Chapter 3

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOYBEAN OIL

:. H.Pryde
Northern Regional Research Center
Agricultural Research
Science and Education Administration
U.S. Department of Agriculture
Peoria, Illinois 61604

INTRODUCTION

Reports on the physical properties of soybean oil are

relatively few and mostly dated. from the period 1940-1955.
The major reason for the paucity of information on soybean oil
is the diversity of its composition, which depends upon cli-
mate and variety; therefore, there is a lack of constancy to
more than about three significant figures from sample to
sample. Furthermore, the presence of the many minor con-
stituents will be reflected in the differences in many of the
properties of crude as compared to refined soybean oil.
Partial hydrogenation of soybean oil has a marked effect on
the fatty acid composition, so that physical properties are
again changed to a significant degree.
For general reviews on physical properties, Jefferson
(1950) and Swern (1964) should be consulted.

DENSITY

In addition to the expected dependence upon temperature,

the densities of vegetable oils have an inverse relationship
with molecular weight and a direct one with the degree of
unsaturation. Illustrating the dependence on the latter two
variables, an equation has been developed to express the
specific gravity of vegetable oils in general (Lund, 1922):

Specific gravity = 0.8475 + 0.00030 (Saponification value) +

0.00014 (Iodine Value). Saponification values and iodine
values can be determined according to Methods Cd 3-25 and
Cd 1-25, respectively, according to the Official and Tentative
Methods of the American Oil Chemists' Society (AOCS, 1974).

33
34 E. H. PRYDE
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOYBEAN OIL 35

TABLE 1
TABLE 2
Density of Soybean oil at Several Temperatures
Refractive Index of Molecularly Distilled SO~bean Oil
Fractions of Different Iodine Values
Density, g/mL
Temperature Magne and Skau (1945)a Johnstone et al. (1940)b 25
Refractive Index, n
D
-10.0 0.9410 Fraction Iodine
b b
0.0 0.9347 nO. value Observed Calculated Difference
10.0 0.9276
25.0 0.9175 0.9171 10 128.4 1.4728 1. 4726 +0.0002
37.8 0.9087 15 130.2 1.4728 1.4728 0.0000
40.0 0.9075 20 133.2 1. 4732 1. 4732 0.0000
50.0 0.9004 25 1.37.5 1. 4738 1.4737 +0.0001
30 138.4 1. 4740 1.4738 +0.0002
a Commercial, edible soybean oil having an iodine value
of 13 .6 and containing 0.10% free fatty acid.
t Soybean oil that had been refined, bleached, and
~ Detwiler et al., 1943.
Determined for this chapter.
deodorized and that had the following characteristics: iodine
value, 130.1; peroxide number, 5.1; acid number, 0.11; thio-
cyanogen number, 80.0; and phosphorus content, 0.00095%.
REFRACTIVE INDEX

The densities at several temperatures for soybean oil The refractive indices of liquid fats have a direct
specifically are g~ven in Table 1. relationship to molecular weight (and fatty acid chain length),
Of considerable practical value are the densities of
to degree of unsaturation, and particularly to degree of
soybean oil-solvent mixtures (Magne and Skau, 1945). conjugation, but they have an inverse relation to temperature.
A general density equation for glyceride oil-solvent
The refractive indices of glycerides are considerably higher
mixtures has been developed (Skau et al., 1955a; 1955b): than those of the individual component fatty acids.
2 An equation relating refractive index to iodine value has
V = 1/0 = a-(a-b+4k)x + 4kx
been proposed (Zeleny and Coleman, 1937; Zeleny and Neustadt,
1940) :
where V = specific volume of oil-solvent mixture, 0 = density
of oil-solvent mixture, a = specific volume of solvent, b = 1.45765 + 0.0001164 (Iodine Value)
specific volume of oil, x = weight fraction of oil in mixture,
k = 6V when x = 0.5, 6V = V.-V, V. = calculated specific volume Detwiler et al. (1943) have reported refractive indices
of mixture, assuming ideal oluti6ns. For commercial hexane, for a series of fractions obtained by molecular distillation
the value of k can be considered identical for fish and vegeta- of crude soybean oil. For the fractions relatively free of
ble oils, including soybean, linseed, tung oils: unsaponifiables, free fatty acid, and phosphorus, there was
soybean, linseed, tung oils: good correspondence between the observed refractive index and
that calculated from the above equation over the iodine value
Temperature, c k, mL/g (IV) range of 128 to 138 (Table 2). The calculations,
never off by more than 0.0002 units, indicate the reliability
10 0.0062 of the equation at least for the range in iodine value in-
25 0.0080 dicated. 25
40 0.0098 Johnstone et al. (1940) report the refractive index, no
= 1.4733, for a refined, bleached, and deodorized soybean 011
The k values have been given for many other solvents having an iodine value of 130.1, but this is a discrepancy of
including diethyl ether, acetone, heptane, and cyc10hexane 0.0005 from the 1.4728 value calculated by the equation.
(Skau et al., 1955a). The k values may also be calculated Majors and Milner (1938) developed a reverse relationship
from exact measurements of solution density at x = 0.5 and the for estimating the iodine value of crude soybean oil when the
known or measured densities of the pure oil and solvent. refractive index is known:
The value of such equations lies not only in the con-
venience for calculating solution densities but also in the IV = 866l.723(n~5) - 12,626.174
ability to calculate composition of solutions from the mea-
sured density. [or n~5 = 1.45770 + 0.0001154(IV)]
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOYBEAN OIL 37
36 E. H. PRYDE

