Pumps

CEU 195
Continuing Education from the
American Society of Plumbing Engineers

January 2013

ASPE.ORG/ReadLearnEarn
 READ, LEARN, EARN

Note: In determining your answers to the CE questions, use only the material presented in the corresponding continuing education
article. Using information from other materials may result in a wrong answer.

The most common type of pump used in plumbing systems Pump Types and Components
is the centrifugal pump, although some applications require For all pumps, the basic parts consist of a passage and a
other types. For plumbing, the centrifugal pump stands out moving surface. The passage is simply referred to as the
because of its simple design and suitable head (pressure). pump casing. A prime mover, such as an electric motor but
Further, its rotational speed matches that of commonly avail- sometimes an engine, adds torque to the moving surface.
able electric motors; drive belts or gears are rarely employed. Other parts include shaft bearings and various seals, such
With small sizes, the motor shaft is typically coupled directly as the shaft seal.
to the pump impeller, resulting in a compact design and a Pumps may be categorized as positive displacement, cen-
simple installation, even for fire pumps. trifugal, axial, or mixed flow. Positive-displacement pumps
This chapter focuses on centrifugal pumps, but pumps in deliver energy in successive isolated quantities whether by
general are explored, including differences in pump types, a moving plunger, piston, diaphragm, or rotary element.
performance characteristics, applications, installation, and Clearances are minimized between the moving and unmoving
environmental issues. parts, resulting in only insignificant leaks past the moving
parts. Common rotary elements include vanes, lobes, and
Applications gears.
Pump applications in plumbing include specialty pumps for When a pump with a rotating surface has significant clear-
liquid supplies, pressure boosters for domestic water supply, ance between itself and the stationary passage, the pump does
similar supply pumps for fire suppression, water circulation not have positive displacement. If the direction of discharge
for temperature maintenance, and elevation increases for from the rotating surface, called the impeller, radiates in a
drainage systems. Except for the circulation application, plane perpendicular to the shaft, the pump is a centrifugal
pump systems theoretically are open systems, meaning that pump. If the direction is inline with the shaft, the pump is
the liquid is transferred from one reservoir to another of a axial. If the direction is partly radial and partly axial, the
higher elevation. The applications vary in the nature of the pump is mixed flow. Examples of a centrifugal pump, an
liquid, the dutywhether for daily use or for rare firefighting axial pump, and a positive-displacement pump, respectively,
useand the magnitude of elevation changes. include an automobile water pump, a boat propeller, and the
human heart.
Pump Basics Compared to positive-displacement pumps, centrifugal
Machines that move water, or any liquid, are called turbo- and axial pumps are simple and compact and do not have
machines. Commonly referred to as pumps, these machines flow pulsations. Centrifugal pumps provide greater total head
add energy to the liquid, resulting in a higher pressure than similarly sized axial pumps, but they provide lower flow.
downstream. This added energy is called head, which refers The operation of a centrifugal pump includes the outward,
back to the days of dams and water wheels. The descent of radial projection of the liquid from the impeller as it rotates.
water was expressed as a level of energy per pound of water. In addition, if a gradual expanding passage is provided after
The water descended adjacent to the dam through the water the impeller, the high velocity is converted to a high static
wheel, and the vertical distance between the water levels on pressure. This idea follows the law of conservation of energy
either side of the dam was measured. In contrast to water and is quantified in Bernoullis equation. If the expanding
wheels, all pumps add energy, but the amount is expressed passage wraps around the impeller, it is called a volute.
in the same terminology. The quantity and angle of the blades on the impeller and
In theory, if a sufficiently tall, open-top vertical pipe is the shape of the blades vary. They may be two straight blades
mounted on a pipe both downstream and upstream of a positioned radially, many curved blades angled forward, or
pump, the liquid level in both can be observed. The level more commonly, many blades angled backward to the direc-
downstream will be higher than the level upstream. This tion of rotation. While forward blades theoretically impart
difference in elevation between the two levels is called the greater velocity, the conversion to pressure is unstable except
total head for the pump. Another element of pump head is within a narrow speed range.
the difference in elevation between the upstream pipe and Pipes generally connect to pumps with standard
the pump; a distinction is made if the upstream elevation is flanges, but they may also connect by pipe threads or sol-
above or below the elevation of the pump inlet. der joints. The centerline of the inlet pipe may be aligned
with the pump shaft. Figure 4-1 shows this type; it is re-

Reprinted from Plumbing Engineering Design Handbook, Volume 4. 2012, American Society of Plumbing Engineers.

