28017 General i-Hole Procedures | Ervirormental Geophysics | US EPA, oraraveapa.coveedarcve-geopnyses)webenlseraraLevnele procedures el Environmental Geophysics General In-Hole Procedures Introduction Borehole geophysics, as defined here, iste science of recording and analyzing measurements in boreholes or wells for determining physical {nd chemical properties of slle and racks. The purpose ofthis section ls to provide the base Information necessary to apply the most useful ‘geophysical wel log forthe soltion of problems In groundwater, the environmental ele, ara for engineering applications. Some of the abjecives of geophysical well logging ae: Idenification of lithology and stratigraphic corelaton. Measuring porosity, permeability, bulk density, and elaste properties acteriang fractures and secondary porosity Determinng water quay. 5. Identifying contaminant plumes 6. Ventying well construction ‘Although the U.S. Government and some private industry have been converting to the metre system for logging equipment and fog measuring Unt, the ineh-pound (P) system is sti standard in te United States, In this manual, the IP system Is used where IP Is the standard for presently used equlpment “The main objective of borehole geophysics I to obtain more information about the subsurface than can be obtained fram driling, sampling, Fecords of many efferent kinds of data con be acquire, " Geophysical lags provide continuous analog or digital records of in situ properties of soils and rocks, their contained Mud, and well onstruction, Logs may be interpreted in terms of Iitology, thickness, ane continuity of aquifers and confining beds; permneabilty, porosity, bulk density, resistivity, moisture content, and specific yield; and the source, movement, chemical and physical characteristics of groundwater and the intgrity of well constructon. Log data are repeatable over a lang period of time, and comparable, even whan measured with diferent tquipmert. Repeatability and comparablty provide the bass for meosuring cnanges in 2 groundwater system with time. Changes in an Beuifer matrix, such as In porosity by plugging, oF changes In water quay, such as insanity or temperature, may be recorded. Thus, logs may be used to establish baseline aqufer characterises to determine how substantial ture Changes may be or what degradation may have Bread occured. Logs that are cigtized in the fled or later inthe ofica may be corrected rapidly, colate, and analyzed with computers, Some borehole geophysical tools sample or Investigate a volume of rock many times larger than core or cuttings that may have been extracted from the borehole, ‘Some probes record data from rock beyond that disturbed by the driling process, Samples provide point data from laboratory analysis. Tn contrast, borenole logs usualy are continueus data, ané can be analyzed In realtime at te well ste to guide ‘completion or testing procedures. Unlike descritive logs written by a criler or gelogist that are limited by the authors’ experience and purpose ane are highly subjectve, geophysical logs may provide information on some aeteriste nat recogned atthe te of geophysical Fegging. Data from gophysical legs are useful in the cevelopment of altel models of auifers ana in tne design of groundwater supply, rege, fr eleposal systems. log analyst wth the proper background data on the area being studied can provide reasonable estimates of hydraulic properties needed for hese purposes, Stratigraphic correlation ls a common use of geoprysical logs; logs also permit the laterl extrapolation 1 auantitative data from test of core holes. Using logs, a data point n 9 well cn be extaned in three simensions to Increase ts valve Sreatly. Many techniques used In surface geoprysis are related closely to techniques In borehole geophysics, and the two are considered together when setting up comprehensive groundwater, environmental, or engineering investigations, Geophysical logs, such as, acousticvelocty and resistivity, can prove detailed profiles of data that are useful in Interpreting surface surveys, such as seismic and Fesistivty surveys. Limitations Geophysical loging cannot replace sampling completly, because some Information is needed on each new area to ald log analysis. log Snaiyst cannot evaluate a suite of logs properly wrthaut information onthe local geology. Logs do not nave @ unique response; for example, high gamma radiation from shale is indatinguishable from that produced by granite. To maximize results from lags, atleast one core hole should be elle Is each depositional basin or unique equter system. If coving the entire interval of Interest is too expensive, then intervals for coring and laboratory analysis can be selected onthe basis of geophysical los of a nearby hole. Laboratory analysis of core Is essential tithe for ciect calibration of log or for checking calloration carriee out by other means. calibration of logs carried out in one rock type may not be vale In oter rock types because ofthe effect of chemical composition ofthe rock matrix In spite of the existence of many equations for log interpretation and ts tat provide values lke poresity, lop analysis stil is afectae by many Variables tnat are not complatsly understood. Correct interpretation of lags