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<div class="container container-ia">
<a name="maincontent" id="maincontent"></a>
<h1>
Full text of "<a href="/details/Merlin_816_Macro_Assembler_Manual">Merli
n 816 Macro Assembler Manual</a>"
</h1>
<h2 class="pull-right">
<small><a href="/details/Merlin_816_Macro_Assembler_Manual">See other fo
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<pre>Merlin 8/16
The Complete Macro Assembler System
For the Apple* llgs, 128K lie and He

Hype file;
L-Lcck files
IBnlock files
D-Delete files
E-Exhune files
Hsnfy files
R-Ranane files
TAG-Menu change
S-Sort directory
f-Chsnpe file date
/-Create directory
ll-Shou voiuna rsses
B-Toggle ball j nou OH
P-T039 J e prompting, nc

L laid jirw
Di<t nwair.il
F Full rcrsf^ liitor
Swi t^Kl :le .
U mliin wm
9 C-Jtt

PUBLISHING .'INC.

Merlin 8/16
Complete Macro Assembler System
For the Apple Ilgs and 128K He/He

by Glen Bredon

Manual by Roger Wagner and Tom Bums

Produced by:
Roger Wagner Publishing, Inc.
1050 Pioneer Way, Suite P
El Cajon, California 92020
Customer Service & Technical Support:
619/442-0522

ISBN 0-927796-28-7
1M188

Customer Licensing Agreement

The Roger Wagner Publishing, Inc. software product that you have just received
from Roger Wagner Publishing, Inc., or one of its authorized dealers, is provide
d to
you subject to the Terms and Conditions of the Software Customer Licensing
Agreement. Should you decide that you cannot accept these Terms and Conditions,
then you must return your product with all documentation and this License marked
"REFUSED" within the 30 day examination period following the receipt of the
product
1. License. Roger Wagner Publishing, Inc. hereby grants you upon your receipt
of this product, a nonexclusive license to use the enclosed Roger Wagner
Publishing, Inc. product subject to the terms and restrictions set forth in this
License Agreement.
2. Copyright. This software product, and its documentation, is copyrighted by
Roger Wagner Publishing, Inc. You may not copy or otherwise reproduce the
product or any part of it except as expressly permitted in this License.
3. Restrictions on Use and Transfer. The original and any backup copies of this
product are intended for your personal use in connection with a single computer.
You may not distribute copies of, or any part of, this product without the expre
ss
written permission of Roger Wagner Publishing, Inc.
Limitations of Warranties and Liability
Roger Wagner Publishing, Inc. and the program author shall have no liability or
responsibility to purchaser or any other person or entity with respect to liabil
ity,
loss or damage caused or alleged to be caused directly or indirectly by this sof
tware,
including, but not limited to any interruption of service, loss of business or
anticipatory profits or consequential damages resulting from the use or operatio
n of
this software. Some states do not allow the exclusion or limitation of implied
warranties or liability for incidental or consequential damages, so the above
limitation or exclusion may not apply to you.
ProDOS and DOS 3.3 are copyrighted programs of Apple Computer, Inc. licensed
to Roger Wagner Publishing, Inc. to distribute for use only in combination with
Merlin 8/16.
APPLE COMPUTER, INC. MAKES NO WARRANTIES, EITHER EXPRESS
OR IMPLIED, REGARDING THE ENCLOSED COMPUTER SOFTWARE
PACKAGE, ITS MERCHANTABILITY OR ITS FITNESS FOR ANY
PARTICULAR PURPOSE. THE EXCLUSION OF IMPLIED WARRANTIES
IS NOT PERMITTED BY SOME STATES. THE ABOVE EXCLUSION MAY
NOT APPLY TO YOU. THIS WARRANTY PROVIDES YOU WITH
SPECIFIC LEGAL RIGHTS. THERE MAY BE OTHER RIGHTS THAT YOU
MAY HAVE WHICH VARY FROM STATE TO STATE.

Copyrights

The Merlin 8/16 documentation and software are copyrighted 1987 by Roger
Wagner Publishing, Inc. This documentation and/or software, or any part thereof,
may not be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording, storage in an information retrieval system, o
r
otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
We have tried our best to give you a quality product at a fair price, and made t
he
software copy able for your personal convenience. Please recommend our product t
o
your friends, but respect our wishes to not make copies for others. Thanks!
Apple, ProDOS, and DOS 3.3 are trademarks or Apple Computer, Inc.
Merlin 8/16 is a trademark of Roger Wagner Publishing, Inc.
About the Manual
This manual was formatted using MacAuthor from Icon Technology, Ltd, 9 Jarrom
Street, Leicester LE2 7DH, England, and Apple's LaserWriter printer.
OUR GUARANTEE
This product carries the unconditional guarantee of satisfaction or your money b
ack.
Any product may be returned to place of purchase for complete refund or
replacement within thirty (30) days of purchase if accompanied by the sales rece
ipt
or other proof of purchase.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Glen Bredon is a professor at Rutgers University in New Jersey where he has taug
ht mathematics for
over twenty years. He purchased his first computer in 1979 and began exploring i
ts internal operations
because "I wanted to know more than my students." The result of this study was M
erlin, the first in a
series of best selling assemblers (Merlin, Merlin Pro, Merlin 64, and Merlin 128
) for the Apple and
Commodore personal computers. Glen has also written other utilities including Pr
osel, the popular
ProDOS program selector. A native Calif omian and concerned environmentalist, Gl
en spends his
summers away from mathematics and computing, preferring the solitude of the Sier
ra Nevada mountains
where he has helped establish wilderness reserves.

r
r
r
i
!

MERLIN 8/16

Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION
System Requirements 1
Suggested Reading 2
Making Back-up Copies of Merlin 8/16 3
Personalizing Merlin 8/16 4
GETTING STARTED WITH MERLIN 8/16
Entering a Source Listing 5
Editing a Source Listing 8
Assembling a Source Listing 9
Saving Programs 12
Running Programs 14
The Rest of This Manual . , 16
THE MAIN MENU
The Main Menu f 17
THE MERLIN 8 EDITOR
Merlin 8 Full Screen Editor Commands 23
Merlin 8 Control Key Commands , . 24
Merlin 8 Open Apple Key Commands 27
Merlin 8 Editor Command Summary 33
Merlin 8 Command Mode , , 36
General Guidelines for the Command Mode . 36
About the Merlin 8 Editor Documentation , 36
Command Mode Commands Ii( 37
Assembling a Merlin 8 File t . . . t 47
THE MERLIN 16 EDITOR
Merlin 16 Full Screen Editor Commands . . 48
Merlin 16 Control Key Commands .... 48
Merlin 16 Open Apple Key Commands , 52
Merlin 16 Command Box 61
General Guidelines for the Command Box Commands . . . , 61
About the Command Box Documentation ........... 61
Command Box Commands t ;..>..... 63
Merlin 16 Editor Command Summary 70
Assembling a Merlin 16 File 73

THE ASSEMBLER
The Assembler , , * < * , , . , 74
About the Assembler Documentation , . . , . 75
Preliminary Definitions 76
Assembler Syntax Conventions , . , . 77
Source Code Format 77
Local Labels 78
Variables 79
Number Format 80
Expressions Allowed by the Assembler , , . , t , , , , 81
Immediate Data Syntax 83
Addressing Modes 83
Special Forced Non-Zero Page Addressing 85
Sweet 16 Opcodes 85
65C02 and 65802 Opcodes 86
Assembler Pseudo Opcode Descriptions 87
Formatting Pseudo Ops 103
String Data Pseudo Ops 107
Data and Storage Allocation Pseudo Ops 110
Using Data Tables in Programs 113
Conditional Pseudo Ops 1 14
Using Conditional Assembly 1 16
Miscellaneous Pseudo Ops 119
MACROS
Why Macros 127
Macro Pseudo Ops 127
How a Macro Works 128
More About Defining a Macro 133
Nested Macros 134
Macro Libraries and the USE Pseudo-Op 136
THE LINKERS
The Merlin 8/16 Linkers 137
Why a Linker 137
About the Linker Documentation 138
Pseudo Opcodes for Use with Relocatable Code Files 140
The Merlin 8 Linker 144
Linker Name Files 145
The Linking Process 146
Using Merlin 8 Linked Files 147
The Merlin 16 Linkers 150
The Absolute Linker . 151
The Linker Command File 154
Using Merlin 16 Linked Files 155

Multiple Output Files 157

INSIDE THE APPLE IIC - by Gary Little. Brady Communications Co., Bowie, MD 20715
. An
overview of the entire Apple lie system, from the assembly language programmer's
viewpoint.
INSIDE THE APPLE IIGS - Gary Bond, Sybex. Contains a lot of important informatio
n but
by-passes some of the rules for producing code compatible with future system upg
rades.
NOW THAT YOU KNOW APPLE ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE, WHAT CAN YOU DO WITH IT? -
by Jules Guilder, Redlig Systems, Inc., 2068 79th Street, Brooklyn, NY 11214. A
good applications
tutorial with lots of good subroutines for input and output, printer drivers and
more. An excellent
follow-up book to Assembly Lines: The Book.
PROGRAMMING THE 65816 - David Eyes and Ron Lichty, Prentice Hall Press, New York
, NY
10023. In-depth coverage of the differences between the 65816, 6502, 65C02, and
65802 chips and how
to best utilize them from a programming standpoint. Also includes a programming
tutorial, code
samples and a reference section.
/ THE APPLE IIGS TOOLBOX REVEALED - Danny Goodman, Bantam Computer Books. Detail
s the
philosophy of the toolbox and methods of accessing it, but lacks programming exa
mples.
THE ELEMENTARY APPLE IIGS - William B. Sanders, COMPUTE! Books, Greensboro, NC
27408. An introductory book to the Ilgs with information on Applesoft, Hi-Res an
d Super Hi-Res
graphics, and sound on the Ilgs.
65816/65802 ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE PROGRAMMING - by Michael Fischer. Osborne
McGraw-Hill , Berkely, CA 94710. A thorough treatment of the 6502, 65C02, 65802
and 65816
microprocessors. The size of this book (nearly 700 pages) gives you an idea of w
hy this manual for
Merlin 8/16 does not attempt to cover programming on the 6500 family microproces
sors itself.

MAKING BACK-UP COPIES OF MERLIN 8/16

The Merlin 8/16 diskettes are unprotected and copies may be made using any copy
utility. It is highly
recommended that you use only the BACK-UP copy of Merlin 8/16 in your daily work
, and keep the
original in a safe place.
You can copy the Merlin 8/16 diskettes using:
1) The COPYA utility program from Apple's System Master Diskette for the DOS 3.3
version of
Merlin 8/16.
2) The Copy Volume or Duplicate a Diskette function from the ProDOS System Disk
for the ProDOS
versions of Merlin 8/16, or System Utilities program on the Apple IIGS System Ma
ster diskette.