2 Read, Learn, Earn JANUARY 2013

 features, and array of pump sizes results in pumps being the
most varied of the worlds manufactured products.
The greatest pressure in any pumped system is within
the pump casing, which includes the shaft seal. Another
concern with this seal occurs when the pump is not operat-
ing, when a stored supply of pressure applies continuous
static head against the seal. This seal traditionally has been
designed with a flexible composite material stuffed around
a clearance between the shaft and the hub portion of the
pump casing, referred to as a stuffing box. A mechanical ar-
rangement applies pressure to the flexible material through
routine adjustments. Some leakage is deliberately required,
so provisions for the trickle flow must be included, such as
with the installation of a floor drain.
Another seal design consists of a simple O-ring. More
advanced seals include the mechanical seal and the wet rotor
design. In a mechanical seal, the interface of two polished
surfaces lies perpendicular to the shaft. One is keyed and
sealed to the shaft, and the other is keyed and sealed to the
pump casing. Both are held together by a spring and a flex-
ible boot. Some pumps include two sets of these seals, and
the space between them is monitored for leakage. Often, a
special flow diversion continuously flushes the seal area.
Figure 4-1 Portion of a Close-Coupled Centrifugal Pump In the wet rotor design, the rotor winding of the motor
With an End-Suction Design
and the motor bearings are immersed in the water flow
and are separated from the dry stator by a thin, stationary,
stainless steel shield called a canister. The shield imparts a
compromise in the magnetic flux from the stator to the rotor,
so these pumps are limited to small sizes.

Determining Pump Efficiency

High efficiency is not the only characteristic to examine in
selecting a pump. It is explored here, nonetheless, to demon-
strate the impact of alternatives when various compromises
are considered.
An ideal pump transfers all of the energy from a shaft to
the liquid; therefore, the product of torque and rotational
speed equals the product of mass flow and total head. However,
hydraulic and mechanical losses result in performance degra-
dation. Hydraulic losses result from friction within the liquid
through the pump, impeller exit losses, eddies from sudden
changes in diameter, leaks, turns in direction, or short-circuit
paths from high-pressure sections to low-pressure sections.
Figure 4-2 Inline Centrifugal Pump with a Vertical Shaft
Photo courtesy of Peerless Pump Co.
Mechanical losses include friction in bearings and seals. The
amount of hydraulic and mechanical losses is from 15 percent
ferred to as an end-suction design. The outlet generally to 80 percent in centrifugal pumps and lesser amounts for
falls within the plane of the impeller. If the inlet and outlet positive-displacement pumps.
connections align as if in a continuation of the pipe run, as Design features in centrifugal pumps that minimize hy-
shown in Figure 4-2, the pump is referred to as inline. draulic losses include a generous passage diameter to reduce
Casing materials are generally cast iron and, for domestic friction, an optimal impeller design, a gradual diameter
water supply, cast bronze. Other materials include stainless change and direction change, placement of barriers against
steel and various polymers. Impeller materials also include short-circuits, and optimal matches of impeller diameters to
cast iron, bronze, and various polymers. Pump bearings and pump casings. The design of a barrier against short-circuits
motor bearings vary between traditional sleeves and roller includes multiple impeller vanes, seals at the impeller inlet,
elements such as steel ball bearings. Bearings on each side and minimal space between the impeller and the pump
of the impeller minimize shaft stresses compared to a pair of casing. The seals at the impeller inlet are commonly in the
bearings on one side. At the other extreme, the pump itself form of wear rings. Enclosed impellers, as shown in Figure
has no bearings, and all hydraulic forces are applied to the 4-3, achieve higher heads because of the isolation of the
motor bearings. The combination of these materials, design inlet pressure from the liquid passing through the impeller;

JANUARY 2013 Read, Learn, Earn 3

 READ, LEARN, EARN: Pumps
Axial flow directed into the impeller of a centrifugal pump
may come from one side only (single-suction pump, refer
back to Figure 4-1) or both sides (double-suction pump, see
Figure 4-4). The single-suction design creates axial forces on
the pump shaft. The double-suction design balances those
forces. In addition, double-suction pumps have a slower inlet
velocity, which helps prevent cavitation.
Since most pumps are driven by electric motors, a com-
plete review of pump efficiency should include consideration
of motor efficiency, which varies with torque, type of motor,
speed, type of bearings, and quality of electricity. Many
fractional-horsepower, single-phase motors experience a
dramatic loss of efficiency at light loads. A three-phase mo-
tor achieves peak efficiency at slightly less than full load.
High-speed motors and large motors offer greater efficiencies
than slower or smaller motors. Polyphase, permanent split-
capacitor, and capacitor-start/capacitor-run motors are more
efficient than split-phase, capacitor-start/induction-run, and
Figure 4-3 Enclosed Impeller
shaded pole motors.
A centrifugal pumps first cost can be minimized by de-
signing for the best efficiency points (BEP) of the operating
flow and head. A lower total head also results in less bearing
and shaft stresses, leading to a longer expected pump life.
An appreciation of the benefits of investing in efficiency
in a plumbing system can be realized by identifying the mag-
nitude of power in various parts of a building. For example,
a domestic water heaters energy input may be 1,000,000
British thermal units per hour (Btuh) (293 kW), while its
circulation pump may be 700 Btuh (205 W). Hence, in this
situation an inefficient pump is of little consequence. Exces-
sive circulation increases standby losses, but a more efficient
heat exchanger in the water heater will provide the most
tangible benefit. While the importance of a fire pump for fire
suppression is paramount, efficiency invested there is less
important than a reliable pump design.