ls based on a thorough understanding ot the prinlples of each technique. For tis reason, interpretation of logs Inthe pettateum Industry largely Is done by professional log analysts. In contrast, very few those conducting the investigation 7 ‘A thorough understanding ofthe theory and principles of operation of logging equpment is essental fr both logging operators and log analysts An eculpment operator needs to know enough aboUt Rew each system works tobe able to recognize and correct problems In the Fela ard to select the proper equpment configuration for each new logging environment. A log analyst needs to be aole to recognize matfantions on logs and logs that were nat run properly. The maximum bereft s usally derived fYom a logging operation where operators Bnd analysts work tgether In the buck to elect the mast effective adjustments for each Wg. “The cost of logging ean be recuced significantly by running ony thse logs that offer the best possibilty of providing the answers sought Further rections in cost can be achieved by logging only those wells Us are properly located and constructed to maximize resus fom hps:tarchive.epa govleslarcive-goophysicsiwebimligenera_in-hole_procedures ht 4828017 General i-Hole Procedures | Ervirormental Geophysics | US EPA, logging. In contrast, more money needs to be spent on log analysis. More time may be required to analyze a suite of logs for maximum return than to run the logs. Too often, this te Is not budgeted when the projec is planned. Planning a Logging Program. ‘logging program must be properly planned tobe of maximum benefit. Borehole geophysics 's frequently applied to environmental Investigatons, such 2s hyorogeology to aa site selecoan, montaring, determining wel constuction, ana planing remeciatan. In planning logging pragram for environmental appiations, one of te most dificu questions to answer is what geophysical logs wil provige the most information for te funds avaliable. There are several important questions in the deeision-meking process. 2) What are the project objectives? ) What isthe hyerogeology ofthe site? ©) How wil test holes be cried and wells constructed? 4) Who will do the logging and log analysis? ©) What are the nancial limitations, and how else might some of these data be obtained? ‘The log selection process needs to star at the time of the inal workplan. mn adaton to selecting the general types of gs to be run, many varieties of some lagging tools exist (e.g, resistivity, lowmeter, and caliper). The base information needed to simply the selection process among the more Commonly used logs is provided Ina char In figure 4 (keys, Cromer, and Herrch, 1993). Decsions on what logs toe run should not be based on this table alone, The chart should only be used to select logs that should be investigated further, The loge selected should meet specific project objectives, prove the necessary information In the rock units tobe drilled, ang conser th planned well construction, pl RN ech: bry = 7 SLITEE TT TTT TT) — Y/Y) fy Spl Liab Hae See i ae zs ed EEE os Le ees Se Figure 1. Log selection chart. og Analysis In recent years, computer techniques have dominated log analysis; however, this development has not changed the basic requirements for getting the most information from logs. Fist, background information on each new hydrogeologic environment is essetil where logs are to be used. The amount and kind of background data needed are functions ofthe objecoves of te program, Second, the suite of logs tobe run should net only be based on project objectives but also on knowledge of te synergistic nature of logs. Two logs may provide answers that ‘may net be possible with elthar og separately, and each actonal log may ada much more to a toal understanding of the system. Thr, logs hess tebe selected, run, and aralyzea onthe basis ofa thorough understanding ot the princpls oF each lg, evan f the final rasis come ovt of a computer. The process of log analysis can be simplified ino several steps, a follows: {2)Data processing, which includes depth matching, merging all logs and ether data from a single wel, and eltng and smoothing the dataset 1») Correction of borehole effects and other erors 2) Conversion af log measurements to hyorogeolegle and engineering parameters of Interest, such as porshty. 8) Combining logs and other data fom al wells on a project so the data can be extrapolated laterally in sections or on maps. hps:tarchive.epa govleslarcive-goophysicsiwebimligenera_in-hole_procedures ht 2828017 General i-Hole Procedures | Ervirormental Geophysics | US EPA, Qualitative Analysis Logs were first used forthe Identfication of rock and fluid types, ther lateral corelation, and the selection of likly producing Intervals for Wwe compton; these uses are stl vital today in many fais. Qualtative log analyse based mostly on knowledge ofthe local geology and hydrology, rather than on log-response ts or computer plots, Oxamination of euterop, core, and cutings, coupled with an understanding of to response, wil permit the identiieston and correlation of known equifers one confining beds Luthologic interpretation of logs needs tobe checkes against data from other sources, because geophysical logs do not have a unique response. ‘Ths requirement is