Page 3

Merlin 8/16 User's Manual

PERSONALIZING MERLIN 8/16

Certain aspects of Merlin 8/16, such as printer line width, page length, default
tab positions for the
fields in a source listing, turning off the bell sound, etc., can be customized
by changing the file
PARMS.S on the Merlin 8/16 disk, and re-assembling the PARMS file. If you would
like to change
any of these defaults of Merlin 8/16, see the discussion of the PARMS file in th
e Technical Informatior
section of this manual for details on making the changes. For now, though, we re
commend you wait
until you're more familiar with Merlin 8/16.
Page 4

Merlin 8/16 User's Manual

Getting Started

GETTING STARTED WITH MERLIN 8/16

The purpose of this section is not to provide instruction in assembly language p
rogramming. Rather, it
will show you the entry and running of a short assembly language program to give
you an idea of how
Merlin 8/16 works.
Many of the Merlin 8/16 commands and functions are very similar in operation. Th
is section does not
attempt to present demonstrations of each and every command option. The objectiv
e is to present
examples of the more common operations, sufficient to get you started writing yo
ur own programs
using Merlin 8/16. You should not expect to immediately use all of the various c
ommands that Merlin
8/16 supports in your first program. The best approach is to use the Merlin 8/16
manual in an
encyclopedia-like fashion, reading just those sections that provide some utility
to a current
programming task. We suggest that you lightly skim through the manual once, to b
ecome aware of
generally what the software has to offer, and then return later to specific sect
ions as needed.
ENTERING A SOURCE LISTING
Now, let's try your first program with Merlin 8/16. Just follow these steps:
1. Start any of the Merlin 8/16 disks (ProDOS or DOS 3.3). A title screen appear
s, after which the
screen changes to the Main Menu. The Main Menu is used for loading and saving fi
les, disk
operations, and of course, entering the Merlin 8/16 Editor and Assembler itself.

2. The percent (%) prompt appears at the bottom of the Main Menu. Press F if you
are using Merlin
16. If you are using Merlin 8, press E to go the Editor, then A and Return to en
ter the Add Mode.
3. Since we are entering an entirely new program, a 1 appears at the top right c
omer of the screen.
This number indicates the line the cursor is on in the listing. The 1 and all su
bsequent line numbers
which appear serve roughly the same purpose as line numbers in BASIC except that
in assembly
source code, line numbers are not referenced for jumps to subroutines or in GOTO
-like statements.
4. On line 1, type an asterisk (*). Entering an asterisk as the first character
in any line is similar to a
REM statement in BASIC - it tells the assembler this is a remark line and anythi
ng after the asterisk
is to be ignored. Type the title DEMO PROGRAM 1 after the asterisk and press the
Return key.
* DEMO PROGRAM 1
5. After Return, the cursor moves to the beginning of line 2.
6. An asterisk is not needed to just create a blank line. To create a blank line
, with no text following
it, press Return again.
7. The cursor once again drops down one line, and a 3 appears at the top right c
omer of the screen.

Page 5

Merlin 8/16 User's Manual

Getting Started

8. Press the space bar once and the cursor moves to the next field. Type ORG, pr
ess space again, type
$8000 and then press Return.
* DEMO PROGRAM 1
ORG $8000
The above step instructs the assembler to create the following program so that i
t can run at memory
location $8000. Merlin 8/16 almost always assembles your program in the same pla
ce in memory, but
the ORG (for Origin) is used to tell Merlin 8/16 where you want the program to e
ventually be run.
This is so that JMPs, JSRs and other location dependent code within your program
is properly written
with the final location in mind.
You'll notice that when you press the space bar, Merlin 8/16 automatically moves
the cursor to the next
field on the line. You'll recall that in assembly language programming, the posi
tion of text on each line
determines what kind of information it is. Labels for routines and entry points
are in the first position.
On line 3 you skipped this field by pressing the space bar first, before enterin
g any text. The second
position is for the command itself. The command can either be a command such as
LDA, RTS, etc., or
it can be a directive to Merlin 8/16 itself, to be used during the assembly to w
rite a file to disk, create a
label, call up a macro, or any of Merlin 8/16's many assembler commands.
9. With the cursor at the beginning of line 4, type BELL and space to the next f
ield, type EQU and
space again, then type $FBDD and press Return.
BELL EQU $FBDD
This defines the label BELL to be equal to hex FBDD. This use of a label is know
n as an equate or
constant. Wherever BELL appears in an expression, it will be replaced with $FBDD
. Why don't we
just use $FBDD? For one thing, BELL is easier to remember than $FBDD. Also, if a
later assembly
required changing the location of BELL, all that needs changing is the EQU state
ment, rather than all
the other $FBDD's throughout the listing.
10. At the beginning of line 5, type START and press space, type JSR and space a
gain, type BELL and
another space, then type a semicolon (;) followed by RING THE BELL and then pres
s Return.
START JSR BELL ; RING THE BELL
Following the opcode is the operand, in this case BELL. The operand is the targe
t information of
the opcode. Where to JSR to, what value to load, etc.
Semicolons are like asterisks, used to mark a comment. Semicolons, however, are
used to mark the
start of a comment at the end of a line that contains other commands.
1 1. On line 6 type DONE and space, then type RTS and press Return.

Page 9

Merlin 8/16 User's Manual

Getting Started

2a. The Merlin 16 screen appears as follows:

Assembling

=FBDD
008000 20 DD FB
008003 60

DEMO PROGRAM 1

BELL
START
DONE

ORG
EQU
JSR
RTS
$8000
$FBDD
BELL

RING THE BELL

End Merlin-16 assembly, 4 bytes, errors: , symbol table: $1800-$181D

Symbol table - alphabetical order:
BELL =$FBDD ? DONE =$8003 ? START =$8000
Symbol table - numerical order:
? START =$8000 ? DONE =$8003 . BELL =$FBDD
Press a key.

2b. The Merlin 8 screen appears as follows:

Assembling

8000 20 DD FB
8003 60

* DEMO PROGRAM 1

BELL
START
DONE

ORG $8000
EQU $FBDD
JSR BELL
RTS

End assembly, 4 bytes, Errors:

Symbol table - alphabetical order:
BELL =$FBDD ? DONE =$8003
Symbol table - numerical order:
? START =$8000 ? DONE =$8003

RING THE BELL

START =$8000

BELL

=$FBDD

Page 10

Merlin 8/16 User's Manual

Getting Started

If instead of completing the above listing, the system beeps and displays an err
or message, note the line
number referenced in the message, and press Return until the "End assembly..." m
essage appears. Then
refer back to the section where the program was first entered and compare the li
sting with the one shown
in this manual. Look especially for elements in incorrect fields. Using the edit
ing functions you've
learned, change any lines in your listing which do not look like those in the li
sting, then assemble
again.
If all went well, to the right of the column of line numbers down the middle of
the screen is the now
familiar, formatted source code.
To the left of the line numbers is a series of numeric and alphabetic characters
. This is the object code,
which are the opcodes and operands assembled to their machine language hexadecim
al equivalents.
Merlin 16 example:
008000 20 DD FB 5 START JSR BELL ;ring the bell
Merlin 8 example:
8000 20 DD FB 5 START JSR BELL ;ring the bell
Left to right, starting on line 5, the first group of characters is the routine'
s starting address in memory.
See the definition of ORG in the section on the Assembler. On the left of line 5
, the number 20
appears after the colon. This is the one-byte hexadecimal code for the opcode JS
R.
NOTE: The label START is not assembled into object code; neither are comments, r
emarks, or
pseudo-ops such as ORG. Such elements are for the convenience and utility of the
programmer only
and the use of the assembler program.
Each pair of hexadecimal digits is one byte. The next two bytes on line 5 bear a
curious resemblance to
the last group of characters on line 4; have a look. In line 4 of the source cod
e we told the assembler
that the label BELL was EQUated to address $FBDD. In line 5, when the assembler
encountered BELL
as the operand, it substituted the specified address. The sequence of the high-
and low -order bytes was
reversed, turning $FBDD into DD FB. This is a 65xx microprocessor convention.
The rest of the information presented should explain itself. The total errors en
countered in the source
code was zero. If you count the bytes following the addresses, you'll see there
were four bytes of object
code generated.

RENAME

old pathname,new pathname

SLOT

slot number

(set new slot # used by PFX= command)

UNLOCK

pathname

A disk command returns to the disk command mode. You can then issue another disk
command or just
press Return to go back to the Main Menu.

Bload, Brun and -

Bload, Brun and "-" accept both BIN and SYS files. In Merlin 8, the difference b
etween Brun and "-"
is in the state of the softswitches when control is passed to the program. Brun
leaves Merlin 8 up;
that is, auxiliary zero page and language card RAM are selected. The "-" command
switches in the
Page 19

Merlin 8/16 User's Manual

Main Menu

main zero page and the $D000-$FFFF ROMs. In Merlin 16, Brun and "-" act the same
and both
switch in the main zero page and the $D000-$FFFF ROMs. Using an RTS from such a
program
will return to Merlin 8/16. Most of the utility programs supplied with Merlin 8/
16 such as
Sourceror, XREF, etc. can be run by either method. You cannot use Brun to run pr
ograms such as
the ProDOS FILER. In addition, such programs do not return to Merlin 8/16 and th
e /RAM/
volume is left disconnected by this procedure.
Online
This command scans all attached disk devices, including RAM disks and hard disks
, and reports each
volume name. This is handy for identifying the volume name of all available ProD
OS disk devices.
Pfx, Prefix
If you are not sure of the volume or subdirectory pathname, you can type PFX= or
PFX=1 to
specify Slot 6, Drive 1, or PFX=2 for Slot 6, Drive 2.
When Prefix or Pfx is entered without a pathname, this command sets the prefix t
o the volume part
of the current prefix. For example, if the current prefix is /MERLIN/LIB and you
type Pfx and
press Return at the disk command prompt, the prefix will revert to /MERLIN.
Pop
Typing POP as a disk command "pops" the directory level in the current prefix by
one level. For
example, if the current prefix was "/MERLIN. 16/SAMPLES/GRAPHICS", typing POP wo
uld
change the prefix to "/MERLIN. 16/SAMPLES".
Slot
Slot is used to set the slot which subsequent PFX= commands will use to set the
prefix from. That
is to say, it does not itself set the prefix to a given slot, but rather identif
ies which constant slot
future PFX= commands will use. For example, the following steps would set a pref
ix to that of the
disk in a specified slot:
1) Press D for Disk Command, then type Online. This will help remind you know wh
ich slots,
drives, and pathnames are currently active. (This is an optional step).
2) While still at the Disk Command prompt, type Slot n where 'n' is the desired
slot and press Return.
3) At the Disk Command prompt type PFX=n where 'n' is the desired drive number a
nd press Return.
4) Finally, press Return alone at the prompt. Note that the Prefix now shows the
pathname of the
specified slot and drive. Simply put, typing the Disk Commands Slot 5 then PFX=
will set the prefix to slot 5.