The refractive index of soybean oil varies with the

Such a relationship depended upon the age of the soybeans, the
wavelenath of the light, from 1.4705 (25C) at 650 nm to
crop year, and the method of oil recovery (cold pressed or
1.5026 (25C) at 340 nm (Notarnicola, 1974). This dispersion
extracted). Within these limitations, the equation (derived
from least squares analysis of 270 samples of extracted oil) can be expressed by the equation:
was quite accurate, giving 0.8 IV units as he standard error. 2 2 2
25 n 2 = 1 + AA /(A _A )
For example, a soybean oil sample having n = 1.4728 should o
have an iodine value of about 130.8 (cf. tRe value of 130.2
where n refractive index, A = a constant (1.130~ for soybean
from Table 2).
A similar relationship for refractive index at 40C has oil)!.lf
1he wavelength of the light used, and A
O
11.51504
been developed for highly unsaturated oils from several plant X 10 cm .
families (Cruciferae, Euphorbiaceae, and Labiatae) (Earle et
VISCOSITY
a1., 1960):
40 Knowledge on viscosities of soybean oil in solution as
IV = 8555.559(n ) - 12,425.928
40 D well as of the oil itself is essential for design calculations
[or n = 1.45238 + 0.0001169 (IV)] on pumps, piping, and heat transfer equipment. Although
D
viscosity is dependent upon composition, apparently no re-
Refractive indices for many fats and partially hydro- lationships have been established so that an equation can be
genated oils are necessarily determined at 40C, since the fat developed.
or oil may be partially solid at 25C. In order to estimate Magne and Skau (1945) have reported viscosities for
the refractive index of an oil at a temperature other than the soybean oil and for its solution in hexane for six different
temperature used for the measurement, the following equation temperatures (-20C and -10C in addition to those given in
from Method Cc 7-25 of the Official and Tentative Methods of Table 3). Their values agree well with those given by John-
the American Oil Chemists' Society can be used (AOCS, 1974) stone et al. (1940) after recalculation of the latter's re-
t' t sults.
n = n + 0.000385 (t-t') An inverse relationship between viscosity and unsatura-
D D
tion is implied in the following data from Detwiler et al.
where t is the temperature in c at which the experimental (1943) :
determination was made and t' is the temperature for which an
estimate of the refractive index is needed. Iodine value Viscosity at 25C, centipoises
Tels et al. (1958) assumed additivity of various atomic
and group refractions to calculate the Lorenz-Lorentz molar 128.6 51. 7
refraction of fatty acid esters including glycerides, and they 130.2 50.1
developed a relation for the iodine value, saponification 132.5 49.1
value, and specific refraction of fatty oils: 136.2 48.2
138.4 48.6
2 20 2
r
[(n -l)/(n +2)] X lid
=
D -5 4
0.3307 + 1.68 X 10 (IV) - 1.41 X 10- (SV) Viscosities of soybean as well as other vegetable oils
have been measured recently over a 20 to 160C temperature
where r = specific refraction, n = refractive index (at 20C), range at 10 intervals (Interesse and D'Avella, 1974).
d = density, IV = iodine value, and SV = saponification value. The dynamic shear viscosity at 10-150 MHz and the long-
For soybean oil having a saponification value of 192 and an itudinal ultrasonic absorption at 50kHz-IOOO MHz have been
iodine value of 126, a good comparison was obtained for the determined for soybean oil (Mikhailov et al., 1975). volume
specific refraction between observed and calculated values: and shear viscosities had single relaxations, but the volume
20 relaxation time was 10 times larger than the shear. Shear
r relaxation is apparently the result of molecular orientation,
D
Observed 0.3054 but volume relaxation is the result of rearrangement of mole-
Calculated 0.3057 cular packing.
 38
E. H. PRYDE
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOYBEAN OIL 39