also true ofsraigrapnie corelotion, where gross errors can be mede Oy Just metering the wiggles. Correlation by matching log acter can be done without understanding the response to ItRology, but this approach ca lead to erroneous results, Even within one depositional Basin, the response of ene type of log may shift from Iateal facies changes For example, the feldspar content of a sandstone may increase toward a grantc source area, which probably would cause an increase Inthe Fadactvity sasures by gamma logs. This measurement might ba interpreted mistaceny as an Increace In clay content unless ether logs or fata were avalible. For this reason, the synergism of composite log Interpretation Is sessed in ths manual. Logs should be interpreted as, fan assemblage of data, nt singly, to increase the accuracy of analy. Aceuracy of qultative interpretation usually improves with an increase in the number of wells thet are lagged in on aree and the amount of available sample data. A gradual change in og response across a deposivoral basin may indicate a facies change. One anomalous log caused by unusual Pole conditions may be identfable when compared witha numberof logs with cersstent response; such erors are not likely £ pest. Consnuous core or 3 large numberof cre samples from one test hole is more useful than afew norrepresentatve samples scatared throughout te section, If continuous coring of one hole cannot be funded, ehen geoprysieal loge of @ nearby hele ean be used to select representative intervals for caring ‘Quantitative Analysis Cbtaining quantitative data on aquifers or rocks under dam sites is an important ebjective of many environmental and engineering logging programs: honever, the proper steps to ensure reasonable accuracy ofthe deta often are not flowed. The scales on logs In physical Unt, ich of percent paresty ond Suk density, in grams per cubic centimeter (g/ce), 0° resistivity, n fm, mus be determined. "ven i the procedures described under log callration and standardzaton are felowed carefull, corroborating data forthe particular rocks and wells Fogges are necced. Repeatabity Is ensured by logging selected depth intervals a scone time; equipment erift is indicated by changes In responee az 2 function of time or temperature. Because of the affect of rack matrx or specif rack type, calibration in one rock type may not fencure accurate parameter scales in anoter rock type. For this reason, Ifthe rocks being logged are not the sarne as those In hich the fuipment was callratea, core analysas are neadea to check values onthe loge. Before any log data are used quanttatvely, thay must De Data are of questionsble value where hole lameter is significantly greater than bit size, or from intervals where bed thickness is equal to oF less than the vertical dimension of the volume of investigation forthe probe. The volume of investigation is dened fer the purseses of this ‘marual as that part of the Borehole and surrounding rocks that contributes 90% ofthe signal that Is recorded as 2 log. The radius of Investigation isthe dstance from the sensor out tothe 90% Boundary. These terms do rot mean that te volume of tnvesigation is spherical for thatthe boundary isa sharp cutof, Instead, a gradual ecrease In contbution tothe gral occurs with increasing cistance from the borenole. The size and shape of the volume of investigation changes in response to varying borehole canditions, te Physical properties, and geometry of boundaries Inthe rock metrx and the souree-to-detectar spacing. Bea-thckness effects an lo response can be best explained {sing the concept of volume of investigation and its elation to source-to-detector spacing. It» bed is thinner than the vertical dimension of the \olume of investigation or thinner than the specing, the log seldom provides eccurate meosurement ofthe thickness or physical properties of that bed because, under these contons, the volume of investigation includes some of the adjacent beds. From the standpoint of quantitative log analyss, the best procedure Isto eliminate from consideration those depth Intervals tat demonstrate lametor changes that are significant with respect tothe hole dameter responce of the logging too Both vertical and horizontal scales on logs need tobe selected on the basis ofthe resolution and accuracy of the data required. Logs obtained by large commercial logging service companies generally nave vertcal scales of 20 or S0 Vi. wich Is pat acequate forthe detal required in ‘many engineering and environmental studies, where te wells may be only about 100 m deep. similarly, tye horizeral scales on mary Service company logs are compressed to ave of-scale deflections. Logs digitized in te field will overcome many ofthese problems, and tis Subjects discussed in dstal later. Some loge may be run too fast forthe accuracy and thn bed resolution requiree. When the detector ls entered on te contact between two Beds of Sule thekhess, haf the sigral willbe derved from one Unit, and half fram the other; Will be har to pick and wil be sisplaced vertical Few logs measure the quantity shown on the horizontal scale directly. For example, the neutron log does net measure porssity; it responds chiefly to hydrogen content. The derence between porosity ard hydrogen