Page 20

Merlin 8/16 User's Manual

Main Menu

E (Enter Editor/Assembler - Merlin 8 only)

F (Enter Full Screen Editor/Assembler - Merlin 16 only)
This command places you in the Editor/Assembler mode. It automatically sets the
default tabs for the
editor to those appropriate for source files.
NOTE: If you wish to use the editor to edit an ordinary (non-source) text file,
you can type TABS and
press Return to zero all tabs, once you are in the Editor.
O (Save Object Code)
This command is valid only after the successful assembly of a source file. In th
is case you will see the
address and length of the object code on the menu. As with the source address, t
his is given for
information only.
NOTE: The object address shown is the program's ORG (or $8000, bank 0, by defaul
t) and not that
of the actual current location of the assembled code, which is ordinarily $8000
in auxiliary memory.
When using this command, you are asked for a name for the object file. Unlike th
e Save Source
command, no suffix will be appended to this filename.
Thus you can safely use the same name as that of the source file since the .S wi
ll not be appended to
the filename. When this object code is saved to the disk its address will be the
correct one, i.e., the one
shown on the menu. Then when you Bload or Brun it, the program will load at that
address, which can
be anything ($300, $8000, etc).
R (Read Text File - DOS 3.3 Merlin 8 only)
This reads text files into Merlin 8. They are always appended to the current buf
fer. To clear the buffer
and start fresh, type NEW in the editor. If no file is in memory, the name given
will become the
default filename. The Append command is similar, but does not change the default
filename.
When the read is complete, you are placed in the Editor. If the file contains li
nes longer than 255
characters, these will be divided into two or more lines by the Read command. Th
e file will be read
only until it reaches HIMEM, and will produce an Out Of Memory error if it goes
beyond. Only the
data read to that point will remain.
The Read Text File and Write Text File commands will automatically add a T. pref
ix to the beginning
of the filename you specify unless you precede the filename with a space or any
other character in the
ASCII range of $20 to $40 (%...0...9...?). This character will be ignored and no
t used by DOS in the
actual filename. For example:

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Merlin 8/16 User's Manual

Main Menu

Read File:TEST will read a file called T.TEST

but,
Read File:?TEST will read a file called TEST
If you are trying to read a file called TEST and you get a File Not Found error,
you can also use the
Merlin 8 Catalog/Disk Command to rename the file to T.TEST.
The Read Text File and Write Text File commands are used to load or create PUT f
iles, or to access files
from other assemblers or text editors.
W (Write Text File - DOS 3.3 Merlin 8 only)
This writes a Merlin 8 source file into a text file instead of a binary file. Th
e speed of the Read Text
File and Write Text File commands is approximately that of a standard DOS Bload
or Bsave. The Write
Text File routine does a Verify after the write.
@ (Set Date - ProDOS)
This allows you to set the current date for ProDOS. Note that this option does n
ot set the date on a
clock card. If you have a clock, the date stamping is automatic (provided you ha
ve a Thunderclock or
have installed the proper clock driver). The Set Date provision is intended for
people who do not have a
clock. In that case, you may use this to set the current date and this date will
then be used for date
stamping. You may also just use this to check on the current date. Press Return
alone to exit the Set
Date routine.

Q (Quit - DOS 3.3 Merlin 8 only)

This exits to BASIC. You may re-enter Merlin 8 by typing ASSEM and pressing Retu
rn. This
re-entry will not destroy the source file currently in memory. This exit can be
used to give disk
commands, test machine language programs, run BASIC programs, etc.
Q (Quit - ProDOS)
This exits the Merlin Interpreter. If you launched Merlin 8/16, it will quit to
the program that started
up Merlin 8/16. If you cold started Merlin 8/16, you must specify the prefix for
the next volume name
and then the pathname of the next SYS file. In most cases this will be the BASIC
. SYSTEM
interpreter.

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The Merlin 8 Editor

THE MERLIN 8 EDITOR

There are two modes in the Merlin 8 Editor: the Full Screen Editor, which includ
es all editing
commands, and the Command Mode from which assemblies and other functions are don
e.
From the Merlin 8 Main Menu, you can press E to enter the Command Mode of the Ed
itor. The
Merlin 8 Command Mode is indicated by the colon (:) prompt. No actual editing is
done at this level.
Rather, you can either type a command which will start up the Full Screen Editor
, or you may use a
number of specific Command Mode operations, which are of a general utility natur
e, such as to print a
listing, assemble a file, convert number types, etc.
When you type an editing command such as A to Add etc. from the Command Mode, th
e colon prompt
will disappear and the screen display will change to the Full Screen Editor.
MERLIN 8 FULL SCREEN EDITOR COMMANDS
From the Merlin 8 Main Menu, press E to enter the Command Mode, then A to Add to
source listing.
The current line number is shown at the upper right comer of the screen. To the
left of the line number
is a vertical bar which is the End-of-Line Marker. It indicates the position at
which an assembly listing
will overflow the printer line. You can put characters beyond this mark, but the
y should be for
information only, and will not be printed within a printer listing.
The fields are tabbed, and the arrow keys can be used to move the cursor to the
next tab position.
The Edit Mode commands are divided into two types: Control key commands which ar
e line oriented,
and Open-Apple key commands which are global, i.e. oriented to the entire listin
g. The control key
commands edit text and move the cursor on just the line the cursor is presently
on. Use the
Open- Apple key commands to make changes to groups of lines, or to move about in
the listing. All
editing commands work whether the Full Screen Editor was started up using the Ad
d, Insert or Edit
comands. When you are through editing, press Open-Apple-Q. The line is accepted
as it appears on the
screen, no matter where the cursor is when you exit the Edit Mode.
To get the most out of the Merlin 8 Full Screen Editor, you should keep in mind
that a full screen
editor is like a word processor. That is, any character you type is immediately
entered into whatever
line the cursor is on.
With the Merlin 8 Full Screen Editor, if you can see it on the screen, you can e
dit it, and moving to a
line is a simple matter of using the arrow keys or other special commands to mov
e to the part of the
listing you want to edit. Just remember, when you are using the Full Screen Edit
or, think of yourself
as using a word processor where you can freely scroll to whatever part of the pa
ge you want to edit, and
the final document is just your source listing.

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MERLIN 8 CONTROL KEY COMMANDS

(Line oriented)
Control-B (Beginning of line)
Moves the cursor to the beginning of the line.
Control-D (Delete character)
Deletes the character under the cursor. Also see Delete.

Control-F (Find)
Finds the next occurrence on the current line of the character typed after the C
ontrol-F. The cursor
changes to an inverse F to indicate the Find Mode. To move the cursor to the nex
t occurrence on the
line, press the desired character key again. Typing any other character will exi
t the Find Mode and enter
the text typed at that position.
Control-! or TAB (Toggle insert cursor)
Toggles the cursor mode between the insert cursor designated by an inverse I, an
d overstrike cursor
which appears as an inverse block. The insert mode of the cursor should not be c
onfused with entering
the Full Screen Editor using the Add and Insert commands. The cursor can be in t
he insert mode
regardless of whether lines are being added or inserted. The insert mode of the
cursor refers only to
whether individual characters are being inserted or typed over.
The character insert mode defaults to ON upon entry. When you change it with Con
trol-I, it remains
that way until changed again. Thus, moving from one line to another has no effec
t on this status.
Control-L (Lower case convert)
The Merlin 8/16 PARMS file can be configured so that unless the cursor is in a c
omment or an ASCII
string, lower case characters will be converted to UPPER CASE characters. To ove
rride this conversion,
or to reinstate it, just use the Control-L command. This conversion is also in e
ffect when you use the
Open-Apple-F, Open-Apple-W, or Open-Apple-L find commands to specify the text to
find. Even if
enabled in the PARMS file, this conversion is defeated when the tabs are zeroed.

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The Merlin 8 Editor

Control-N (End of line)

Moves the cursor to the end of the line.
Control-O (Other characters)
This is used as a special prefix key from the Command Mode. For example, if you
wanted to type a
Control-I or an Escape as part of a PRTR initialization string, you would press
Control-O, followed by
the control character you desire. The control character will appear in inverse.
For multiple control
characters, Control-O must be typed before each character is entered.
Control-R (Restore)
This command restores the original line. For example, if you have used Control-Y
to delete all
characters to the end of the line, you can press Control-R to undo the effects o
f the Control-Y
command.
Control-S (Status box)
This command displays a status box showing the number free and used bytes.
Control-T (Set marker on current line - Vertical "Tab")
This command can be used to set a marker at the current line for recall by the O
pen-Apple-T command.
Control-W (Find word)
This command moves the cursor to the beginning of each word in the line (alphanu
meric).
Control-X (Exit global exchange, etc.)
This command can be used to cancel any global exchange, text selection, or strin
g search while it is in
progress.
Control-Y (Delete to end of line)
Deletes all characters from the cursor to the end of the line.

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Merlin 8/16 User's Manual

^Delete (Delete)
This command deletes the line above the cursor and places it in a special 'undo'
buffer which is
independent of the clipboard.
The c5R command replaces the current line wiLh the contents of the 'undo' buffer
. Therefore, you could
use (3 Delete to delete a line, move the cursor to another line, press Return, &
lt;3l or C^Tab to insert a
line, and press (3R to replace that line with the deleted line.
<3TAB (Insert line)
Pressing C5TAB will insert a blank line at the cursor. Also see C$1
C$Down arrow (Move half-screen down)
Moves the cursor down 10 lines; that line then becomes the center line on the sc
reen. This command
has the effect of moving the current line to the top of the screen and then movi
ng the cursor to what
was the bottom line on the screen.
C$Up arrow (move half-screen up)
Moves the cursor up 10 lines; that line then becomes the center line on the scre
en. This command has
the effect of moving the current line to the bottom of the screen and then movin
g the cursor to what
was the 1st line on the screen.

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C58 (Asterisk)
Produces a line of 32 asterisks. Overstrikes existing line, if any. Undo wiiii C
oniral-R.
(59 (Box)
Produces an asterisk, 30 spaces, and then another asterisk. This and the (38 com
mand can be used to
produce a large box for titles and other information. Overstrikes existing line,
if any. Undo with
Control-R.
C5- (Hyphen)
Produces a line of 1 asterisk and 31 hyphens. Overstrikes existing line, if any.
Undo with Control-R.
<3= (Equal sign)
Produces a line of 1 asterisk and 31 equal signs. Overstrikes existing line, if
any. Undo with
Control-R.

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Merlin 8/16 User's Manual The Merlin 8 Edi
MERLIN 8 EDITOR COMMAND SUMMARY
CONTROL KEY COMMANDS (line oriented)
The Control Key commands consist of cursor moves and line oriented commands.

Control-B Moves cursor to beginning of line

Control-C Cancel assembly and return to Command Mode
Control-D Deletes character under the cursor
Control-F Finds next occurrence of next character typed
Control-I Toggles insert and overstrike cursor
Control-L Toggles lower case conversion
Control-N Moves cursor to end of line
Control-0 Prefix key for typing optional characters
Control-R Restores original line
Control-S Displays status box
Control-T Set marker on current line for recall by (3T (vertical "Tab")
Control-W Finds next occurrence of word in line
Control-X Exits global exchange, etc. while in progress
Control-Y Delete characters to end of line
Arrows Moves the cursor in the specified direction
Delete Deletes character to left of cursor
Escape Moves cursor to beginning of next line
Return Moves cursor down and inserts blank line
TAB Toggles insert and overstrike cursor
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The Merlin 8 Editor

OPEN-APPLE KEY COMMANDS (entire listing oriented)

The Open-Apple Key commands are global commands, which means they are generally
oriented to the
whole listing as opposed to just the current line (or a single character).