TABLE 3
Viscosity of Refined Soybean Oil a -Hexane SOlutionsb TABLE 4
Melting Points of Fatty Acids and Their TriglYCeri~es
Viscosity, centipoises Present in Soybean Oil and par~ially Hydrogenate
c
Hexane , wt% Soybean 011s

0.00 172.9 Triglyceride

99.7 50.09 28.86
11.45 49.03 Name or Melting point, C
31.78 18.61 11.95
20.69 21. 88 composition I (Bl II (B')
15.40 9.88 6.68
30.80 10.34 7.83 5.43 3.81
39.96 5.69 Palmitic 62.9 Tripalmitin 65.5 56.0
4.48 3.26 2.44
50.79 Stearic 69.6 Tristearin 73.0 65.0
3.15 2.57 1.97
59.70 1.52 18:0-16:0-16:0 62.5 59.5
2.04 1. 70 1. 34
78.39 1.12 16:0-18:0-16:0 68 65
0.91 0.80 0.67
84.56 0.56 18:0-16:0-18:0 68 64
0.72 0.64 0.54 0.46 Oleic 16.3 Triolein 5.5 -12
16:0-18:1-16:0 35.2 30.4
: Iodine value = 132.6. 18:0-18:1-18:0 41.6 37.6
c Magne and Skau, 1945. 16:0-18:1-18:1 19.0
Ske11ysolve B. 18:0-18:1-18:1 23.5
Elaidic 43.7 Trielaidin 42 37
Linoleic -6.5 Trilinolein -13.1
MELTING POINT Linolenic -12.8 Trilinolenin -24.2

a Bailey, 1950.
The melting point of a triglyceride depends to a large
extent upon those of the component fatty acids, for which
,
ized (rapldly coo 1 e d) 01'1 and 1F (-17C) for a stabilized
, ] '1
melting points increase with increasing chain length, decrease
[slowly coo 1 e d to -94F (-70C) over a 2-day perlod 01
with increasing concentrations of cis double bond configura-
tion, but rise to an intermediate value for increasing con- (HanneWij~ea~~ ::~g:~o~~d~~::~~tion of soybean oil in~reases,
centrations of trans unsaturation (Bailey, 1950). For the
octadecenoic acid series, melting points are also dependent
h A~t~ g asgwell as the solidification point also ln~reases.
t e me In , duct ion in concentratlon of
upon the position of the double bond and rise as the double The increase can be as~rlb~~ to ~eto an increase in the higher
bond approaches either end of the molecule (Gunstone, 1973). low melting unsaturate aCl s an , , th trans
melting stearlC . aCld , an d, 'In par"
t to an lncrease In e ~~_
ected to
In the saturated fatty acid series, the triglyceride melts
'd A fully hydrogenated soybean oll can be exp ,
above the fatty acid; in the unsaturated series, the tri- aCl s. . , , r than about 1540F (680C), l.e.,
g~yceride melts slightly below (Table 4). have a meltlng pOlnt no hlghe , l ' t' (1500F
tern erature intermediate between trlpa,ml In, ,
An unsymmetrical triglyceride of the type A-B-A (where B at a pand trlstearln
, , (1630F ,7300C) meltlng pOlnts.
655C) . , h The
= A + 2 carbons) has a melting point that is a function of
total chain length and tends to have a melting point inter- meiting points of partially hYdrOgenatedlsoy~~:~)ol~~le~~eand
mediate between those of the highest and lowest melting sym- been examined by open-tube (Imamura ~t a . , ds 'There is a
automatic dropping point (Doeden, 1975) metho
metrical triglycerides. This effect does not hold true for
linear correlation between the latter two methods.
other types of glycerides. Of course, mixtures of trigly-
cerides, as in soybean and other vegetable oils, have depres-
THERMAL PROPERTIES
sed melting points compared to that for a homogeneous trigly-
ceride. Finally, one of the major factors in the melting
SPECIFIC HEAT
points of triglycerides is polymorphism; the two highest
melting and most stable forms for some triglycerides are given
The s ecific heat of soybean (Table 5) and other veget~ble
in Table 4 to illustrate this point.
'1 varie~ directly with chain length and temperature but In-
Soybean oil, like other fats, requires a lower tempera- ~~r~elY with degree of unsaturation (Swern, tl 1964~.
ture for sOlidification than for melting, the difference being The specl'f'lC h e at of hydrogenated soybean 011 apparen y
only a few degrees when a barely melted oil is cooled again. has not been reported.
The solidification point for soybean oil is 3 to 14F (-16
to -10C). Differential thermal analysis of soybean oil HEAT OF COMBUSTION
showed a solidification point at 14F (-10C) for a nonstabil-
Bertram (1946) has gl'ven a general equation for the heat
40 E. H. PRYDE PHysiCAL PROPERTIES OF SOYBEAN Oil 41