contat can lead to a large porasity error where bound Water oF hyarocarbons are present. Tous, a knowlecge of te principles of log-measuring systems is prerequisite tothe accurate quanttatve analysis a eas. Mulple tg analysis takes advantage of the synergistic nature of many logs; usualy much more can be learned from @ sute of logs than from the sum of the lags naivduelly. For example, eypsum cannot be cistingshed fram enydrite nit ether gamma or neutron loge lone, But the two logs together are ciaghostc in areas were gypsum and antyerite are known to exist. They are both very low inracioactive elements, but gypsum has a significant amount of water of crystallization, so It appears as high porosity on the neutron log. In contrast, anydite appears as very low perasity on neutron logs. Both minerals wil be loggee as high resistivity. Computer analysis of logs ean be Very Helpful Inidenttying such relationships because shacing to emphasize diferences between logs Is easily accomplshed Examining a sulte of logs from a clstance Is good practice so that significant trends and shits In response become mare obvious in contrast to the detal seen up dose, Thos, eplotong loge at aferent vertical or horizontal scales, using computer, may bring out features not previously obvious. The suite of lags needs to be examined for similarities and differences, and explanations need tobe sought (or log Fesponse that departs trom thet anticipated, dosed on the avellable Deckgrovnd geologic deta, When seorening Tor explanotions for anomelous log response, rrst examine the caliper fog to éetemine If an increase In borehole clameter offers a possible reason. Although many lo9s are titled Borehole-componsated or borehole-corracted, almost all logs ae affected to some degree by significant changes In borehole clamets. All eri les, excapt tose drilled In very hard racks Ike granite, have thn inervals where hole diameter exceeds bit size sufilenly to cause anomalous log response. Logs usually can be corrected for average borehole dameter, but thin zones of efferent dlameter spanned by te Tegaing tol ave acu to cavrect. Dring technique can have @ major effec on variations In borehole dameter Well construction information also may explain anomatous response, as may inormation onthe mineral or chemical composition ofthe rec. Cesing, coment, ona gravel pack have substantial effects on lg acter, Some logs are Gesghed specially to provide Information on te Tocation and acter of casing ond coment, These logs ore described inthe section on welkeompletion logan, Computer Analysis hps:tarchive.epa govleslarcive-goophysicsiwebimligenera_in-hole_procedures ht a828017 General i-Hole Procedures | Ervirormental Geophysics | US EPA, Computer analysis of geophysical well logs is now widely used, and if dane properly can contribute significantly to resus fom log Interpretacon. The very large amount of cata In sute of well logs cannot easily be collated or condensed inthe human id so tat all Interrelations can be isolated and used; computer analysis makes this possible. All ofthe major commercial welHloging service companies titer digitized loge ane computer interpretation. Software packages for log editing and analysis are avaliable that will un an microcomputers With sufficient memory, date storage, and eraphics capability. although te spreadsheet was not designed for lg analysis, someone who Understands fogs ean tarsputate tre data and plot the results (Keys, 1986). Tey do not, however, feral ofthe features ard Mexibilty of & program written spectcally for log analyss. Programs written forthe analyss fell well logs have mary features pot needed for Environmental are engineering applications and are often more expensive Computer analysis of logs offers 2 number of advantages over other methods used inthe past: a large mass of data can be collated and ‘splayed; logs can be correctea and replated; scales can be changed; smooting and Fitering operators canbe carried out cross pots can be mace between different kinds of logs, and between logs and cave dat; calibration curves, correlation functans, and ralos canbe plotted, 35 well as cross-ection and isapach maps. Finally, tse resus canbe potted as publiabon-cuality figures ata cast lower Chon end Plotting. although all ofthese manipulations can De cerried out by hand the large quantity of data present ine sulte of Ings, or inthe logs of Bit wells penetrating an aquifer system, i dealy suite for computer analysis. Fighre 2's 9 computer-generated cross section of three lest holes inthe Chicago area, The Itoology was entered with key terms capitalized so that a column with Ithologic symbols could be automatically generated. The corelation lies were sketched using the program, and shading between logs can also be adéed, 25 In gure 3 Changing the vertical and horizontal scales of logs independently was almost impossible before computer processing was availble; now Feploting to produce scales best suites forthe intenced purpose is a simple matter. Correcting for neninear respons or changing from 2 lingar to» logaritmic scale are alzo relatively simple arocacures. Most probes output a pulee frequency or a voltage that relate tothe desired parameter by an equation that can easly be Solved using a