Centrifugal Pump
Figure 4-4 Centrifugal Pump with a Characteristics
Double-Suction Inlet Design The characteristics of centrifugal pumps can be reduced
to two coefficients and one value referred to as the specific
thus, the original efficiencies are maintained over the pumps speed. The coefficients and a set of relationships, called af-
useful life. finity laws, allow similarly shaped centrifugal pumps to be
Equation 4-1 illustrates the relationship between flow, compared. In general, the coefficients also apply to axial and
total head, efficiency, and input power for pumps with cold mixed-flow pumps, as well as turbines and fans.
water. For other liquids, the equation is appropriately ad- Deriving the coefficients starts with the law of conser-
justed. vation of momentum. That is, the summation of forces on
Equation 4-1 the surface of any fixed volume equals the aggregate of
angular-momentum vectors multiplied by the flows at each

where
P= Qh
3,960e [ Qh9.81
e ] of those vectors. Since the applied energy into the liquid on
the fixed volume around the impeller is only the tangential
P =Power through the pump shaft, horsepower (W) movement of the impeller, only the tangential velocity vec-
Q =Flow, gallons per minute (gpm) (L/s) tors are considered. For constant density and for radial and
h =Total head, feet (meters) tangential velocities at the inlet and outlet of an impeller,
e =Efficiency, dimensionless
the momentum equation becomes:
Impellers with diameters significantly smaller than an Equation 4-2
ideal design generally compromise efficiency. The efficiency of
centrifugal pumps varies greatly with head and flow. Hence, T=d2r2vt2Q2 d1r1vt1Q1
a pump with 85 percent efficiency at one flow may be only where
50 percent at one-third of that flow. T =Torque, foot-pounds (N-m)

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 d2 = Density at the outlet, pounds per cubic foot (kg/m3) Equation 4-7
r2 = Radius at the outlet, inches (mm) hg
vt2 = Tangential velocity at the outlet, feet per second CH= U 2
2
(fps) (m/s)
Q2 = Flow at the outlet, gpm (L/s) With the various constants identified in Equation 4-6c, the
d1 =Densityat the inlet, pounds per cubic foot (kg/m3) total head is directly proportional to the square of the impel-
r1 = Radius at the inlet, inches (mm) lers tip velocity, U2. Recall that the tip velocity is a product
vt1 = Tangential velocity at the inlet, fps (m/s) of the impellers rotational speed and the impellers radius.
Q1 = Flow at the inlet, gpm (L/s)
Thus, the total head is proportional to the square of the
From Bernoullis equation of an ideal flow through any impellers radius or of its diameter, and it is proportional to
type of pump, total head is a measure of power per flow and the square of the impellers rotational speed, in rpm (radians
per specific weight. Since power is the product of torque and per second). This is the second pump affinity law.
rotational speed, the above equation can be related to the Additionally, since flow is directly proportional to area
Bernoulli equation. For steady-state conditions, the inlet flow and velocity at any section through a pump, at a particular
equals the outlet flow. The relation becomes: section the flow is proportional to the velocity of the impel-
lers tip. Hence, flow is proportional to the rotational speed
Equation 4-3 of the impeller and to the diameter of the impeller. This is
P (r2vt2 r1vt1)n the first pump affinity law.
h= =
dgQ g Since power is the product of flow and head, power is
where directly proportional to the cube of the velocity. This is the
h =Total head created by the pump, feet (m) third pump affinity law.
P =Power, horsepower (W) Table 4-1 summaries the three pump affinity laws. Each
n =Rotational speed, revolutions per minute (rpm) function is directly proportional to the corresponding value
(radians per second)
in the other columns.
g =Gravity constant
In addition, it is customary to combine flow and head with
With the velocity of the tip of a rotating surface at its the rotational speed and set exponentials, so this speed ap-
outside radius designated as U, the equation is: pears to the first power. The result, nQ0.5/h0.75, is called the
Equation 4-4 specific speed of the pump.
U vt2 U1vt1 When the flow rate, head, and a given pump speed are
h= 2 g known, the specific speed can be derived, and the design of
For centrifugal pumps, flow is proportional to the outlet an economical pump can be identified, whether centrifugal,
radial velocity. In addition, vt1=0 since inlet flow generally axial, or mixed flow. Specific speed also allows a quick clas-
is moving in an axial direction and not in a tangential direc- sification of a pumps efficient operating range with a mere
tion. Thus: observation of the shape of the impeller.
Equation 4-5 The affinity laws allow easy identification of pump
U v performance when the speed changes or the impeller diam-
h= 2 g t2 eter changes. For example, doubling the speed or impeller
Figure 4-5 shows the velocity vectors of the flow leaving diameter doubles the flow, increases the head by four, and
the impeller. Vector vr2 represents the velocity of the water increases the required motor power by eight.
in a radial direction, Vector X represents the velocity of the
water relative to the impeller blade, and Vector Y represents Performance Curves
the sum of X and U. Thus, it is possible to resolve these vec- Since centrifugal pumps do not supply a nearly constant flow
tors into tangential components and derive the following: rate like positive-displacement pumps, characteristic pump
Equation 4-6a curves are provided by manufacturers to aid in selecting a
pump. Under controlled conditions, such as with water at a
vt2=U2 vr2 cot B=U2 [1 (vr2 /U2) cot B] certain temperature, these curves are created from measure-
ments of impeller speed, impeller diameter, electric power,
Equation 4-6b
flow, and total head. The standard conditions are created by
h=U2U2 [1 (v
g
r2 /U2) cot B] such groups as the Hydraulic Institute. As can be observed,
the shape of the curve in Figure 4-6 agrees with Equation
Equation 4-6c 4-6c. This pump curve represents a particular impeller
h= U2 [1 (C Q) cot B]
2
diameter measured at a constant speed, with its total head
g varied and its resulting flow recorded. Efficiency is plotted
For a given flow, the vr2 /U2 ratio is constant and is defined
as a capacity coefficient, CQ. For a given impeller design, CQ on many of these curves, and the BEP is sometimes marked.
and Angle B are constant. Hence, [1 (vr2 /U2) cot B] is con- Additional curves usually include shaft input power, mea-
stant and is defined as a head coefficient, CH. Equation 4-7 sured in horsepower (W), efficiency, and net positive suction
shows the relationship between this coefficient, the head, head (NPSH).
and the impellers tip velocity. While a curve is plotted for a given pump and with a given
diameter impeller, a pump in operation under a constant head