3B Moves to beginning. Cursor on center line

3D Deletes line and places it in 'undo' buffer
<3E Global Exchange (Search & Replace)
(3F Finds next occurrence of text entered
<3l Inserts blank line at cursor
3L Finds first occurrence of label or line
(3N Moves cursor to end of listing
3Q Returns editor to Command Mode
(3R Swaps current line with 'undo' buffer
<3T Goes to line of last Control-T (go to vertical "Tab")
CiV Pastes contents of clipboard on current line
(3W Finds next occurrence of whole word
3X Start text selection/Cut selected text to clipboard
3Y Selects text from current line to end of file
(3Z Current line becomes center line on screen
(3Delete Deletes line above cursor; puts in 'undo' buffer
<3TAB Inserts a blank line at cursor
<3Down Moves cursor down 10 lines
(3Up Moves cursor up 10 lines
(38 Produces a line of 32 asterisks
39 Produces 1 asterisk, 30 spaces, and 1 asterisk
(3- Produces a line of 1 asterisk followed by 3 1 hyphens
(3= Produces a line of 1 asterisk followed by 3 1 equal signs

Several commands allow specification of a string. The string must be delimited b
y a non-numeric
character other than the slash or comma. Such a string is called a delimited or
d-string. The usual
delimiter is single or double quote marks (' or ").
Delimited string examples:
'this is a delimited string'
"this is a delimited string"
@this is another d-string@
Note that the slash (/) cannot be used as a delimiter since it is the character
that delimits range lists in
the Editor.

Wild Card Characters in Delimited Strings

For all of the commands that use delimited strings or d-strings, the w character
acts as a wild card
character. For example, the d-string 'Jo^s* is equivalent to both 'Jones' and 'J
onas' d-strings.
Upper and Lower Case Control
The shift and caps lock keys work as you would expect. While editing or entering
a line of text you
can also use the Control-L command, described earlier in this section.

COMMAND MODE COMMANDS

Following are the commands recognized by Merlin 8 in the Command Mode of the Edi
tor. The
Command Mode is indicated by the colon prompt (:).

A (Add)
A [ only option for this command ]
The Add command places you in the Full Screen Editor at the end of the existing
source listing if any
Adding lines is much like entering additional BASIC lines with auto line numberi
ng. To exit from
ADD mode, press <3Q.
You may enter an empty line by pressing space then Return. This is useful for vi
sually blocking off
different parts of a listing.

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E (Edit)

Edit (line number)

E 10

[ edits line number 10 ]

This enters the full screen editor, with the cursor on the specified line.

C (Change)
Change (d-string d-string)
Change (line number) <d-string d-string>
Change (range) <d-string d-string>
Change (range list) <d-string d-string>
C "hello"goodbye [ finds "hello" and if told to do so will change it to "goodbye
"]
C 50 "hello"bye [ changes in line 50 only ]
C 50,100 "Hello"BYE [ changes lines 50 through 100 ]
C 50,60/65,66 "AND "OR [ changes in lines 50 through 60 and lines 65 and 66]
This changes occurrences of the first string to the second string. The strings m
ust have the same
delimiters. For example, to change occurrences of speling to spelling throughout
the range 20,100, you
would type C 20,100 "speling "spelling. If no range is specified the entire sour
ce file is used.
Before the change operation begins, you are asked whether you want to change all
or some. If you
select some by pressing the S key, the editor stops whenever the first string is
found and displays the
line as it would appear with the change.
If you then press the Y key, the change will be made. If you press Return, the c
hange will not be
made. Typing any control character such as Escape, Return or any others will res
ult in the change not
being made. Any other key, such as Y or even N, will accept the change. Control
-C or the slash (/)
key will abort the change process.

This copies the line number or range to just above the specified number. It does
not delete anything.

COPY

COPY (line number) TO (line number)

COPY (range) TO (line number)

COPY 10 TO 20 [
COPY 10,20 TO 30 [

[ copies line 10 to just befor line 20 ]

[ copies lines 10 through 20 to just before line 30 ]

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The Merlin 8 Editor

CW (Change word)
Change (d-string d-string)
Change (line numbers) <d-string d-string>
Change (range) <d -string d-string>
Change (range list) <d-string d-string>
CW "PTR'TRT [ change all "PTR"s to "PRT's ]
CW 20 "PTR'TRT [ as above but only in line 20 ]
CW 20,30 "PTR"PRT [ do the same as the above but for lines 20 through 30 ]
CW 1,9/20,30 "PTR"PRT [ same as above but include lines 1 through 9 in the range
]
This works similar to the CHANGE command with the added features as described un
der Find Word
(FW).

D (Delete)
Delete (line number)
Delete (range)
Delete (range list)
D 10 [ deletes line number 10 ]
D 10,32 [ deletes lines 10 through 32 ]
D 20,30/10,12 [ deletes ranges of lines 10 through 12 and 20 through 30 ]
This deletes the specified lines. Unlike BASIC, the line numbers are fictitious;
they change with any
insertion or deletion.
NOTE: When deleting several blocks of lines at the same time, you must specify t
he higher range
first for the correct lines to be deleted.

F (Find)
Find (d-string)
Find (line number) <d-string>
Find (range) <d-string>
Find (range list) <d-string>
F "A String" [ finds lines with "A String" ]
F 10 "STRING" [ finds "STRING" if in line 10]
F 10,20 "HI" [ finds lines in range of 10 through 20 that contain "HI"]
F 10,20/50,99 "HI" [ finds lines that contain "HI" in range of 10 through 20 and

50 through 99 ]

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The Merlin 8 Editor

FIX
FIX [ only option for this command ]
This undoes the effect of the TEXT command. It also does a number of technical h
ousekeeping chores.
It is recommended that FIX be used on all source files from external sources tha
t are being converted to
Merlin 8 source files, after which the file should be saved.
NOTE: The TEXT and FIX commands are somewhat slow. Several minutes may be needed
for their
execution on large files. FIX will truncate any lines longer than 255 characters
.

FW (Find Word)

FW (d-string)
FW (line number) <d-string>
FW (range) <d-string>
FW (range list) <d-string>
FW "LABEL"
FW 20 "LABEL"
FW 20,30 "PTR"
FW 20,30/50,99 "PTR"

[ find all lines with "LABEL" ]

[ try to find "LABEL" in 20 ]
[ find all lines between 20 and 30 that contain "PTR" ]
[ find all lines between 20 and 30 and between 50 and 99 that
contain the word "PTR" ]

This is an alternative to the FIND command. It will find the specified word only
if it is surrounded, in
source, by non-alphanumeric characters.
Therefore, FW "CAT" will find:
CAT
CAT-1
(CAT.X)

but will not find CATALOG or SCAT.

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Merlin 8/16 User's Manual

The Merlin 8 Editor

GET

GET ( obj adrs )

GET [ put object code in Main Memory at the address specified in the
source's ORG ]
GET $4000 [ put object code at location $4000 in Main Memory ]
This command is used to move the object code, after an assembly, from its locati
on in Auxiliary
Memory to its ORG location in Main Memory. The address must be above the existin
g source file, if
any, and it will not be allowed to overwrite DOS. You can do a NEW if you want t
o load it lower in
memory than allowed, but you must remember to save the source first. You cannot
use GET to put
object code at memory locations lower than $901 , but you can go to the Monitor
afterwards and use it
to move the object to any desired location. However, any such move using the Mon
itor may destroy
your source or other data necessary to Merlin 8's operation. Caution should be u
sed.
The GET command does not check if a valid object code has been assembled.
This command is supplied for convenience only. The recommended method for testin
g a program is to
save the source code first, save the object code, and then run the program from
BASIC or with the G
command from the Monitor.
HEX-DEC CONVERSION
128 = $0080
$80 = 128
If you type a positive or negative decimal number in the Command Mode, the hex e
quivalent is
returned. If you type a hex number using the $ prefix, the decimal equivalent is
returned. All
commands accept hex numbers.
L (List)
List
List (line number)
List (range)
List (range list)
L [ list entire file ]
L 2 ( list line 20 only ]
L 20 >30 [ list 20 through 30 ]
L 20,30/40,42 [ list 20 through 30 and then list lines 40 through 42 ]
Lists the source file with line numbers. Control characters in source are shown
in inverse, unless the
listing is being sent to a printer or other non-standard output device.

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The Merlin 8 Editor

The listing can be aborted by Control-C or with the slash (/) key. You may stop
the listing by
pressing space and then advance a line at a time by pressing space again. By hol
ding down space, the
auto-repeat feature of the Apple will result in a slower listing. Any other key
will resume the normal
speed. This space bar technique also works during assembly and the symbol table
printout. Any other
key will restart it. The space bar pause also works during assembly and the symb
ol table printout.
LEN (Length)
LEN [ only option for this command]
This gives the length in bytes of the source file, and the number of bytes free.

MON (Monitor)
MON [ only option with this command ]
This exits to the Monitor. You may return to the Merlin 8 Main Menu by pressing
Control-C,
Control-B, or Control-Y. These commands re-establish important zero page pointer
s from a safe area
inside Merlin 8. Thus Control-Y will give a correct entry even if you have damag
ed the zero page
pointers while in the Monitor. DOS is not connected while using this entry to th
e Monitor.
You may return to the editor directly by typing OG and pressing Return but unlik
e the above
commands, this uses the zero page pointers stored at $0A-$0F. Therefore, you mus
t be sure that these
pointers have not been altered. For normal usage, any of the three Control comma
nds should be used to
return to Merlin 8.
When you exit to the Monitor with the MON command, the RAM-based $D000-$FFFF mem
ory is
enabled, and therefore, Merlin 8 and it's symbol table if any. If you want to ex
amine the ROM
memory that would normally correspond to Applesoft and the F8 Monitor, you shoul
d quit Merlin 8
with the Main Menu Quit command, and enter the Monitor with Call -151. Under Pro
DOS, this
procedure necessitates loading BASIC.SYSTEM which removes Merlin 8 from memory.

MOVE
MOVE (line number) TO (line number)
MOVE (range) TO Okie number)
MOVE 10 TO 20 [ Move line 10 to just before 20]
MOVE 10,20 TO 30 [ Move lines 10 through 20 to just before line 30 ]
This is the same as COPY but after copying, automatically deletes the original r
ange.

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The Merlin 8 Editor

NEW
NEW [ only option for this command ]
Deletes the present source file in memory.
P (Print without format)
Print
Print (line number)
Print (range)
Print (range list)
P t print entire file ]
P50 [ print line 50 only ]
P50, 100 [ print lines 50 through 100 ]
PI, 10/20,30 [ print 1 through 10 and then print lines 20 through 30 ]
This is the same as LIST except that line numbers are not added. See PRTR for fo
rmatted printouts.

PRTR (Formatted printout)

PRTR (command)
PRTR 1 [ activate printer in slot 1 with no printer init string ]
PRTR 1 ""Page Title" [ printer in slot 1, no printer init string, "Page Title"
is the page header ]
PRTR 1 "<Control-I>80N" [ as above, add Control-I80N to initialize the pri
nter ]
PRTR 3 [ send formatted listing to screen ]
This command is for sending a listing to a printer with page headers and provisi
on for page boundary
skips. No header is printed on the first page of the printout. See the section o
n Configuration for
details on setting up default parameters, also TTL in the section on The Assembl
er.
The entire syntax of this command is;
PRTR # "(string)"<page header>"
If the page header is omitted, the header will consist of page numbers only.
The initialization string may not be omitted if a page header is to be used. If
no special string is
required by the printer, use a null string of two quotes only (""), as in the ex
ample showing "Page
Title" in which case a carriage return will be used.

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The Merlin 8 Editor

No output is sent to the printer until a LIST, PRINT, or ASM command is issued.
See Control-0 for
information on inserting Control characters in the printer init string. The PRTR
command only affects
the next output command, and is canceled at the end of the listing.
Q (Quit)
Q [ only option for this command ]
Exits to Main Menu.