computer. Data from prabe callbraton can be entered inthe computer to Produce’ a lg n the appropriate environmental units. For example, most neutron logs are recordec In pulses per secon, which can be Eonverted to porosity If proper calibration and standsrdzation data are avaiable. Other logs that might be computed from raw eigtal Sata are ‘ferential temperature, acoustic veloc from transit time, and acoustic reflectivity oF acoustic caliper 4EGamma__2€Ganma__oM Gamma ° Sse Neuton™? ° 2eNeuwon? ? saa Newod? Too 2000 7,000 2800 7000 2.800 “Tala Bouders Racine Formation Dalesione Teloviewer Log Shows, many Bedding Piane Fractures or Paine -30 ee GS ams ‘Argilaceous Oolostene Rankates Formation — ‘Agllacoous Oslosone Bedding Plane and Vertical Fractures wood Formation Depth, m -60 Ccherty Dolostone ‘Visti Formation 2 F Dolomtie Marstone Brainard Rms ee Shale Sooo eae ‘Seales Formation Sily Shale -120 Figure 2. Computer plat of gamma and neutron log of three test nol in the Chicago area, showing stratigraphic corration based on logs and Tisaloay ‘A computer is ideally sulted for correcting logs and plosting them wit cllorated scales. Dapth correction raqured ona large number of logs, and It can be carried out at tne same time the computer is being used to make the fst plot of agiized data. The most common correction neaded is a consistent depth shit forthe entire log to make It corelate with oter logs of the same well or with core dat, But ‘Stretching of part of @ lag can also be carried out. Another important technique for log analysis Is the compute plotting of data obtained from logs against data from other logs, core analyses, oF tests, The technique most used isthe eross plot, whicn compares the response of two diferent logs. A cross pot of trarsit time from the acoustc-velocy log versus poresity from the neviron log, callrated for limestone, is given In fgure 4, Date were plotted from sigtized ommercial logs of Macison test well No.1 drilled by the U.S. Gaclogical Survey in Wiyering. The calbraben lines labeled sandstone, limestone, and dolomite were obtained from a plot Ina book of log itarpretaton ts provide by the company that dd te logging. These ow logs inalcate tat swo major rock types are in the interval potted mestore and dolomite. The group of pants tothe rignt.o the dolomite line inleates secondary porosity In te dolomite. Another kind af cross pot that can be made Using a computer Is llutated in igure 5. The Plot shows @ third tog variable plotted on the Z-axis as 9 function of the neuron log response. Ths is the same rock sequence shown in Figures 2 and 3.” When the figure is plotes In color or eisplayee ono calor monitor, the ors in the center track are the same color as the hps:tarchive.epa govleslarcive-goophysicsiwebimligenera_in-hole_procedures ht28017 General i-Hole Procedures | Ervirormental Geophysics | US EPA, areas on the cross pt repraserting various Iithlogic units, and the neutron log response Is shown by colors. The numerical values inthe plot Fepresert the neutron log values, 20 Depth, 20 20 120 Figure 2, Cross section of four test holes in te Chicago area showing correlation enhanced by computer shading between gamma and ngucion logs. izing Logs Geophysical gs may be aigtized at the well while they re belng run oF subsequently from the analog record. Onsite eigtizing Is the mast fsccurate and least expensive; with computers now on some logging trucks, realsime processing of the data may be carrled out. Orsite ‘itizing sso provides backup for recovery of eata that sre lost on te anélog recorder becauae of incorrect selection of scales. Of-scole {etlections lost from the analog recorcer willbe available from the digital record. Some systems permit immeciate playback ofthe digital Fecord to the analog recarder with adjustment ofboth horizontal and vertical scales, Some probes transmt igtal information to the surface Bnd others eransmit analog data that are dighized atthe surface. There are advantages and Geadvantages to both systems bus reqarless of Which s used logs should be ciotized while dein run._For mast logs, Its recommenced thatthe dat ies be made avalable tothe user in ‘ASCL format because it can be read and reformatted easly by mast computers," Some log data, such as acouste waveforms and tsleviewer logs, are aigized in ater formats Nextron LinestonePorosty, + Figure 4. Cross plot of acoustic transit time versus neutron porosity, Masison limestone test well No. 1, Wyoming, Semple interval and sample time need to be correctly selected for onsite digitizing of logs. Sample intervals of 0.18 m are used widely in both the petroleum industry and in grouncwater hydrology; however, for detailee engineering and environmental Investigations, intervals as small 35 0,03 m are often used. If toe many samples ofthe cata are recorded, some samples can later be erased, and Hey canbe averaged or Smocthed; if not enough samples are recorced, neeced information may be lest. Sample Eme is the durazon of time over which a single ample is eorded, ‘Sample tme may be milliseconds (ms) or less for analog voltages, but may be sor longer for pulee signa from & ruclear-logging probe. Digital data may be print, plated, or csplayea on 2 computer mantar while the og is being run. An analog