TABLE 5
TABLE 6
Specific Heats for Soybean Oil With an Iodine
a Smoke, Flash, and Fire Points of Soybean Oila
Value of 128.3
Soybean Oil
Temperature
Free fatty Smoke Flash Fire
Specific heat, cal./g/oC Description acid content, % point, of (OC) point, OF (OC) point, OF (OC)
1.2 34.2 0.448 Refined and
19.7 67.5 0.458 bleached 0.010 453(234) 623(328) 685(363)
38.6 101.5 0.469
60.9 141.6 0.479 Refined and
70.5 158.9 0.490
bleached 0.010 443(228) 625(329) 685(363)
80.4 176.7 0.493
90.4 194.7 0.504
Crude, expeller
100.4 212.7 0.508
120.8
pressed 0.51 365 (185) 565 (296) 660(349)
249.4 0.527
141.3 286.4 0.531 a Morgan, 1942.
161.9 323.4 0.550
182.7 360.9 0.567
200.1 393.6 0.594
250.5
in a diesel engine by itself or in mixture with diesel fuel.
483.8 0.621
Depending on the use, crude, degummed, or refined soybean oil
a Clark et al., 1946. can be used as a fuel.

of combustion of vegetable oils as a function of iodine value SMOKE, FLASH, AND FIRE POINTS
and saponification value as follows:
These properties to a major extent are functions of the
-6H , cal/g = 11,380 - (IV) - 9.15 (SV) free fatty acid content in soybean oil, the fatty acids being
c
much more volatile than the glyceride (Swern, 1964). The
Thus, the calculated value for a soybean oil having an IV of temperatures for these characteristics are generally similar
131.6 and a saponification value of 193.5 is 9,478 cal/g or for all vegetable oils having comparable fatty acid composi-
16,900 BTU/lb. tion and low free fatty acid content. The temperatures are
An approximate comparison to the energy expenditure in lower for the lauric acid-containing oils such as coconut oil
producing 1 Ib of soybean oil can be made on the basis that an even if the content of free fatty acids is low. The tempera-
average bushel of soybeans contains 10.7 Ib of crude oil and tures for smoke, flash, and fire points of soybean oil are
47.5 Ib of meal. With the assumption that the energy costs given in Table 6.
can be shared between the meal and oil on a weight basis, the These physical characteristics are improved when cotton-
following breakdown can be made: seed and peanut oils are bleached, apparently as the result of
removal of an unknown impurity (Morgan, 1942). The impurity
BTU/lb of soybean oil or impurities can also be removed by steam stripping and by
alkali refining. Presumably, the same effects will take place
Soybean production, net with soybean oil.
energy cost 1755 The practical aspects of these characteristics as far as
the consumer is concerned have been discussed in an article in
Soybean crushing, net Consumer Reports (Anonymous, 1978). Ratings based on smoke
energy cost 1032 points are given for 37 consumer-available cooking oils.

