10 k
2 2 10 nF
- 6 - 6
3 Vo Vo
t (mS) + 3 +
1

Input pulse. Circuit 1. Circuit 2.

Solutions: 1 1
For circuit 1: let at t = 0, vc = 0, t (mS) t (mS)

1
t 1 1
v o( )t 1 dt in 0 t1 mS -10 V -10 V 2
RC 0
For circuit 1. For circuit 2.
t
10 4
t V
10 109 10 103 Charging time onstant 1= RC 0.1 mS .
at t 1 mS , v o 10 4 10 3 10 V. Discharging time onstant 2 = Rf C 10 mS .
29
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]
 RC Differentiator
Consider the output across the resistor at low frequency i.e. f <<1/ Ton.
vin
Loop current is i ...(1)
R 1 jC
The capacitor has enough time to charge up until vc
is nearly equal to the source voltage.
The frequency condition, R 1 C gives

vin i
Differentiator circuit i vin vc
1 jC jC ...(2)

dvc
Now, voltage across the resistor is vR iR C R ...(3)
dt
dvin
vR R C ...(4)
dt High pass filter at low frequency.

At low frequency, the voltage across the resistor is proportional to the time
differentiation of the input voltage.
30
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]
 RC Differentiator Waveforms
Some other waveforms.

31
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]
 Op-amp Applications
Differentiator:
R
vC v i ,
+ vc -
vi
2
- 6 v o v R i R R
C
3 +
Vo dv
iC C C R
dt
dv
RC i .
Differentiator circuit (simplified). Frequency response. dt

Problems:
At low frequencies, the gain is very small.
At high frequencies, the gain is high: instability.
Noise problem: since the output voltage is proportional to the slope of the
input voltage, the contribution of noise voltage across C may be more than
the actual input at low frequency (higher slope associated with high
frequency components).
32
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]
 Op-amp Applications
Improved differentiator:
Cf

Gain(dB) -Rf /Ri

Rf
Ri Ci
2
vi - 6 0 (dB) Log(f)
3 Vo -1/(2Ci Rf)
+
-1/(2Cf Ri)

A practical differentiator circuit. Frequency response.

The maximum possible gain of the circuit is Rf /Ri.

The capacitance further attenuates the high frequency components: avoid
high frequency instability, provides better noise rejection.

33
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]
 Op-amp Applications: Non-Linear
Logarithmic amplifier:
VD
i D I 0 exp v D VT 1 I 0 exp v D VT
v vi
R1 v D VT ln i i
D R
I 0R1
2
Vi - 6 1
Vo
3
+ vi
v o v D VT ln
I 0R 1

Logarithmic amplifier. Limitation: The output voltage is a function
of temperature.

Exponential amplifier:
R1
i D I 0 exp v D VT I 0 exp v i VT
VD
Vi
2
- 6 v o R 1 i D I 0R 1 exp v i VT .
Vo
3
+
Limitation: The output voltage is a function
of temperature.
Exponential amplifier.
34
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]
 Op-amp Applications: Non-Linear
Precision rectifier:

2 A conventional rectifier cannot rectify below the

Vi + 6 cut-off voltage of a diode.
3
- The diode is placed in the feedback path.
is VL Therefore, the minimum voltage required to
RL switch ON the diode:
V
v i min 7V for IC741
Half-wave rectifier. Ad

For v i V A d , v o v i V and v L v i
for v i V A d , v L 0.

Problems:

Low slew rate: when the feedback path is open, the op-amp output saturates
to vo = -Vcc. It takes some time to change to positive voltage: ringing.
Bandwidth limitation.

35
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]
 Op-amp Applications: Non-Linear
Improved rectifier:

R2
R1 For v i 0, D1 is OFF, and D2 is ON.
2 D2
Vi - 6 v o V and v L 0.
VL
3
+ Vo D1 For v i 0, D1 is ON, and D2 is OFF.
R r R R
v o 2 D v i 2 v i and v L 2 v i V .
Improved half-wave rectifier. R1 R1 R1

Problems:

Slew rate problem reduces.

Bandwidth limitation.

36
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]
 Op-amp Applications
Lowpass filter : R2
R2
+ vc -
+ vc -
R1 R1 C
C 2
2 vi - 6
- 6 Vo
Vo 3 +
3 +
vi
Non-inverting lowpass filter. Inverting lowpass filter.
1 R || X C
Non-inverting: fC , Adc 1 R 2 R1 , and A ac 1 2 .
2 R 2C R1
1 R || X C
Inverting: fC , Adc R 2 R1 , and A ac 2 .
2 R 2C R1

R2 /R1 dB
(1+R2 /R1)
dB
0 dB
0 dB fc Log (f)
fc Log (f)
Ideal response: non-inverting Ideal response: inverting 37
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]
 Op-amp Applications
Highpass filter :
R2
R2
C R1
C R1 2
2 vi - 6
- 6
3 Vo
3 Vo +
+
vi
Non-inverting highpass filter. Inverting highpass filter.