dsplay Inreal time is needed because watching a lag develop Is one of the best ways fo avola major error in logging and ta optimize prabe and data utp configuration Information onthe dlgta record shouldbe iste on the tog heading ofthe analog plot. This lntormation includes the label onthe recording medium, file number, sample interval, time, dept inlerval recorded, and any calbration Information erlinen to the digital record hps:tarchive.epa govleslarcive-goophysicsiwebimligenera_in-hole_procedures ht28017 General i-Hole Procedures | Ervirormental Geophysics | US EPA, Compensated Density Floure 5. Three-cimensional "Z-pot” of gamma, censty, and neutron log response ofa test hole Inthe Chicago area. Although office digitizing of analog records is expensive and time-consuming, no ather choice may exist for ad logs. Becsuse ofthe traning needed to cigitze logs correcy, particularly multicurve commercal logs, batter anc lass expensive results usually are ebtained from 3 ompany specialzing In agitzing geophysical logs. To have logs agtszed commercially, certain specficators or Instructons must be proviced to the company with the purchase order” The types of logs to be dtized must be sted, along with the specie curve en each lg, the depth Interval, the sample interval, and vertical and norizntal scales, it editing of log i tobe cone, It must be spected, but usually this should be done by the user. Th adtion te specying the computer-competble recording medium, the user can request a printout of al dial data ang ‘heck pots of the logs, TF the check plots are onthe same scale as the orginal they can be overlaid to very the accuracy of etizing, Borehole effects ‘he manner in which 2 test hole or well is eile, competed, and tested has 2 significant effect on geophysical logs made in that well (Hodges tnd Taatdale, 1993), One ofthe objectives of loging ls to obtain undisturbed values for such rock properties as porosity, bulk canst, Bcouste veloc, and resistivity, butte driling process disturbs the rack near the dill hole to varying degrees, though a number of ‘ferent types of togang probes are calles borehole compensated or borehole corrected, al probes are affected by the borehole to some ftegree. Borehole effects on geophysical logs ean be civided nto these produced by the ériling Muids, mid eake, borehole ameter, and well Constrtion techniques, All procedures can be controlled to produce beter loge, Th some stations, it may be Cost affective to il two Moles lose together, the first designed to optimize logging, and the second cored in the depth intervals suggested by those logs, Even if drilig and {completion techniques are beyond contro, ther effect on log response can be reduced by proper probe selection and an understanding of borenole eects All cil les, excapt tose drilled in vary hard rocks like granite, have thin intervals where hole diameter exceeds bit size sufiianily to cause anomalous log response. From the standpoint cf log analysis, the best procedure Isto net consider those depth intervals that demonstrate Siametar changes that are significant with respect to the Mole dlametar response ofthe logging tol “The diference between a rotary-drileé hole and @ nearby core hole in an ares where the sedimentary rocks change very Ite ever great distances is shown in fgure 6. The core hole was ile very slowiy, with considerable circulation of dling mud to maximize core recovery: Core recovery was close to 100% In these wel-cemented mudstones, sandstones, anryerte, and dolomite, The coring procedure caused Signifeant variations in borehole clameter, pally because of soluton of halte cement and veins during the lengthy eriling process, which inluded numerous trips with te core Barrel, The core hele produced some very poor quality logs. The rotary role wae dled very rapidly £2 minimize hole clameter changes. Although increases in hol diameter occurred atthe same depths in bath holes, te range of ciametar was much greater in te core hele. Stratigrapnic corelaton can be dane with caliger logs in nis area because hole glameter cnanges are closely Felates to rock type. the very sharp dafiactions just above 60m are the result of the solution of hata veine. “he vary rugose interval bslow ‘90 m probably Is the result of thneBedded layers of annydrite and mudstone Depth from Land Surface, m 120 i015 2025 30 38 Hole Diameter, em hps:tarchive.epa govleslarcive-goophysicsiwebimligenera_in-hole_procedures ht28017 General i-Hole Procedures | Ervirormental Geophysics | US EPA, Figure 6. Effect of dling technique on hole diameter. Holes are close together in an area of persistent Ithology, Upper Brazos River basin, “The hyerostatic pressure of the fllé column ' an Important factor in preventing caving in poorly consoldated materials. This same pressure can cause invasion ofan aguter by the mus filtrate and the development af after cake or mud eake on the wall of the hale. Mull cake may Feduce permeability and, tus, chenge results obtained from various Mw lagging devices. The thickness of mud caxe often Is related to the permeability and porosity of the rocks penetrated. Tovasion by cling Muids may change the conductivity ofthe pore water and reduce porosity and permeability Inthe vicinity of the eril hole. Hyrule fractures