TABS
TABS <number><, number><,...> <'tab character^
TABS [ clear all tabs ]
TABS 10,20 [ set tabs to 10 & 20 ]
TABS 10,20 " " [ as above, space is tab character ]
This sets the tabs for the editor, and has no effect on the assembler listing. U
p to nine tabs are
possible. The default tab character is a space, but any may be specified. The as
sembler regards the
space as the only acceptable tab character for the separation of labels, opcodes
, and operands. If you
don't specify the tab character, then the last one used remains. Entering TABS a
nd a Return will set all
tabs to zero.

TEXT
TEXT [ only option for this command ]
This converts all spaces in a source file to inverse spaces. The purpose of this
is for use on word
processing type text files so that it is not necessary to remember to zero the t
abs before printing such a
file. This conversion has no effect on anything except the Editor's tabulation.
The command FIX
undoes the effect of the TEXT command.

TROF (Truncate Off)

TROF [ only option for this command ]
When used as an Immediate command, returns to the default condition of the trunc
ation flag which also
happens automatically upon entry to the editor from the Main Menu or from the As
sembler. All sourcei
lines when listed or printed will appear normal.

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TRON (Truncate On)

TRON [ only option for this command ]
When used as an Command Mode command, sets a flag which, during LIST or PRINT, w
ill suppress
printing of comments that follow a semicolon. It makes reading of some source fi
les easier.

USER
USER
USER 1 [ example for use with XREF ]
USER 0: FILENAME [ example for use with PRINTFILER ]
This does a JSR to the routine at $3F5, This is the location of the Applesoft am
persand vector which
normally points to a RTS. USER is designed to connect the various utilities supp
lied with Merlin 8
and for user defined printer drivers. You must be careful that your printer driv
er does not use zero page
addresses, with the exception of the I/O pointers and $60-$6F, because this is l
ikely to interefere with
Merlin 8's heavy usage of zero page. Several supplied utilities operate through
the USER command.

VAL

VAL "expression"
VAL "PTR [ return value of label "PTR" ]
VAL "LABEL" [ gives the address (or value) of LABEL for the last assembly
done or "unknown label" if not found. ]
VAL "$1000/2" [ returns $0800 ]
VAL "%1000" [ returns $0008 ]
This will return the value of the expression as the assembler would compute it.
All forms of label and
literal expressions valid for the assembler are valid for this command. Note tha
t labels will have the
value given them in the most recent assembly.

VID (VIDeo)
VID (slot number)
VID 3 [ turns on 80 column display ]
This command selects an 80 column display device. To turn off the display, use E
scape Ctrl-Q for the
Apple He, lie or Ilgs video; use Escape-0 for the Videx UltraTerm. VID 3 is requ
ired to re-activate the
display if you have set the PARMS file to switch to 40 columns for the PRTR comm
and.

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Merlin 8/16 User's Manual

The Merlin 8 Editor

W (Where)
Where (line number)
W50
WO

[ where is line 50 in memory ]

[ where is end of source file ]

This prints in hex the location in memory of the start of the specified line. Wh
ere or WO will give
the location of the end of source.

Lists starting from the beginning of the last specified range. For example, if y
ou type L10J00, lines
10 to 100 will be listed. If then you use the period (.) command, the listing wi
ll start again at 10 and
continue until stopped. The end of the range is not remembered.
/ (slash)
/ <line number>
/ [ start to list at last line listed ]
/50 [ start listing at line 50 ]
This command continues the listing from the last line number listed, or, when a
line number is
specified, from that line. This listing continues to the end of the file or unti
l it is stopped as in LIST.

[period]

[ only option for this command ]

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!
r
Merlin 8/16 User's Manual
ASSEMBLING A MERLIN 8 FILE
Once you have entered and edited your source listing, you will want to assemble
it ASM does that
Remember to exit the Full Screen Editor by pressing ^Escape. When you see the co
lon (:) prompt,
type ASM and press Return.
ASM (Assemble)
ASM [ only option for this command ]
This passes control to the assembler, which attempts to assemble the source file
.
If you wish to have a formatted printed listing of an assembly, just use the PRT
R command
immediately before typing in the ASM command.
Control-C (Cancel assembly)
Terminates assembly and returns to the Command Mode.
Control-D (Toggle Display Status)
Control-D [ only option for this command ]
During the second pass of assembly, pressing Control-D will toggle the list flag
, so that the listing
will either stop or resume. The next LST opcode in the source overrides this, bu
t another Control-D
can be used again.

~i
The Merlin 8 Editor

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Merlin 8/16 U

The Merlin 16 Editor

THE MERLIN 16 EDITOR

From the Merlin 16 Main Menu, you can press F to enter the Full Screen Editor, o
r if you have loaded
a source file, you will enter the Full Screen Editor automatically.
At the upper right hand comer of the screen, the number of the line on which the
cursor is located is
shown. Somewhat to the left of this you may see a vertical bar. This bar is the
End-of-Line Marker
and it indicates the position at which an assembly listing will overflow the pri
nter line. You can put
characters beyond this mark, but they should be for information only, and will n
ot be printed within a
printer listing.
The fields are tabbed, and the arrow keys can be used to move the cursor to the
next tab position.
The commands are divided into two types: Control key commands which are line ori
ented, and Open-
Apple key commands which are global and thus oriented to the entire listing. The
Control key
commands edit text and move the cursor on just the line the cursor is presently
on. Use the Open-
Apple key commands to make changes to groups of lines, or to move about in the l
isting. When you
are through editing, the line is accepted as it appears on the screen, no matter
where the cursor is. The
file is assembled by pressing (3A; C5Q will return you to the Main Menu. Other c
ommands are
available in the Command Box ((30).
To get the most out of the Merlin 16 Full Screen Editor, you should keep in mind
that a full screen
editor is like a word processor. That is, any character you type is immediately
entered into whatever
line the cursor is on.
With the Merlin 16 Full Screen Editor, if you can see it on the screen, you can
edit it, and moving to a
line is a simple matter of using the arrow keys or other special commands to mov
e to the part of the
listing you want to edit. Just remember, when you are using the Full Screen Edit
or, think of yourself
as using a word processor where you can freely scroll to whatever part of the pa
ge you want to edit, and
the final 'document' is just your source listing.
MERLIN 16 CONTROL KEY COMMANDS
(Line oriented)
Control-B (Beginning of line)
Moves the cursor to the beginning of the line.
Control-C (Cancel assembly)
Cancels assembly and returns to the Editor with cursor on line where assembly wa
s interrupted.

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Merlin 8/16 User's Manual

The Merlin 16 Editor

Control-D (Delete character)

Deletes the character under the cursor. Also see Delete.

Control-F (Find)
Finds the next occurrence on the current line of the character typed after the C
ontrol-F. The cursor
changes to an inverse F to indicate the Find Mode. To move the cursor to the nex
t occurrence on the
line, press the desired character key again. Typing any other character will exi
t the Find Mode and enter
the text typed at that position.
Control-I or TAB (Toggle insert cursor)
Toggles the cursor mode between the insert cursor (inverse I) and overstrike cur
sor (inverse block). The
cursor can be in the insert mode regardless of whether lines are being added or
inserted. The insert mode
of the cursor refers only to whether individual characters are being inserted (i
nverse J) or typed over
(inverse block).
The character insert mode defaults to ON upon entry. When you change it with Con
trol-I, it remains
that way until changed again. Thus, moving from one line to another has no effec
t on this status.
Control-L (Lower case convert)
The Merlin 16 PARMS file can be configured so that, unless the cursor is in a co
mment or an ASCII
string, lower case characters will be converted to UPPER CASE characters. To ove
rride this
conversion, or to reinstate it, just use the Control-L command. This conversion
is also in effect when
you use the Open-Apple-F, Open-Apple-W, or Open-Apple-L find commands to specify
the text to find.
Even if configured in the PARMS file, this conversion is defeated when the tabs
are zeroed.
Control-N (End of line)
Moves the cursor to the end of the line.

Control-O (Other characters)

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The Merlin 16 Editor

<3- (Hyphen)
Produces a line of 1 asterisk and 31 hyphens. Overstrikes existing line, if any.
Undo with the
Control-R command.

(5= (Equal sign)

Produces a line of 1 asterisk and 31 equal signs. Overstrikes existing line, if
any. Undo with the
Control-R command.

* [Closed Apple]
This command speeds up cursor movement and keyboard input. For example, pressing
and holding
down the down arrow key will scroll the listing. If you press and hold down the
Closed Apple key
while you press the up or down arrow key, the scroll rate will be increased.

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MERLIN 16 COMMAND BOX

This exits to the Monitor. You may return to the Merlin 16 Main Menu by pressing
Control-C,
Control-B, or Control-Y. These commands re-establish important zero page pointer
s from a safe area
inside Merlin 16. Thus Control-Y will give a correct entry even if you have dama
ged the zero page
pointers while in the Monitor. DOS is not connected while using this entry to th
e Monitor.
You may return to the editor directly by typing OG and pressing Return, but unli
ke the above
commands, this uses the zero page pointers stored at $0A-$0F. Therefore, you mus
t be sure that these
pointers have not been altered. For normal usage, any of the three Control comma
nds should be used to
return to Merlin 16.
NOTE: When you exit to the Monitor with the MON command, the RAM-based $D000-$FF
FF
memory is enabled, and therefore. Merlin 16 and its symbol table if any. If you
want to examine the
ROM memory that would normally correspond to Applesoft and the F8 Monitor, you s
hould quit
Merlin 16 with the Main Menu Quit command, and enter the Monitor with Call -151.
This procedure
necessitates loading BASIC.SYSTEM which removes Merlin 16 from memory.

MON (Monitor)

MON

[ only option with this command ]

NEW

[ only option for this command ]

Deletes the present source file in memory. Also see UNNEW.

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P (Print without line numbers)

Print
Print (line number)
Print (range)
Print (range list)
P [ print entire file ]
P50 [ print line 50 only ]
P50, 100 [ print lines 50 through 1 00 ]
PI ,10/20,30 [ print 1 through 10 and then print lines 20 through 30 ]
This is the same as LIST except that line numbers are not added. See PRTR for fo
rmatted printouts.

PRTR (Formatted printout)

PRTR (command)
PRTR 1 [ activate printer in slot 1 with no printer init string ]
PRTR 1 ""Page Title" [ printer in slot 1, no printer init string, "Page Title"
is the page header ]
PRTR 1 "<Control-I>80N" [ as above, add Control-I80N to initialize the pri
nter ]
PRTR 3 [ send formatted listing to screen ]
This command is for sending a listing to a printer with page headers and provisi
on for page boundary
skips. See the section on Configuration for details on setting up default parame
ters, also TTL in the
Assembler section. The entire syntax of this command is:
PRTR # "(string)"<page header>"
If the page header is omitted, the header will consist of page numbers only.
The initialization string may not be omitted if a page header is to be used. If
no special string is
required, use a null string of two quotes (""), as in the example showing "Page
Title" in which case a
carriage return will be used. No output is sent to the printer until a LIST, PRI
NT, or ASM command
is issued. See Control-0 for information on inserting Control characters in the
printer init string. The
PRTR command only affects the next output command, and is canceled at the end of
the listing.
Q (Quit)
Q [ only option for this command ]

Exits to Main Menu.