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 READ, LEARN, EARN: Pumps

and speed has one particular flow. The point on the pump identify the duty point. Most catalogues from pump manu-
curve of this flow and head is referred to as the duty point facturers offer a family of centrifugal pumps in one diagram.
or system balance point. The pump will provide that flow if Separate graphs, one for each pump housing and shaft speed,
that head applies. show the pump performance for each of several impellers.
In plumbing, a particular flow may be required for a sump Figure 4-7 illustrates such a graph for a pump measured at
pump or hot water circulation pump. In domestic water and 1,750 rpm (183 radians per second). Pick a pump impeller
fire suppression supply systems, the head varies with the that at least includes the duty point. An optimal pump is one
quantity of open faucets, outlets, hose streams, or sprinkler whose pump curve crosses this point. However, with most
heads. Further, the quantity of such open outlets varies pump selections, the pump curve crosses slightly above the
with time. Thus, the duty point rides left and right along point.
the curve with time. For example, if the duty point is 100 gpm at 30 feet of
Another curve that represents the buildings distribution head (6.31 L/s at 9.14 m of head), the impeller number 694
piping at peak demand can be plotted on a pump curve. This in Figure 4-7 is a suitable choice because its pump curve (the
second curve, called the system head curve or building system solid line matched to 694) crosses above the duty point. Power
curve, is shown in Figure 4-6. Equation 4-8 represents this requirements are marked in dashed lines in Figure 4-7. The
familiar curve, where p1 represents a pressure gauge read- pumps motor size, in horsepower or kilowatts, is identified
ing at the pump inlet and p2 and h2 represent pressure and by the dashed line above and to the right of the duty point. A
elevation head respectively at a particular system location more precise motor required can be estimated at 1.6 hp (1.2
such as at a remote fixture. The last term represents the kW), but engineers typically pick the 2-hp (1.5-kW) motor
entire friction head in the piping between the two points size. Select the motor with a nominal 1,800-rpm (188 radi-
including control valves, if any, at the pump. The curves ans per second) rotational speed. The pumps efficiency can
shape is parabolic. This curve is applicable to any liquid that be estimated if efficiency curves are included on the chart.
has a constant absolute viscosity over a wide flow range (a Comparing the efficiencies of several pumps can lead to an
Newtonian fluid). ideal choice. Alternatively, the flow and head of the duty
Equation 4-8 point can determine the ideal power requirement. A pumps
efficiency is found by dividing the ideal power, from Equation
hp=(p2 p1)/d+h2+f(L/D)(v2/2g)
4-1, by the graphically shown power. With this example, the
At no flow, the friction term becomes zero since velocity efficiency is 0.758/1.6 = 47 percent.
is zero, and the point where this curve crosses the vertical The shape of a pump curve varies with the impeller design.
axis is the sum of the remaining terms. A rapidly dropping head due to increasing flow is character-
To select a pump, determine the peak flow and use Equation ized by a steep curve. Flat curves represent a slight variation
4-8 to calculate the required pump head. The flow and head from no flow to BEP, often defined as 20 percent. The latter
is preferred in most plumbing applications that employ one
pump because of the nearly uniform head. Figure 4-8 shows
Table 4-1 Centrifugal Pump Affinity Laws steep and flat curves and the corresponding blade designs.
Tip Rotational Speed, Impeller Radius (or A pump with a steep curve is advantageous when a high
Function Velocity rpm (radians/sec) Diameter), in. (mm) head is required in an economical pump design and the flow
Flow U n R
is of less consequence. For example, a sump pump, which
Head U2 n2 R2
has a sump to collect peak flows into its basin, may have a
Power U3 n3 R3
high static head. With a generous volume in the sump, the
total time to evacuate the sump is secondary; therefore, the