can be Induced in hard rocks by overpressure during dling. One technique tats avallable for determining the extent of alteration of rock and lid properties adjacent tothe borehole is the use of cifferent, spacing between source and detecor In acouste or nuclear probes or between electrodes In resistivity probes. Longer spacing usually increases the volume of investigation cr nereases the percentage of the signal that I derived from material farther from the il ole, The ‘casing, cement, and gravel pack alse have substantial effects on log acter. Well completion logs are designed specically to provide Information on the loeston and acter of easing and annclar materials, operation of Equipment 1 maximum benefit is to be obtained from an in-house logger that Is purchased or rented an a long-term basis, an operator needs to be trainee ane assigned sole responsibility for the maintenance and repel ofthat Unt, Logging equipment used by a number of people without adequate vairing and experience will have Figher repair costs ard more downtime than equlpment assigned to one experienced perso. he larger logging service companies are base almost entirely on ol wll operations; smaller companies rely mesly on environmental, engineering, water wells, or mineral exploration holes. Oil well logging equipment is larger and, therefore, more expensive, so that the costs- per-meter of log are much higher. Ol well logging probes may be too large for some environmental or engineering test holes, and a large dill Fig is needed on the hole to suspend the upper fogging sheave. A number of smaller local compares specialize In logging shallawer, smaller ‘diameter test holes or wes; some drillers awn their own loging equipment. The smaller equpmant ned by these companies may not include all the logging teewiques avellable from the commereal service companies, Depth ges, standby lime, and mileage costs wil be lower for these small companies, but trey may not have the cllration facties common tothe larger companies. The low bidder may not provide ‘quality data, so preaf of aby t perform should be requred, and a writen quality assurance and quality control program shouldbe fellowed ‘The total cost of commercial logging may be affiut forthe inexperienced to calulate from pricelist, Because of the various unit costs Invelved. ‘Depth and azeration ges usually are listed per foot, and a minimum depth 's specified. Mileage gos usualy prevall over 250 km (G50 miles) per roundtrip. The price of logging on environmental projects may be base on the following daly service ge 2) Footage ges. b) Mobilization. ©) Need for special hesitn an safety measures or training 8) Equipment decontamination. ©) Probe and cable loss insurance Crew per ciem, 9) Any reports, spacial processing, or data processing required he wall nea to be ready for logging when the equipment arrives because standby ges are relatively high, The customer ie require to sign an agreement before any logging is ore, stating that he assumes ful responsibilty forthe cost of any probes that are lost, the cost of all fishing operations for lost probes, and the cost of any damage tothe well I a radioactive sauce is lost, Fshing Is required by law, and the well must be cemented up ifthe source is not recovered. The use of radiosctve sources Feqares a written agreement, which must Be aderessed inthe logging contrac. ‘Quality Controt Control ofthe qualty oF geophysical logs recorded at the wall site Is the responsibilty ofall concern from the organization providing the logs to the analyst interpreting ther; the ultmate responsibility les with the profesional who ordered and accepted the logs. No widely accepted standara or gulelins for log quality corral exis at present; however, ASTM is presently working on set of guidelines. Neither Private logging companies nar government loging organizations acca responsibilty for the accuracy of the data recorced. fAgreaments Egned prior to tagging by commercial companies usually indlude @ iclaimer regareing the accuracy of the log data; therefore, the customer needs to assure that ie best practices are followed. To abtain tne most useful data, the logging program needs to be ciscussed early inthe Plonning process witha local representative of the organization tha wil do the logging A geoscientist who understands the project objectives and the local geohydelogy needs to be Inthe logging truck during the entire operation. ‘The observer firs will specify the order in which the logs willbe run, Usvally fluid loge wil be run fia, the fh in sh well has had time to reach equlibrium. Nuclear logs always wil be run last, or through cil stm if necessary, to reduce the possibilty of losing a radioactive ource. The observer usually makes preliminary interpretation ofthe loge as they come ff the recarcer, Based an Immatiate analyst, Feruns can be requested f problems on the logs can be demonstrated. So many factors must be remembered by the observer to help control the qalty of logs that mary major oll companies provide a quay control checklist. Log headings that have blarks for @ complete set of well and tog dota alsa can serve as partial quay cootral ehecslists. Incomplete log headings may prevent quantitative analysis of logs anc moke ‘uattative