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S YM (Symbol table)

SYM [ print symbol table from last assembly ]

SYMTR' [ print only those labels starting with 'string' specified ]
SYM: [ print local labels in symbol table ]
SYMr'TR' [ print local labels with 'string' specified ]

The SYM command will print the symbol table from the last assembly to be printed
. Care should be
taken to ensure that a valid symbol table exists before this command is used.
The SYM: command inverts the print locals flag and then prints the symbol table
with local labels
first. Thus, it is not necessary to change this bit in the PARMS fde to see the
local label list.
If a string is specified with either SYM and SYM:, only those labels starting wi
th the string will be
printed
NOTE: If the printing is aborted and the SYM command is reissued, only a partial
listing will result.
This is because symbol flagging is done during the sorting of the table. However
, if the printing is
allowed to continue to the end, the entire symbol table will be printed the next
time SYM or SYM: is
used. If aborted during an alphabetical printout, the SYM command will restart w
here it left off.
TABS
TABS <number><, number><,...> <'tab character^
TABS [ clear all tabs ]
TABS 10,20 [ set tabs to 10 & 20 ]
TABS 10,20 " " [ as above, space is tab character ]
This sets up to 9 tabs for the editor, and has no effect on the assembler listin
g. The default tab character
is a space, but any may be specified. Space is the only acceptable tab character
for the separation of
labels, opcodes, and operands. If you don't specify the tab character, then the
last one used remains.
Entering TABS and a Return will set all tabs to zero.
TEXT
TEXT [ only option for this command ]
This converts all spaces in a source file to inverse spaces. The purpose of this
is for use on word
processing type text files so that it is not necessary to remember to zero the t
abs before printing such a
file. This conversion has no effect on anything except the Editor's tabulation.
The command FIX
undoes the effect of the TEXT command.

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TROF (Truncate Off)

TROF [ only option for this command ]
This command returns to the default condition of the truncation flag which also
happens automatically
upon entry to the editor from the Main Menu or from the Assembler. All source li
nes when listed or
printed will appear normal.

TRON (Truncate On)

TRON [ only option for this command ]
This command sets a flag which, during LIST or PRINT, will suppress printing of
comments that
follow a semicolon. It makes reading of some source files easier. Typing TRON be
fore using CjSE
<3F also causes the search to ignore text within comments.

UNNEW
UNNEW [ on iy option for this command ]
This command restores a text file cleared by a NEW command. Note that the first
two characters of the
source file cannot be restored, so some additional editing will be necessary. Al
so see NEW.
USER
USER
USER 1 [ example for use with XREF ]
USER 0: FILENAME [ example for use with PRINTHLER ]
This does a JSR to the routine at $3F5. This is the location of the Applesoft am
persand vector which
normally points to a RTS, USER is designed to connect the various utilities supp
lied with Merlin 16
and for user defined printer drivers. You must be careful that your printer driv
er does not use zero page
addresses, with the exception of the I/O pointers and $60-$6F and $90-$9F, becau
se this is likely to
interefere with Merlin 16's heavy usage of zero page. Several supplied utilities
operate through the
USER command. Specifically, XREF is a USER type utility. Also see the descriptio
n of USER files
supplied with Merlin 8/16 as described in the Utilities section of this manual.

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VAL
VAL "expression"
VAL "LABEL" [ gives the address (or value) of LABEL for the last assembly
done or "unknown label" if not found. ]
VAL "$ 1000/2" [ returns $0800 ]
This will return the value of the expression as the assembler would compute it (
or was used in the last
assembly). All forms of label and literal expressions valid for the assembler ar
e valid for this command.
VID (VIDeo)
VID (slot number)
VID 3 [ turns on 80 column display ]
This command selects an 80 column display device. To turn off the display, use E
scape Ctrl-Q for the
Apple He, lie or Ilgs video; use Escape-0 for the Videx UltraTerm. VID 3 is requ
ired to re-activate the
display if you have set the PARMS file to switch to 40 columns for the PRTR comm
and.
W (Where)
Where (line number)
W 50 [ where is line 50 in memory ]
W [ where is end of source file ]
This prints in hex the location in memory of the start of the specified line. Wh
ere or W0 will give
the location of the end of source.
. [period]
[ only option for this command ]
Lists starting from the beginning of the last specified range. For example, if y
ou type LI 0,1 00, lines
10 to 100 will be listed. If you then use the period (.) command, the listing wi
ll start again at 10 and
continue until stopped. The end of the range is not remembered.
/ (slash)
/ <line number>
/ [ start to list at last line listed ]
/50 [ start listing at line 50 ]
This command continues the listing from the last line number listed, or, when a
line number is
specified, from that line. This listing continues to the end of the file or unti
l it is stopped as in LIST.

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The Merlin 16 Editor

MERLIN 16 EDITOR COMMAND SUMMARY

CONTROL KEY COMMANDS (line oriented)
The Control Key commands consist of cursor moves and line oriented commands.

Control-B Moves cursor to beginning of line

Control-C Cancel assembly and return to Editor at last line assembled
Control-D Deletes character under the cursor
Control-F Finds next occurrence on current line of next character typed
Control-I Toggles insert and overstrike cursor
Control-L Toggles lower case conversion
Control-N Moves cursor to end of line
Control-O Prefix key for typing optional characters
Control-R Restores original line
Control-S Displays status box
Control-T Remember current line for recall by CiT
Control-W Finds next occurrence of word in line
Control-X Exits global exchange, etc. while in progress
Control-Y Delete characters to end of line
Arrows Moves the cursor in the specified direction
Delete Deletes character to left of cursor
Escape Moves cursor to beginning of next line
Return Moves cursor down and inserts blank line
TAB Toggles insert and overstrike cursor

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OPEN-APPLE KEY COMMANDS (entire listing oriented)

The Open-Apple Key commands are global commands, which means they are generally
oriented to the whole listing as opposed to just the current line (or a single c
haracter).

(3A Assembles the current source listing

OB Moves cursor to beginning of listing
C5C Start text selection/Copy selected text to clipboard
C5D Deletes line and places it in 'undo' buffer
(3E Global exchange (Find & Replace)
OF Finds next occurrence of text entered
CiH Toggles half or split screen mode
C5l Inserts blank line at cursor
C5L Finds first occurrence of label or line
C5N Moves cursor to end of listing
C50 Opens Command Box
C5Q Quits Editor and returns to Main Menu
<3R Swaps current line with 'undo' buffer
C5T Goes to line of last Control-T
C5V Pastes contents of clipboard on current line
C5W Finds next occurrence of whole word
C3X Start text selection/Cut selected text to clipboard
3 Y Selects text from current line to end of file
(3Z Current line becomes eleventh line on screen
c3Delete Deletes line above cursor; puts in 'undo' buffer
C5TAB Inserts a blank line at cursor
(3Down Moves cursor down 10 lines
(3Up Moves cursor up 10 lines
31 Issues PRTR 1' + 'Assemble'
(32 Issues 'PRTR 1' + 'USER* + 'Assemble'
(33 Issues PRTR 3' + 'Assemble'
(34 Issues 'PRTR 3* + 'USER' + 'Assemble'
C56 Issues 'LINK' command to LINKER.GS
C58 Produces a line of 32 asterisks
C59 Produces 1 asterisk, 30 spaces, and 1 asterisk
(3- Produces a line of 1 asterisk followed by 31 hyphens
(3= Produces a line of 1 asterisk followed by 3 1 equal signs
t Increases speed of cursor movement and keyboard input

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The Merlin 16 Editor

COMMAND BOX COMMANDS

The Command Box commands are a series of commands not directly related to editin
g the listing.
These commands are always preceded by an Open-Apple-0 [C50] which opens the Comm
and Box.
After entering the desired command, press Return. UPPER case characters are requ
ired, lower case
characters are optional and are listed for purposes of clarity.

Add Moves to the end of the current listing

ASM Assembles the current source file
FIX Undoes the effect of the TEXT command
GET Place object code in Main Memory at specified address
Link Assemble and link last source file worked on.
List Lists line or range of lines
MON Exits Editor and enters Monitor
NEW Clears current source file from memory
Print Prints listing without formatting
PRTR Prints formatted listing. See command for complete syntax
Quit Exits to Main Menu
SYM Prints symbol table of last assembly
TABS Sets tabs used by the Editor
TEXT Zeroes all tabs in text file
TROF Turns off truncation of comments field in printout
TRON Turns on truncation of comments field in printout
UNNEW Restores text file deleted by the NEW command
USER Connects various utilities and user defined printer drivers
VAL Returns value of expression or address of label
Where Prints memory location of specified line
. (period) Lists from beginning of last specified range
/ (slash) Continues listing from last specified line

CUSTOMIZING MERLIN 16 COMMANDS

Almost all of the Merlin 16 Editor command keys can be changed if you have a pre
ference for an
alternate definition. See the description of the PARMS file for Merlin 16 in the
Technical Information
section of this manual.

GENERAL REMARKS ON MERLIN 16 EDITOR

When you move the cursor between lines, its horizontal position may vary. This i
s because the cursor
position is based on the actual position in memory in the line, and not on the s
creen position. If the
tabs are zeroed you will not notice this, except for the fact that the cursor is
never beyond the last
character in the line.

Page 72

The maximum line length is actually 192 but you can only edit the first 80 chara
cters. Lines longer
than 80 characters will be truncated if they are edited. This can be important i
f you are using TXTED as
mentioned in the Utilities section.
An assembly will delete the contents of the clipboard.
EDMAC, TXTED, and AUTO.EDIT
A macro program called EDMAC is also included on the Merlin 16 disk, which will
automatically
generate phrases like "LDA #$" in your source file with a single key * command T
XTED is a
modified full screen editor that breaks lines when you press Return, and can del
ete Returns as well
AUTO.EDIT is an automated text editor that can speed up making the same change i
n a number of
places m a source file where the Find or Exchange commands would not be appropri
ate See the
description of these utilities in the Utilities section of this manual for more
ionformation.
OOPS
Virtually any editor action can be undone. You should remember that the proper u
ndo command is of
the same 'type' as the command you want to undo. Thus, any Control key command i
s undone by
Control-R. This mcludes the 08, 09, 0-, and 0= commands which are considered lin
e oriented
commands for this purpose.
The line deletion commands OD and ODelete are undone by creating an empty line w
ith OTab
followed by OR. If you forget to create the empty line, type another OR and then
insert the empty line
to receive the undo buffer contents.
The OR command undoes itself.
A Cut (OX) is undone by a Paste (0 V) without moving the cursor off its line.
If you are entering a line of text in response to a prompt, such as a filename,
PRTR initialization or
dialog box, you can press Control-C or Control-X to cancel the line.

ASSEMBLING A MERLIN 16 FILE

Once you have entered and edited your source listing, you will want to assemble
it. Just press Open-
Apple-A. This passes control to the assembler, which attempts to assemble the so
urce file.
If you wish to have a formatted printed listing of an assembly, just use the PRT
R command
immediately before using the Open-Apple-A command.
Pressing Control-C terrninates the assembly and returns to the Editor with the c
ursor on the line where
assembly was interrupted.