Figure 4-5 Net Fluid Movement From an Impeller

Represented by Vector Y Figure 4-6 Typical Pump Curve Crossing a System Curve

6 Read, Learn, Earn JANUARY 2013

pumps flow is of less concern than its head. Further, as the Staging
inlet flow increases and the water level rises, the head reduces To obtain greater total head, two pumps can be connected in
and the pump flow increases. series; that is, the discharge of one pump becomes the inlet
A pump design with some slope in its curve is desired for of the other. As a convenience, pump manufacturers have
parallel pump configurations. The sum of the flows at each created multistage pumps in which two or more centrifugal
head results in a more flat curve. For control, the drop in pumps are joined in a series by combining all of the impel-
head as the demand increases may serve as an indicator to lers on a common shaft and arranging the casing to direct
stage the next pump. the flow of a volute into the eye of the next impeller (see
A pump with nearly vertical steepness is desired for drain- Figure 4-9).
age pumps that are part of a system of pumps that discharge Another way to obtain greater head is by using a regen-
into a force main. This performance characteristic allows erative turbine pump. Unlike other centrifugal pumps, the
a nearly uniform flow for a wide variation of heads. Some outer edge of the impeller and its volute are intentionally
centrifugal and all positive-displacement pumps exhibit this employed with higher velocities by using recirculation of a
characteristic. portion of the flow from the volute to pass just inside the tip
of the impeller. The close dimensions of these pumps limit
their use to clean liquids.
Applications of high-head pumps include
Figure 4-7 Typical Pump Curves and Power Requirements water supplies in high-rise buildings, deep wa-
ter wells, and fire pumps for certain automatic
standpipe systems.

Specialty Pumps
To select a specialty pump, the following must
be considered: pressure increase, range of flow,
nature of the energy source (electricity, air,
manual, etc.), whether the liquid contains par-
ticulates, whether pulses are tolerable, accuracy
in dispensing, self-priming requirement, whether
the pump is submerged, and if the pump requires
an adaptation to its supply container.
Domestic Booster Pumps
A domestic booster pump system typically uses
multiple parallel centrifugal pumps to increase
municipal water pressure for the buildings
domestic water distribution. Particular de-
sign issues such as sizing, pump redundancy,
Figure 4-8 Blade Shape and Quantity Versus Performance Curve pressure-reducing valves, other pump controls,
adjustable-frequency drives, high-rise buildings,
and break tanks are described in Plumbing En-
gineering Design Handbook, Volume 2, Chapter
5: Cold Water Systems. The same issues apply
for private water systems that require a well
pump.
Fire Pumps
The water supply for fire suppression requires
a pump that is simple and robust. In addition,
the slope of the performance curve is limited by
fire pump standards. NFPA 20: Standard for the
Installation of Stationary Fire Pumps for Fire
Protection limits the curve to not less than 65
percent of the rated total head for 150 percent
of the rated flow. A variety of listing agencies
monitor pump manufacturing to certify compli-
ance with one or more standards. The design of
a single-stage or multistage centrifugal pump
Source: Figures 4-7 and 4-8 courtesy of Weil Pump Company Inc.
generally qualifies. A double-suction centrifugal

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 READ, LEARN, EARN: Pumps

pump with enclosed impeller, horizontal shaft, wear rings, drain water pump, solids-handling sewage pump, grinder
stuffing-box shaft seals, and bearings at both ends histori- pump, dewatering pump, and wastewater pump.
cally has been used. The pump inlet connection generally is Drainage pumps generally have vertical shafts, cylindri-
in line with the outlet connection. cal basins, and indoor or outdoor locations. Some pumps
A recent variation, for small fire pumps, includes a vertical are designed to be submerged in the inlet basin, others in
shaft and a single-suction design with the impeller fastened a dry pit adjacent to the basin, and in others the motor is
directly to the motor shaft. Pump bearings, shaft couplings, mounted above with only the pump casing and impeller
and motor mounts are eliminated in this compact design. submerged. In any design, provision is required for air to
In applications for tank-mounted fire pumps, the impeller enter or leave the basin as the water level varies.
is suspended near the bottom of the tank, and the motor or The nature of solids and other contaminants in the water
other prime mover is located above the cover. Between the through these pumps necessitates several types of pump
two is a vertical shaft placed within a discharge pipe. NFPA designs. For minimal contaminants, the design may be with
calls these pumps vertical lineshaft turbine pumps. Flexibility an enclosed impeller, wear rings, and clearance dimensions
in their design includes multistaging, a wide range of tank that allow -inch (19-mm) diameter spheres to pass through.
depths, and several types of prime movers. Such a pump may be suitable for subsoil drainage or for
graywater pumping.
Water Circulation Pumps
For drainage flows from water closets and similar fix-
Maintaining adequate water temperature in plumbing is
tures, manufacturers provide pumps of two designs. One
achieved through circulation pumps. Applicable generally for
design uses an open recessed impeller, no wear rings, and
hot water, but equally effective for chilled water to drinking
clearance dimensions that allow 2-inch (50-mm) diameter
fountains served by a remote chiller, the circulation pump
spheres to pass through.
maintains a limited temperature change. Heat transfer from
The other, referred to
hot water distribution piping to the surrounding space is
as a grinder pump (see
quantified for each part of the distribution network. For
Figure 4-10), places a
a selected temperature drop from the hot water source to
set of rotating cutting
the remote ends of the distribution, an adequate flow in the
blades upstream of the
circulation can be determined from Equation 4-9. Since the
impeller inlet, which
nature of circulation is as if it were a closed system, pump
slice solid contaminants
head is simply the friction losses associated with the circula-
as they pass through
tion flow.
a ring that has acute
Equation 4-9 edges. Efficiency is com-
q
Q = 500T [ q
4,187T
] promised in both types
for the sake of effective
waste transport, in the
where latter more so than in
Q =Flow, gpm (L/s) the former, but with
q =Heat transfer rate, Btuh (W) the benefit of a reduced
T =Temperature difference, F (C) pipe diameter in the dis-
For example, if it is determined that 1,000 Btuh transfers charge piping. Grinder
from a length of hot water piping and no more than 8F is pumps are available in
acceptable for a loss in the hot water temperature, the flow centrifugal and positive-
is determined to be 1,000/(5008)=0.250 gpm. In SI, if displacement types.
it is determined that 293 W transfers from a length of hot The installation of a
water piping and no more than 4.4C is acceptable for a loss pump in a sanitary drain
in the hot water temperature, the flow is determined to be system includes a sealed
293/(4,1874.4)=0.0159 L/s. basin and some vent
piping to the exterior or
Drainage Pumps
to a vent stack. In some
Where the elevation of the municipal sewer is insufficient
cases, the pump can be
or if another elevation shortfall occurs, pumps are added
above the water level,
to a drainage system. The issue may apply only to one
but only if a reliable
fixture, one floor, or the entire building. Elevation issues
provision is included
usually apply to subsoil drainage, so this water is also
in the design to prime
pumped. Lastly, if backflow is intolerable from floor drains
the pump prior to each
in a high-value occupancy, pumps are provided for the floor
pumping event.
drains.
The terminology varies to describe these pumps, but typi-
cal names include sewage pump, sump pump, sewage ejector, Figure 4-9 Multistage or Vertical
lift station pump, effluent pump, bilge pump, non-clog pump, Lineshaft Turbine Pump
Photo courtesy of Peerless Pump Co.