Refining costs for

SOLUBILITY
producing cooking oil 2400
GENERAL
Total 5187
Soybean oil is miscible with many organic solvents,
Should the necessity arise, soybean oil can be used as a particularly those that are apolar and aprotic, i.e., those
fuel, since its energy content is higher than the energy that do not form hydrogen bonds. Hydrocarbons, esters,
expended in its production. Indeed, soybean oil can be burned ethers, ketones, and chlorinated solvents are among those
 ------_._- -----

42 E. H. PRYDE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOYBEAN OIL 43

TABLE 7
solvents having miscibility with soybean oil. Ethanol,
Dielectric Constants and Solubility Parameters a
isopropyl, and isobutyl alcohols, ethylene dichloride, tri- of Solvents vs. Vegetable oils
chloroethylene, carbon tetrachloride, and hexane have been
examined in the laboratory as extraction solvents (Beckel et
al., 1948). Ethanol extraction reportedly gave the best solubilitg
Solvent Dielectric constant parameter
results with respect to oil color, meal, and protein as well
as meal flavor and color. Water 78.5 23.53
Furfural 41.9 10.09
In order to have miscibility, the polarities of the oil Methanol 32.6 14.50
and the solvent should be of the same order of magnitude. Ethanol 24.3 12.78
Accordingly, solubility characteristics can be roughly esti- I-Propanol 20.1 12.18
2-Propanol 18.3 11.44
mated from a knowledge of dielectric constants or solubility Acetone 21.4 9.62
parameters as a measure of polarity (Table 7). Sulfur dioxide 14.1
Trichloroethylene 3.4 9.16
HYDROCARBONS Vegetable oils 3.0-3.2
Cyclohexane 2.05 8.19
Hexane 1.89 7.27
Propane has been used in a pilot process for either 2-Methylpentane 7.03
fractionation or refining of animal or vegetable oil (Passino, Propane 1.61 5.77
Carbon dioxide 1.60
1949), but the process did not reach commercial status for
soybean oil. The low boiling point of propane (-43.8F, - ~ Hoy, 1970.
42.l 0 C) requires that the process be carried out under pres- Solubility parameter, 0, is defined as follows:
sure--about 400 psig. At about room temperature the oil is o= (~E/V)1/2 = [(~H_P~V)/Vll/2.
miscible, but as the temperature is raised, solubility is
reduced until the critical point (206F, 96.7C) is reached. mixtures separate into two phases (Gloyer, 1948; 1950). The
In fractionating soybean oil, the following cuts were ob- solvent-predominant phase contains the more unsaturated gly-
tained: cerides, whereas the oil-predominant fraction contains the
more saturated glycerides. Thus, with a 14:1 solvent:oil
I (color cut) 2% ratio, the extract contained 70% of the oil (IV = 153.2)
II (IV 155) 25% and the raffinate contained 30% of the oil (IV = 95.5).
III (IV = 128) 72%
1%
Furfural in combination with naphtha in 2-column system a
IV could be used to refine crude or degummed soybean oil. An
intermediate oil fraction recovered from the first column had
Cut IV contained most of the free fatty acids and the unsaponi- an IV of 109, contained 0.05% free fatty acids, and amounted
fiables. Cut II is an improved drying oil, and Cut III is to 39% of the original oil. A light-colored, break-free,
suitable for edible products. In a straight refining oper- varnish-type oil (IV = 152.3) havi~g a relatively low free
ation, a 2% color body fraction was removed, and the deodor- fatty acid content (0.15%) was recovered in the second column
ization step was then used to remove free fatty acids. by naphtha stripping of the furfural phase. A 1% byproduct
Hexane is the preferred solvent for commercial extraction fraction recovered from the stripped furfural contained 17% of
of oil from soybean flakes (see Chapter 4. Recovery of Oil free fatty acids and 7.8% of unsaponifiables.
from Soybeans), although methylpentane was found to be more
efficient and to give better colored oils in laboratory tests
with cottonseed (Ayers and Scott, 1951). CHLORINATED SOLVENTS

FURFURAL Chlorinated solvents such as trichloroethylene and ethylene

dichloride dissolve soybean oil completely, but use of these
For several years during World War II and the post-war solvents causes toxic materials to form in the meal (see
period, furfural was used to fractionate nonbreak soybean oil Chapter 4. Recovery of Oil from Soybeans). Physical proper-
on a commercial scale to produce an improved drying oil be- ties for solutions of soybean oil in these chlorinated sol-
cause of shortages of linseed oil for paints. Furfural and vents as well as in hexane have been reported by Johnstone et
soybean are not miscible at normal temperatures, and their ale (1940).
 PHYSICAL PROPERTI ES OF SOYBEAN 01 L 45
44 E. H. PRYDE