1 R2
Non-inverting: fC , Adc 1, and A ac 1 .
2 R 1C R1 X C
1 R2
Inverting: fC , Adc 0, and Aac .
2 R1C R1 XC

R2 /R1 dB R2 /R1 dB

0 dB 0 dB
fc Log (f) fc Log (f)

Ideal response: non-inverting Ideal response: inverting 38

Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]
 Op-amp Applications
R1
Schmitt trigger: v o sat
R1 Rf

2 vi t
Vi - 6 Vo
3 + Rf Vsat

R1 vo t 2Vsat

-Vsat
Basic Schmitt trigger circuit.
Response of an inverting Schmitt
Note that positive feedback has been trigger circuit.
used.
vo
The triggering points can be given as Vsat

R1 vi
Upper triggering point UTP v o sat , and
R 1 R f
-Vsat

R1 LTP UTP
Lower triggering point LTP v o sat .
R 1 R f I/O characteristics.
39
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]
 Op-amp Applications
Schmitt trigger with adjustable triggering points:

2 vo
Vi - 6 Vo Vsat
3 + D1 D2 vi
R2 R3
-Vsat

R1 LTP UTP

Inverting Schmitt trigger circuit. I/O characteristics.

The triggering points can be given as

R1
Upper triggering point UTP v o sat , and
R 1 R 3

R1
Lower triggering point LTP v o sat .
R 1 R 2

40
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]
 Departure From Ideal Op-amp

Output should be zero when the voltage difference between the inputs is zero
(e.g. inputs are grounded). Real op-amps have some amount of output offset
voltage.
Bias currents: an offset output voltage as before.
Slew rate.
Finite bandwidth.
CMRR.

Effect of offset voltage:

Rf
R1 The offset voltage can drive
2 the output into saturation.
- 6
Use capacitor coupling instead
v o 1 R2 R 1 v o VOS .
3 +
Vos of direct coupling in cascade
R2 amplifier.

vi
41
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]
 Departure From Ideal Op-amp
Effect of input bias current:
3
+ 6 Vo
IB1 3
+ 6 Vo Vi 2 - Rf
Vi 2 - Rf
IB2 IB1 IB2 R1
R1

Bias currents in a non-ideal op-amp. Representation of bias currents using

an ideal op-amp.
3
+ 6 Vo
The output voltage due to the
2 - Rf bias current:
v o R1I B 2 R f R 1 Rf I B 2 .
R1
-
R1IB2 + A correcting DC voltage Vcorr
or a resistor Rf||R1 may be
Equivalent circuit to calculate the added at the non-inverting
effect of bias currents. terminal.
42
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]
 Departure From Ideal Op-amp
Finite bandwidth:

Gain (dB)
Ad
3
vi1 + 6
2 vo 0 Log(Freq.)
vi2 - f1 fu
R1
1 Ad 1 .
R1 Rf
An op-amp without
the feedback. Frequency response.
The frequency response of the op-amp can be represented by a first-order
system.
vo Ad
( s) .
v i 1 v i 2 1 s 1 where 1 is the 3-dB cutoff frequency.

Therefore, the gain of a non-inverting amplifier with finite gain op-amp is

Ad
Av .
s R1
A 1
1 R1Rf d
R1
The new cutoff frequency: 1 Ad 1 .
R R
1 f 43
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]
 Departure From Ideal Op-amp
Slew rate: The maximum rate of change of output voltage per unit of time.
Vo
SR V/S.
t
vo
To avoid distorted output signal: t vo
SR 2 f V peak .
Typical SR for IC741 is 0.5V/ S. t
Output voltage.
Slew rate vs. GBP:
Slew-rate and the GBP both represent the
high speed capability of an op-amp. Required
waveform
A high GBP is required when signal
bandwidth is high. The GBP takes into vo t
account the gain of your application. Slewed
Slew rate corresponds to the slope of the waveform
signal and is expressed in V/s. Both the
frequency of operation and the maximum Large signal - high frequency
effect.
output swing are considered.
44
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]
 Departure From Ideal Op-amp

Consider an sinusoidal input is applied to a non-inverting amplifier.

v i Va sin t V.

v o Va 1 R f R 1 sin t .
dv o
Va 1 R f R 1 cos t .
dt
Maximum slope is Va 1 R f R 1 where it crosses zero.

Calculate the maximum frequency of operation avoiding slewing. Slew rate of

the op-amp is 0.5 V/S and vi = 0.5 sint V.
Solutions: 10 k

v o 0.5 sin t R f R 1 =-5 sin t . 1 k

2
Vi -
dv o 6
Maximum slope: 5. 3 vo
dt max
+
0.5 106
f max 15.9 kHz.
5 2
45
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur [email protected]