8 Read, Learn, Earn JANUARY 2013

Pump Maintenance filled submersible pump to detect an oil leak, such as a probe
The selection of a pump includes factors such as the need in the space between the shaft seals that signals a breach of
to monitor, repair, or replace the pump. Pumps in acces- the lower seal. Another example is vibration isolation for a
sible locations can readily be monitored. Sensors on remote pump located near sensitive equipment.
pumps, such as seal leak probes and bearing vibration sen- The external environment can affect a pump in many
sors, assist in pump monitoring to prevent a catastrophic ways. For instance, a sewage ejector may be subjected to
pump failure. methane gas, causing a potential explosion hazard. Loss
Pump maintenance can be facilitated when disassembly of power is a common concern, as are abrasive or corrosive
requires minimal disturbance of piping or wiring. Disas- conditions. The former can be prevented with the inclusion
sembly may be with the casing split horizontally along a of a parallel pump powered by a separate battery, and correct
horizontal shaft or with the casing split perpendicularly to material selection can help prevent the latter. Other examples
the shaft. The latter allows impeller replacement without include the temperature of the water through the pump, the
disturbing the pipe connection to the pump body. temperature of the air around the pump, and the nature of
Complete pump replacement can be facilitated with any contaminants in the water. Sand and metal shavings are a
adequate access, shutoff valves, nearby motor disconnects, concern with grinder pumps as they can erode the blades.
minimal mounting fasteners, direct mounting of the motor on
the pump housing (close-coupled pump), and pipe joints with Pump Controls
bolted fasteners. A simpler arrangement, commonly used for Pump controls vary with the application. A small simplex
submersible drainage pumps, allows removal of the pump sump pump may have a self-contained motor overload
from the basin by merely lifting a chain to extract it. The control, one external float switch, an electric plug, and no
lift or return is facilitated by special guide rails, a discharge control panel. A larger pump may have a control panel with
connection joint held tight by the weight of the pump, and a motor controller, run indicator light, hand-off auto switch,
a flexible power cable. run timer, audio/visual alarm for system faults, and building
automation system interface.
Environmental Concerns A control panel should be certified as complying with one
In addition to any concerns about how a pump may affect the en- or more safety standards, and the panel housing should be
vironment, the environment may affect the design requirement classified to match its installation environment. Motor con-
for a pump. An example of the former is a provision in an oil- trol generally includes an electric power disconnect and the
related control wiring, such as power-interrupting controls
against motor overload, under-voltage, or over-current.
The largest pumps often include reduced-voltage starters.
Duplex and triplex pump arrangements include these control
features for each pump as well as an alternator device that
alternates which pump first operates on rising demand. A
microprocessor may be economically chosen for applications
involving at least a dozen sensor inputs.
A booster pump has additional controls such as low
flow, low suction pressure, high discharge pressure, a time
clock for an occupancy schedule and possibly a speed control
such as a variable-frequency drive.
A circulation pump may include a temperature sensor that
shuts down the pump if it senses high temperature in the
return flow, which presumably indicates adequate hot water
in each distribution branch. A time clock for an occupancy
schedule shuts down the pump during off hours.
The controls for a fire pump may include an automatic
transfer between two power sources, engine control if ap-
plicable, and pressure maintenance through a secondary
pump, which is called a jockey pump. The control of a drain-
age pump includes one or more float switches and possibly a
high water alarm.

Installation
Pumping effectiveness and efficiency require uniform velocity
distribution across the pipe diameter or basin dimensions at
the pump inlet. An elbow, increaser with a sudden diameter
change, check valve, and any other flow disturbance at the
Figure 4-10 Cross-Section of a Grinder Pump with pump inlet create an irregular velocity profile that reduces
Cutting Blades at the Inlet the flow and possibly the discharge head. To avoid air entrap-
Photo courtesy of Ebara.