analysis much mare dieu, Copies of eital date and eld prits of all age, nclosing repeat runs, and Feld calibration oF Standarcization shouldbe left withthe project manager befere the logging equipment leaves the site, These data should be checked by a ‘qualified person to determine If its complete and withous obvious problems before the logging equipment leaves Log headings may be divided into two basic sections: information on the wel, and éata pertaining to the logging equipment and operations. ‘The completed heading needs to be attached tothe analog record Inthe Nel A short reference tothe leg heazing Informabon ered on the digital recording of eacn log enables the two records to be related, Thi reference will clude te fllowing Information, te a minimum: hole umber, date, log type, and run number. Tha format of a log neading Is pot Impartans; the information is essental ‘The well nfermation section of the heading must contain al af the following, if avaiable 8) Well pame and numbers b) Location township, range, Section, distance from neerest town, ete Owner 4) bailar, whan drills, dling technique, and drilled dep hps:tarchive.epa govleslarcive-goophysicsiwebimligenera_in-hole_procedures ht 1828017 General i-Hole Procedures | Ervirormental Geophysics | US EPA, ° 1 Height f easing above lan surface. 9) Depth reference. 1) Complete cescription of all casing, type, size, and depth intervals 1) Lweation of cement, Bentonite, perforations, and screens. J) riled size(s) (orbit size) an depth intervals k) Fluid type, level, resistivity, ond temperature “The log information section of a heading will contain ferent information for each type of lo, although the same heading can be used for simar logs. The fllowing Information Is neaded onthe heading for each log 2) Type of, run (__of _), date b) Number or description of logging truck ©) Loaging operator(s), observes. ©) Probe umber and deserpen ~neeng ame, type, ester), Spang cetraled or decetralne, source ype and ©) Lopning spec. Logging scales - vertical (depth) and horizontal, Including all changes and depths at which tey were made 9) Recorder scales - millvlts (span) and psitioning 1h) Mocule or panel settings - scale, span, position, time constant, discrimination. 1) Power supply - vorage, current J) Callbration and standardization data - pre and postlogcigtal values recorded on heading and analog postions on logs. ) stall other tags of the weil run on the same date. Also briefly describe all prblems or any unusual response during logging mark atthe epproprate Sept) on the log cal ration and Standardization Logs need to be propery calibrated and standardize If logs are tobe used for any type of quantitative analyss or used to measure changes in 2 groundwater system wit ime. Calloraton is consicered tobe the process of estalishing environmental values for log response in 8 emlsnfinite model that closely simulates natural condone. Environmental units are celated to tre physical properties ef the rock, such a= porosity or acoustic veloety. Probe output may be recorded in units, suchas pulses per second, whieh can be converted to environmental Units with callraten data. Callration pits or madels are mainained by te larger commercial service companies; these are not ready Bvalable for use by ether groups, The American Petroleum Institute maintains & limestone calibration pt for neutron probes, »simuated Shale pit for ealibrating gamma probes, and a pit for calbrating gamma spectral probes atthe University of Houston; these have been fccepted internationally as tne stoncerds for oll well logging. renal that have Been carefully cored, where the cores nave been analyze ‘quantitatively, also may be used to calibrate logging probes. To reduce depth errors, core recovery in calibration poles needs to approach 100% for the itarvals cored, and log resporse can be used to elect samples for laboratory analyses. Because ofthe possiblity of capt errors in both core and logs, and of bod-thickress errors, samples need tobe Selected in thicker unis, where log respensa does not vary much. Tes advisable to have @ well for periodic logging to determine I log response Is consistent. A core hole Is excell for this purpose Standardization isthe proces of checking response ofthe logging probes inthe fel, usually before and after lgging. Standardization uses Some type of a portable Meld standara tht usally is ot infinite and may not silate environmental conditions. Frequent standarczaton of Drabes provides te boss for correcting for system drift in autout mith ime ang Tor recognizing ather equipment problems. The frequency of fog standardation should be related to project objectives. Tf accurate data re needed, standardization shouls be more requ. “The pages found under Surface Methods and Borehole Methods are substantially based on a report produced by the United states Department of Transportation Wightman, W. £, Jalinoas, F,, Sirles, P, and Hanna, K. (2003). “Application of Geophysical Methods to Highway Related Problems.” Federal Highway Adminietration, Central Federal Lands Highway Division, Lakewood, CO, Publication No, FHWA-IF- (04-021, September 2003. bitp://wwrw.cflhd.aov resources /aamn/ hps:tarchive.epa govleslarcive-goophysicsiwebimligenera_in-hole_procedures ht a