TABLE 8
ACETONE Critical Solution Temperatures for Miscibility of a
Crude Soybean Oil in Aqueous Ethanol and 2-Propanol
Acetone and methyl acetate are miscible with soybean oil;
but at low temperatures the more saturated glycerides crystal-
concentration 0t critical solution temperature, C
aqueous alcohol
lize, leaving the more unsaturated glycerides in solution wt % Ethanol 2-Propanol
(Bull and Wheeler, 1943). For example, at -40C and a sol-
99.9 67 (miscible)
vent-to-oil ratio of 10:1 (vol:wt), a 41% yield of oil with IV 78 35
98.0
= 150.7 and a 59% yield of oil with IV = 119.4 were obtained. 95.4 90 45
Addition of 1% water to the acetone raised the temperature at 91.5 70

which comparable results were obtained, but a greater solvent a Rao et al., 1955; 1957.
ratio was required. b Before mixing with soybean oil.

ALCOHOLS TABLE 9
Representative Values for Selected
Physical Properties of Soybean Oil
Ethanol, anhydrous as well as aqueous, is not a good
Value
solvent for soybean oil at normal temperatures, but as the Property
temperature increases, the solubility increases until the a
Specific gravity I .25C 0.9175
critical solution temperature is reached, at which point the . . d 25 1. 4728
b
Refractlve In ex, llD
components become miscible (Table 8) (Rao et al., 1955; 1957). . 20 0.3054
Specific refractlon, r
At about 86F (30C), solubility of soybean oil in aqueous or D a
Viscosity, centipoises @ 25C 50.09
anhydrous ethanol is no more than 3-6%. Pressures of about
Solidification point, C -10 to -16C
20 psig are required for extraction of the oil from soybeans
Specific heat, cal/g @ 19.7C 0.458
with practical quantities of these solvents. Isopropyl al- c
cohol (2-propanol) is a better solvent (Table 8) (Rao and Heat of combustion, cal/g 9,478

Arnold, 1957); somewhat lower pressures are required than for Smoke point, OF (OC) 453 (234)
ethanol. Flash point, OF (OC) 623 (328)
Methanol is a poor solvent because of its polarity (a Fire point, OF (Oe) 685 (363)
dielectric constant of 32.6 compared to 24.3 for ethanol).
a IV 132.6.

SULFUR DIOXIDE b IV ~ 130.2.

C IV = 131.6.

Solubility of soybean oil in liquid sulfur dioxide ap-

parently has not been reported, but Schlenk and Ener (1959) nd 0.173 (Aho and Wahlroos, 1967):
give the following solubilities of triglycerides:
SUMMARY
triolein (-17C) 350 mg/100 g
triolein (-27C) 27 mg/100 g Some of the more important physical properties of soybean
trilinolenin (-13) 1. 25 g/lOO g )il are summarized in Table 9; the values are representative
ind not absolute, because the composition of soybean oil and
These authors state that unsaturated lipids are obtained as many of the properties depend upon degree of unsaturation and
yellow oils that are difficult to decolorize by vacuum. other factors.

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measured by an exponential dilution method varies from 1.3 Anonymous. 1978. Consumer Reports, February 1978, pp. 78-81.
ml/100 ml of refined oil to 3.2 ml/100 ml of crude soybean AOCS. 1974. "Official and Tentative Methods of the American
oil, with the respective coefficients of solubility of 0.070 Oil Chemists' Society," 3rd edition, W.E. Link, Ed., The
46 E. H. PRYDE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOYBEAN OIL 47

Society, Champaign, Illinois. Rao, R. K., M. G. Krishna, S. H. Zaheer, L. K. Arnold. 1955.

Ayers, A. L., C. R. Scott. 1951. J. Am. Oil Chern. Soc. J. Am. Oil Chern. Soc. 32:420-423.
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Bailey, A. E. 1950. "Melting and Solidification of Fats," 149.
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Beckel, A. C., P. A. Belter, A. K. Smith. 1948. J. Am. Oil Specific Gravity Tables for Mixtures of Glyceridic Oils
Chern. Soc. 25:7-9. with Commercial Hexane, Report No. ARS-72-2 Agricultural
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14l. Eng. Chern. 47:1043-1049.
Clark, P. E., C. R. Waldeland, R. P. Cross. 1946. Ind. Eng. Swern, D. 1964. "Physical Properties of Fats and Fatty
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