JANUARY 2013 Read, Learn, Earn 9

 READ, LEARN, EARN: Pumps
ment, eccentric reducers with the straight side up are used however, the summation for centrifugal pumps in-
on inlet piping rather than concentric reducers. volves adding the flow at each head to create a composite
In addition to shutoff valves, pump installations may performance curve. Discretion is further made to the amount
include drain ports, pressure gauges, automatic or manual of redundancy, whether for each duplex pump at 100 percent
air release vents, and vibration isolation couplings. Pressure of demand or each triplex pump at 40 percent, 50 percent, or
gauges upstream and downstream of the pump allow easy 67 percent. For efficiencys sake, a mix may be considered for
indication of the rated pump performance. Check valves are a triplex, such as 40 percent for two pumps and 20 percent
provided for each pump of duplex and similar multiple-pump for the third pump.
arrangements, fire pumps, and circulation pumps.
A fire pump includes provisions for periodic flow testing. Glossary
Fire pumps also may include a pressure relief valve if low Available net positive suction head The inherent energy
flows create high heads that exceed pipe material ratings. in a liquid at the suction connection of a pump.
A pump requires a minimum pressure at its inlet to avoid
cavitation. Destructive effects occur when a low absolute Axial flow When most of the pressure is developed by the
pressure at the entry to the impeller causes the water to propelling or lifting action of the vanes on the liquid. The
vaporize and then collapse further into the impeller. The re- flow enters axially and discharges nearly axially.
sulting shock wave erodes the impeller, housing, and seals and Bernoullis theorem When the sum of three types of en-
overloads the bearings and the shaft. The pockets of water ergy (heads) at any point in a system is the same in any
vapor also block water flow, which reduces the pumps capac- other point in the system, assuming no friction losses or
ity. Cavitation can be avoided by verifying Equation 4-10. the performance of extra work.
Equation 4-10 Brake horsepower (BHP) The total power required by a
hr ha hv+hs hf pump to do a specified amount of work.
where Capacity coefficient The ratio of the radial velocity of a
hr =Net positive suction head required (obtained from liquid at the impeller to the velocity of the impellers tip.
the pump manufacturer), feet (m) Churn The maximum static head of a pumptypically the
ha =Local ambient atmospheric pressure converted to
head when all flow is blocked.
feet (m) of water
hv =Vapor pressure of water at applicable temperature, Design working head The head that must be available in
feet (m) the system at a specified location to satisfy design require-
hs =Suction head (negative value for suction lift), feet ments.
(m)
hf =Friction head of piping between pump and where hs Diffuser A point just before the tongue of a pump casing
is measured, feet (m) where all the liquid has been discharged from the impeller.
It is the final outlet of the pump.
Increasing hs resolves most issues regarding cavitation,
generally by mounting the pump impeller as low as pos- Flat head curve When the head rises slightly as the flow
sible. Note that hr varies with flow and impeller diameter: is reduced. As with steepness, the magnitude of flatness
ha=33.96 feet (10.3 m) for an ambient of 14.7 pounds per is a relative term.
square inch (psi) (101 kPa) and hv=0.592 feet (0.180 m) for Friction head The rubbing of water particles against each
water at 60F (15.5C). Suction head, hs, may be the inlet other and against the walls of a pipe, which causes a pres-
pressure converted to head, but it also may be the vertical dis- sure loss in the flow line.
tance from the impeller centerline to the surface of the water
Head The energy of a fluid at any particular point of a flow
at the inlet. The ambient head, ha, also may need adjusting
stream per weight of the fluid, generally measured in feet
for sewage pumps, with the basin connected to an excessively
(meters).
long vent pipe. Reciprocating positive-displacement pumps
have an additional acceleration head associated with keeping Head coefficient Pump head divided by the square of the
the liquid filled behind the receding piston. velocity of the impeller tip.
Submergence is a consideration for pumps joined near or Horsepower The power delivered while doing work at the
in a reservoir or basin. A shallow distance from the pump rate of 500 foot-pounds per second or 33,000 foot-pounds
inlet to the surface of the water may create a vortex forma- per minute.
tion that introduces air into the pump unless the reservoir
exit is protected by a wide plate directly above. In addition Independent head Head that does not change with flow,
to lost flow capacity, a vortex may cause flow imbalance and such as static head and minimum pressure at the end of
other harm to the pump. To prevent these problems, the a system.
basin can be made deeper to mount the pump lower, and the Mechanical efficiency The ratio of power output to power
elevation of the water surface can be unchanged to keep the input.
same total head.
Mixed flow When pressure is developed partly by centrifugal
Redundancy can be considered for any pump ap-
force and partly by the lift of the vanes on the liquid. The
plication. The aggregate capacity of a set of pumps
may exceed the peak demand by any amount;
10 Read, Learn, Earn JANUARY 2013
 flow enters axially and discharges in an axial and radial Static suction lift The vertical distance from the free
direction. surface of a liquid to the pump datum when the supply
Multistage pumps When two or more impellers and casings source is below the pump.
are assembled on one shaft as a single unit. The discharge Steep head curve When the head rises steeply and continu-
from the first stage enters the suction of the second and so ously as the flow is reduced.
on. The capacity is the rating of one stage, and the pressure Suction head The static head near the inlet of a pump above
rating is the sum of the pressure ratings of the individual the pump centerline.
stages, minus a small head loss.
Suction lift In contrast to suction head, this vertical dimen-
Net positive suction head (NPSH) Static head, velocity sion is between the pump centerline and a liquids surface
head, and equivalent atmospheric head at a pump inlet that is below the pump.
minus the absolute vapor pressure of the liquid being
pumped. System head curve A plot of system head versus system
flow. System head varies with flow since friction and veloc-
Packing A soft semi-plastic material cut in rings and snugly ity head are both a function of flow.
fit around the shaft or shaft sleeve.
Total discharge head The sum of static head and velocity
Potential head An energy position measured by the work head at a pump discharge.
possible in a decreasing vertical distance.
Utility horsepower (UHP) Brake horsepower divided by
Pumps in parallel An arrangement in which the head drive efficiency.
for each pump equals the system head and the sum of the
individual pump capacities equals the system flow rate at Total head The total head at the pump discharge minus
the system head. suction head or plus suction lift.
Pumps in series An arrangement in which the total head/ Variable-speed pressure booster pumps A pump used to
capacity characteristic curve for two pumps in series can reduce power consumption to maintain a constant building
be obtained by adding the total heads of the individual supply pressure by varying pump speeds through coupling
pumps for various capacities. or mechanical devices.
Pump performance curve A graphical illustration of Velocity head The velocity portion of head with its units
head horsepower, efficiency, and net positive suction head converted to an equivalent static head.
required for proper pump operation. Water horsepower The power required by a pump motor
Radial flow When pressure is developed principally by cen- for pumping only.
trifugal force action. Liquid normally enters the impeller
at the hub and flows radially to the periphery.
Required NPSH The energy in a liquid that a pump must
have to operate satisfactorily.
Shutoff BHP One-half of the full load brake horsepower.
Slip A loss in delivery due to the escape of liquid inside a
pump from discharge to suction.
Specific speed An index relating pump speed, flow, and head
used to select an optimal pump impeller.
Standpipe A theoretical vertical pipe placed at any point in
a piping system so that the static head can be identified by
observing the elevation of the free surface of the liquid in
the vertical pipe. The connection of the standpipe to the
piping system for a static head reading is perpendicular to
the general flow stream.
Static head The elevation of water in a standpipe relative
to the centerline of a piping system. Any pressure gauge
reading can be converted to static head if the density of
the liquid is known.
Static pressure head The energy per pound due to pressure.
The height a liquid can be raised by a given pressure.
Static suction head The vertical distance from the free
surface of a liquid to the pump datum when the supply
source is above the pump.