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The Assembler

THE ASSEMBLER
In Merlin 8/16, the Editor is used to create and edit the source listing from wh
ich the final program, or
object code, will be assembled. The Assembler is that part of Merlin 8/16 which
actually interprets
your source code to create the final program.
The Assembler portion of Merlin 8/16 is distinct only in concept. In practice, b
oth the Editor and
Assembler are resident in the machine at all times, and thus both are available
without having to be
aware of which is in operation at any given time. This is in contrast to many ot
her assemblers, in
which the Editor and Assembler are completely separate programs, necessitating t
he switching between
them by loading and running independent programs, and often requiring that you s
ave the source file to
disk before an assembly can even be done.
This section of the documentation explains the syntax of those commands, or dire
ctives, that can be
used in the source listing itself, and which direct Merlin 8/16 to perform some
function while
assembling the object code. These are in contrast to the Editor commands which a
re used primarily to
edit an existing line of text.
For example, in the simplest assembler possible, only commands like LDA, JSR, et
c. would be
recognized by the assembler. However, the first time you want to create a data t
able, an instruction is
required by the assembler which will define one or more bytes that are a pure nu
mber value, as opposed
to specific opcodes. This is addressed in virtually all assemblers by creating t
he assembler directive, or
pseudo opcode HEX.
Thus the assembler can create a byte of data like this:
1 LABEL HEX F7 ; STORES BYTE '$F7' i
Now, suppose the data you wanted to store was an ASCII character string. With on
ly the HEX
directive, you'd have to look up all the ASCII character equivalents, and encode
them in your program
with individual HEX statements.
Wouldn't it be nice, though, if the assembler itself had a larger repetoire of n
ew commands or directives
that included ones for defining character strings? You bet! And Merlin 8/16 has
a lot of them
The simplest is ASC, and a typical line would look like this:
1 LABEL ASC 'THIS IS A TEST' ; STORE ENTIRE CHARACTER STRING
When assembled, Merlin 8/16 would automatically look up the ASCII character equi
valents, and store
the bytes in memory at wherever that statement occurred in your program Along wi
th the Editor, the
variety and power of assembler directives is the other biggest factor in determi
ning the power of a given
assembler. Merlin 8/16 is outstanding in this area with a wide complement of dir
ectives for every
occasion.

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The Assembler

This section of the documentation will explain the syntax to use in your source
files for each directive,
and document the features that are available to you in the assembler.
ABOUT THE ASSEMBLER DOCUMENTATION
The assembler documentation is broken into three main sections:
1) Preliminary Definitions
2) Assembler Syntax Conventions
3) Assembler Pseudo Opcode Descriptions
The last two sections are each broken down further into the following:
Assembler Syntax Conventions:
1) Number Format
2) Source Code Format
3) Expressions Allowed by the Assembler
4) Immediate Data Syntax
5) Addressing Modes
6) Sweet 16 Opcodes
7) Native vs. Emulation mode in Merlin 16
Assembler Pseudo Opcode Descriptions:
1) Assembler Directives
2) Formatting Pseudo Ops
3) String Data Pseudo Ops
4) Data and Storage Allocation Pseudo Ops
5) Miscellaneous Pseudo Ops
6) Conditional Pseudo Ops
7) Pseudo Ops for Macros
8) Variables
The Assembler Syntax Conventions illustrate the syntax of a line of assembly cod
e, the proper method
to specify numbers and data, how to construct assembler expressions and the prop
er syntax to use to
specify the different addressing modes allowed by the 65xx microprocessors. This
section should be
understood prior to using the assembler, otherwise it is will be difficult to de
termine the acceptable
methods to construct a proper expression as the operand for a pseudo op.
The Assembler Pseudo Opcode Descriptions illustrate the functions of the many Me
rlin 8/16 pseudo
ops, the correct syntax to use and examples of each pseudo op's use.

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PRELIMINARY DEFINITIONS
The type of operand for almost all of Merlin 8/16's pseudo ops and the 65xx micr
oprocessors can be
grouped into one of four categories:
1) Expressions
2) Delimited Strings (d-strings)
3) Data
4) Filenames or Pathnames
Expressions
Expressions are defined in the Assembler Syntax Conventions section of this Chap
ter.
Delimited Strings
Delimited Strings are defined in the Editor section of the manual, but that defi
nition is repeated here for
continuity.
Several of the pseudo opcodes, and some of the 65xx opcodes such as LD A, allow
their operand to be a
string. Any such string must be delimited by a non-numeric character other than
the slash (J) or comma
(,). Such a string is called a "d-string" or delimited string. The usual delimit
er is a single or double
quote mark ( " or ').
Examples:
"this is a d-string"
'this is another d-string"
another one@
Zthis is one delimited by an upper case zZ
"A"
'A'
NOTE: Delimited strings that are used as the object of any 65xx opcode must be e
nclosed in single or
double quotes. If not, the assembler will interpret the d-string to be a label,
expression or data instead.
Take special note that some of the pseudo ops as well as the 6502 and 65C02 opco
des use the delimiter
to determine the hi-bit condition of the resultant string. In such cases the del
imiter should be restricted
to the single or double quote.
Data
Data is defined as raw hexadecimal data composed of the digits through 9 and the
letters A through F.

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Filenames (DOS 3.3 only)

Filenames are defined as the name of a DOS 3.3 file without any delimiters, e.g.
no quotes surrounding
the name. Source file names are suffixed with a .S while a T. is used as the pre
fix for Text files, USE
files and PUT files. Hie applicable suffix or prefix should not be used as part
of the filename when
loading, saving, reading or writing.
Pathnames (ProDOS only)
Pathnames are defined as ProDOS pathnames and are restricted to the definition o
f pathnames as
described in the ProDOS User's Manual. Pathnames as used by Merlin 8/16 do not h
ave delimiters, e.g.
no quotes surrounding the pathname. The .S suffix is used for source, USE, and P
UT pathnames. This
suffix should not be used as part of the pathname when loading or saving.
ASSEMBLER SYNTAX CONVENTIONS
SOURCE CODE FORMAT
Syntax of a Source Code Line
A line of source code typically looks like:
LABEL OPCODE OPERAND ; COMMENT
and a few real examples:
1 START LDA #50 ; THIS IS A COMMENT
2 * THIS IS A COMMENT ONLY LINE
3 ; TABBED BY EDITOR
A line containing only a comment can begin with an asterisk (*) as in line 2 abo
ve. Comment lines
starting with a colon (;), however, are accepted and tabbed to the comment field
as in 3 above. The
assembler will accept an empty line in the source code and will treat it just as
a SKP 1 instruction,
except that the line number will be printed. See the section on pseudo opcodes f
or details.
The number of spaces separating the fields is not important, except for the edit
or's listing, which
expects just one space.
Source Code Label Conventions
The maximum allowable LABEL length is 26 characters in Merlin 16 or 13 character
s in Merlin 8, but
more than 8 will produce messy assembly listings unless you change the tab setti
ngs. A label must
begin with a character at least as large, in ASCII value, as the colon, and may
not contain any characters
less, in ASCII value, than the number zero. Note that periods (.) are not allowe
d in labels since the
period is used to specify the logical OR in expressions.

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A line may contain a label by itself. This is equivalent to equating the label t
o the current value of the
address counter.
Source Opcode and Pseudo Opcode Conventions
The assembler examines only the first 3 characters of the OPCODE, with certain e
xceptions such as
macro calls and the DEND opcode. For example, you can use PAGE instead of PAG. H
owever,
because of the exception, the fourth letter should not be a D. The assembler lis
ting will not be aligned
with an opcode longer than five characters unless there is no operand or you cha
nge the tab settings.
Operand and Comment Length Conventions
pie maximum allowable combined OPERAND + COMMENT length is 64 characters. You wi
ll get
an OPERAND TOO LONG error if you use more than this. A comment line by itself is
also limited
to 64 characters.

LOCAL LABELS
A local label is any label beginning with a colon (:). A local label is attached
to the last global label
and can be referred to by any line from that global label to the next global lab
el. You can then use the
same local label in other segments governed by other global labels. You can choo
se to use a
meaningless type of local label such as :1, :2, etc., or you can use meaningful
names such as :LOOP,
:EXIT, and so on.
Example of local labels:
1

START

LDY

LDX

:L00P

LDA

(JUNK) ,Y

;:loop is local to start

STA

( JUNKDEST) , Y

5
INY

CPY

#100

BNE

:LOOP

; branch back to :LOOP in 3

LOOP 2

LDY

:L00P

LDA

(STUFF) , Y
;:loop is now local to loop2

STA

(STUFFDEST) , Y

INY

CPY

#100

BNE

:LOOP

; branch back to :L00P in 9

14
RTS

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Some restrictions on use of local labels are:

J) Local labels cannot be used inside macros.
2) You cannot label a MAC, ENT or EXT with a local label and you cannot EQUate a
local label.
3) The first label in a program cannot be a local label.
Local Labels, Global Labels and Variables
There are three distinct types of labels used by the assembler. Each of these ar
e identified and treated
differently by Merlin.

Note that local labels do not save space in the symbol table, while variables do
. Local labels can be
used for forward and backward branching, while variables cannot Good programming
practice dictates
the use of local labels as branch points, variables for passing data, etc.
VARIABLES
Labels beginning with a right bracket (]) are regarded as variables. They can be
redefined as often as you
wish. The designed purpose of variables is for use in macros, but they are not c
onfined to that use.
Forward reference to a variable is impossible, that is, with correct results, bu
t the assembler will assign
some value to it Therefore, a variable should be defined before it is used.
It is possible to use variables for backwards branching, using the same label at
numerous places in the
source. This simplifies label naming for large programs and uses much less space
than the equivalent
once-used labels.
For example:

Global Labels : labels not starting with "]" or ":

Local labels : labels beginning with ";"
Variables : labels beginning with "]"

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

N0G00D
] JLOOP

] JLOOP

LDY
LDA
BEQ
JSR
INY
BNE
LDX
INX
STA
LDA
BNE

#0
TABLE, Y
N0G00D
DOIT

DATA,X
TBL2,X
] JLOOP
] JLOOP
#-1

BRANCH TO LINE 2

BRANCH TO LINE 8

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NUMBER FORMAT
The assembler accepts decimal, hexadecimal, and binary numerical data. Hex numbe
rs must be preceded
by the dollar sign ($) and binary numbers by the per cent sign (%), thus the fol
lowing four numbers are
all equivalent:
Dec Hex Binary Binary
100 $64 11100100 %01100100
as indicated by the last binary number, leading zeros are ignored.
Immediate Data vs. Addresses
In order to instruct the assembler to interpret a number as immediate data as op
posed to an address, the
number should be prefixed with a pound sign (#). The # here stands for number or
data. For example:
LDA #100 LDA #$64 LDA #%1100100
These three instructions will all load the accumulator with the number 100, deci
mal.
A number not preceded by # is interpreted as an address. Therefore:
LDA 1000 LDA $3E8 LDA %1111101000
are equivalent ways of loading the accumulator with the byte that resides in mem
ory location $3E8.
Use of Decimal, Hexadecimal or Binary Numbers
We recommend that you use the number format that is appropriate for clarity. For
example, the data
table:
DA $1
DA $A
DA $64
DA $3E8
DA $2710
is a good deal more mysterious than its decimal equivalent:
DA 1
DA 10
DA 100
DA 1000
DA 10000