JANUARY 2013 Read, Learn, Earn 11

 READ, LEARN, EARN: Pumps

ASPE Read, Learn, Earn Continuing Education

You may submit your answers to the following questions online at aspe.org/readlearnearn. If you score 90 percent or higher on the test,
you will be notified that you have earned 0.1 CEU, which can be applied toward CPD renewal or numerous regulatory-agency CE pro-
grams. (Please note that it is your responsibility to determine the acceptance policy of a particular agency.) CEU information will be kept
on file at the ASPE office for three years.
Notice for North Carolina Professional Engineers: State regulations for registered PEs in North Carolina now require you to complete ASPEs
online CEU validation form to be eligible for continuing education credits. After successfully completing this quiz, just visit ASPEs CEU Valida-
tion Center at aspe.org/CEUValidationCenter.
Expiration date: Continuing education credit will be given for this examination through January 31, 2014.

CE Questions Pumps (CEU 195)

1. The energy a pump adds to a liquid is called what? 7. The ________ is where the system head curve and the pump
a. horsepower curve meet.
b. head a. system head curve
c. churn b. best efficiency point
d. lift c. system balance point
d. required NPSH
2. In a _______ pump, the direction of discharge from the impeller
radiates in a plane perpendicular to the shaft. 8. A pump with a _______ is advantageous when a high head is
a. positive-displacement required in an economical pump design.
b. axial a. flat curve
c. centrifugal b. steep curve
d. mixed-flow c. vertical steepness
d. none of the above
3. Hydraulic losses are caused by _______.
a. leaks 9. High-head pumps can be used for _______.
b. turns in direction a. high-rise water supplies
c. friction within the liquid through the pump b. deep water wells
d. all of the above c. certain automatic standpipe systems
d. all of the above
4. Which of the following helps minimize hydraulic losses?
a. gradual diameter and direction changes 10. The curve for a fire pump must be not less than _______
b. placing barriers against short circuits percent of the rated total head for _______ percent of the rated
c. matching the impeller diameter to the pump casing flow.
d. all of the above a. 80/150
b. 65/150
5. The _______ of double-suction pumps helps prevent cavitation.
c. 35/150
a. slow inlet velocity
d. 75/150
b. small impeller
c. dry seal 11. A _______ can reduce flow and possibly head.
d. multiple vanes a. check valve
b. elbow
6. Power is directly proportional to the cube of the velocity is the
c. increaser with sudden diameter change
_______ affinity law.
d. all of the above
a. first
b. second 12. _______ is the static head near the inlet of a pump above the
c. third pump centerline.
d. fourth a. discharge head
b. potential head
c. suction head
d. friction head

12 Read, Learn, Earn JANUARY 2013