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Similarly,
ORA #$80
is less informative than
ORA mooooooo
which sets the hi-bit of the number in the accumulator.
EXPRESSIONS ALLOWED BY THE ASSEMBLER
Primitive Expressions
Expressions are built up from "primitive expressions" by use of arithmetic and l
ogical operations. The
primitive expressions are:
1. A label.
2. A number (either decimal, $hex, or %binary).
3. Any ASCII character preceded or enclosed by quotes or single quotes.
4. The asterisk character (*) which stands for the current address.
All number formats accept 16-bit data and leading zeros are never required. In c
ase 3, the "value" of the
primitive expression is just the ASCII value of the character. The hi-bit will b
e on if a quote (") is used
and the value greater than $7F. The hi-bit will be off if an apostrophe (') is u
sed and the value less than
$80.
Arithmetic and Logical Operations in Expressions
The assembler supports the four arithmetic operations: +, -, / (integer division
), and * (multiplication).
IraTso supports the three logical operations: ! (Exclusive OR), . (OR), and &amp
; (AND).
Building Expressions
Expressions are built using the primitive expressions defined above, either with
or without arithmetic
and/or logical operations. This means that expressions can take the form of prim
itives or primitives
operated on by other primitives using the arithmetic and logical operators.
Some examples of legal expressions are:
(primitive expression =1)
(primitive expression = 32 dec)
(primitive consisting of a label)
(primitive consisting of letter "A")
(primitive = current value of PC)

#01
#$20
LABEL
#"A"

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The following are examples of more complex expressions

LABEL 1 -LABEL2 (LABEL1 minus LABEL2)
2*LABEL+$23 1 (2 times LABEL plus hex 23 1)
1234+% 101 11 (1234 plus binary 10111)
M K"-A"+1 (ASCII "K" minus ASCII "A" plus 1)
"0" !L ABEL (ASCH "0" EOR LABEL)
LABEL&S7F (LABEL AND hex 7F)
*-2 (current address minus 2)
LABEL.% 10000000 (LABEL OR binary 10000000)
By clever use of the simple arithmetic and logical operators in carefully design
ed expressions, you can
create other functions that may not be immediately obvious.
For example, for a conditional assembly, you might want to see if one label had
a value greater than
that of another. Although Merlin 8/16 doesn't have a specific < or > funct
ion, you can still do the
equivalent test using the division operator:
DO LABEL 1/LABEL2 ; IF L ABE LI < LABEL2 = DON'T DO
; 1 IF LABEL 1 >= LABEL 2 - DO
DO LABEL1/5 ; DO IF LABEL1 >= 5
DO LABEL1-1/-1 ; DO IF LABEL1 =
DO 5-1/LABEL1 ; DO IF L ABE LI < 5
DO LABEL1/6 ; DO IF LABEL1 > 5
As another example, use of the AND operator (&) makes it simple to define a
control character:
CHK LDA CHAR ; INPUT CHARACTER
CMP #$9F& H A H ; C0NTR0L-A
BNE NEXT
$9F AND $C1 ("A") = $81 ("Control-A)"
Checking for equality is a simple subtraction:
DO LABEL1-5-1/-1 ; DO ONLY IF LABEL 1 = 5
Parentheses and Precedence in Expressions

Parentheses are not normally allowed in expressions. They are not used to modify
the precedence of
expression evaluation. All arithmetic and logical operations are evaluated left
to right. Thus, 2+3*5
would assemble as 25 and not 17.
Parentheses are used to retrieve a value from the memory location specified by t
he value of the
expression within the parentheses, much like indirect addressing. This use is re
stricted to certain pseudo
ops, however.

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The Assembler

For example:
DO ($300)
will instruct the assembler to generate code if the value of memory location $30
0 is non-zero at the
time of assembly.
Example of Use of Assembler Expressions
The ability of the assembler to evaluate expressions such as LAB2-LAB1-1 is very
useful for the
following type of code:

COMPARE

LDX

# EOD ATA-DATA- 1

LOOP

CMP

DATA, X

BEQ
FOUND

; found

DEX

BPL

LOOP

JMP

REJECT

; not found

DATA

HEX

CACFC5D9

EODATA

EQU

With this type of code, you can add or delete some of the DATA and the value whi
ch is loaded into the
X index for the comparison loop will be automatically adjusted.

IMMEDIATE DATA SYNTAX

For those opcodes such as LDA, CMP, etc., which accept immediate data, i.e. numb
ers as opposed to
addresses, the immediate mode is signed by preceding the expression with #. An e
xample is LDX #3.
When programming the 65802 or 65816, the interpretation of an immediate data exp
ression may depend
on the assembler status of the M and X bits at that point in the assembly. In ge
neral:
#expression produces the low byte of the expression in 8 bit mode
#expression produces the low word of the expression in 16 bit mode
#<expression produces the low byte of the expression in 8 bit mode
#<expression produces the low word of the expression in 16 bit mode
#>expression produces the high byte of the expression in 8 bit mode
#>expression produces the high word of the expression in 16 bit mode
# A expression produces the bank byte of the expression always.

ADDRESSING MODES
Because of the different processors in use in the Apple lie, He, and Ilgs machin
es, Merlin 8/16 not only
supports all the addressing modes of the 65xx microprocessors, but the different
assemblers are
customized to the systems they are most likely to be used on.

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Merlin 8
When either version of Merlin 8 is started, the assembler assumes a 6502 micropr
ocessor state for
assemblies. If you are assembling code for a 65C02 processor, you must use the a
ssembler XC opcode
once at the beginning of the listing anywhere before an actual 65C02 opcode is u
sed. The requirement
for the XC enable directive is a safety feature, so that you don't inadvertently
use a 65C02 opcode like
STZ or INC in a program designed for a 6502 machine. Because the assembler would
otherwise
generate no errors with the extended opcodes, a program that unwittingly used an
improper code would
be very hard to debug.

If you are using Merlin 8 to write a program for the 65802, you must use two XC
pseudo-ops at the
beginning of the source listing to enable the 65802 instructions. Because the 65
802 does not support
more than 64K of addressable memory, Merlin 8 does not feature any long addressi
ng modes, although
macros to duplicate these functions can be written.
Merlin 16
Because Merlin 16 is most likely to be used on an Apple Ilgs, the startup defaul
t for the assembler logic
is to have 65816 opcodes enabled, thus avoiding the need for using the XC direct
ives. If you will be
using Merlin 16 to assemble code for Apple He compatible computers, you may want
to consider
changing the PARMS file for Merlin 16 to require the use of the XC directives as
a safety device to
prevent accidental use of 65816 opcodes in programs written for the Apple lie. E
ven Apple Computer
is not above these hazards, as evidenced by the use of a 65C02 instruction in a
version of ProDOS that
was intended to have been compatible with 6502 machines.
In regards to the M and X bits of the 65816, the assembler logic of Merlin 16 st
arts out assuming the
processor will be in the Emulation Mode, since this is the power-up state of the
microprocessor.
Remember, this is an assumption about your source code, and has nothing to do wi
th the actual
program code of Merlin 16 itself. Like the XC default, you can change the PARMS
file to start a
source listing in any setting of the M and X bits you prefer.
When programming for the 65816, Merlin 16 uses the following definitions for add
ress expressions:

LDA expression use one (low) byte of the expression

LD A <expression use one (low) byte of the expression
LDA expression use two bytes (low word) of the expression
PEA Expression use two bytes (high word) of the expression
LDA (expression use three bytes (complete address) of the expression

this last example is equivalent in Merlin 16 to:

LDAL expression use three bytes (complete address) of the expression

Merlin 8/16 User's Manual

The Assembler

ORG (set ORiGin)

ORG expression
ORG
ORG $1000 [ start code at $1000 ]
ORG START+END [ start at value of expression ]
ORG [re-ORG]

Establishes the address at which the program is designed to run, and where it wi
ll be automatically
BLOADed in memory if it is a BINary type object file. This is not necessarily wh
ere Merlin 8/16
will actually assemble the code with the ASM command. ORG defaults to $8000. Ord
inarily there
will be only one ORG and it will be at the start of the program. If more than on
e ORG is used, the
first one establishes the BLOAD address, while the second actually establishes a
new origin for any
code that follows it. This can be used to create an object file that would load
to one address though
it may be designed to run at another address.
NOTE: If you need to back up the object pointers you must use DS-1 . This cannot
be done by
ORG*-l. y

ORG without an operand is accepted and is treated as a "REORG" type command. It

is intended to
be used to re-establish the correct address pointer after a segment of code whic
h has a different ORG.
When used in a REL file, all labels in a section between an "ORG address" and an
"ORG noaddress"
are regarded as absolute addresses. This should only be used in a section that i
s to be moved to an
explicit address.

Example of ORG without an operand:

ORG

$1000

1000 :

LDY

1002:

JSR

MOVE

1005:

4C
12

JMP

CONTINUE

0300:

ORG

$300

6 PAGE3

STA

MAINZP

0303:

ED
FD

JSR

COUT

0306:

STA

AUXZP

0309:

9
10

RTS
ORG

1012:

A9
CI

11 CONTINUE

LDA

#"A

1014:

JSR

PAGE 3

;"M0VE" IS
;N0T LISTED
;R0UTINE TO
;BE MOVED

; REORG

Sometimes, you will want to generate two blocks of code with separate ORGs in on
e assembly.
There are four ways of doing this involving four different directives. These are
DSK, S AV, DS and
REL. All four are described later in this manual, and are presented here in the
interest of continuity.

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The Assembler

METHOD #1: USING THE DSK OPCODE

In this first example, two separate disk files are created with independent ORG
values by using the
DSK command. This command directs the assembler to assemble all code to disk fol
lowing the
DSK command. The file is closed when either the assembly ends or another DSK com
mand is
encountered.

******************

* MULTIPLE ORG'S *

* SOLUTION # 1 *

* DSK COMMAND *

******************
6
7

DSK FILEONE

; CREATE 1ST FILE

ORG $8000

; DEFINE ITS LOAD ADDRESS

LDA #0

; SAMPLE PROGRAM LINE

DSK FILETWO

; CLOSE 1ST FILE, START 2ND

ORG $8100

; DEFINE ITS LOAD ADDRESS

LDY #1
; ANOTHER PROGRAM, FILE CLOSED

METHOD #2: USING THE SAV OPCODE

In this second example, two separate disk files arc again created with independe
nt ORG values, but
this time by using the SAV command. This command directs the assembler to save a
ll code
assembled previous to the SAV code disk.

******************

* MULTIPLE ORG'S *

* SOLUTION # 2 *

* SAV COMMAND *

******************

6
7

ORG $8000
; LOAD ADDRESS FOR 1ST

LDA #0

; SAMPLE PROGRAM LINE

SAV FILEONE

; SAVE 1ST FILE

ORG $8100

; LOAD ADDRESS FOR 2ND

LDY #1

; SAMPLE PROGRAM LINE

SAV FILETWO

; SAVE 2ND FILE

METHOD #3: USING THE DS OPCODE

In this third example, just one file is created on disk, but the two blocks of c
ode are separated by
approximately a $100 byte gap, less the size of the fust code block.

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Merlin 8/16 User's Manual

ine Assembler

This might be useful, for example, if you wanted your code to skip over the Hi-R
es page 1 area of
memory. Please read the section on S AV for more information about multiple ORGs
in a program.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

******************
* MULTIPLE ORG'S *
* SOLUTION # 3 *
* DS COMMAND *
******************

ORG $8000
LDA SO
DS \
LDY II
LOAD ADDRESS OF FILE
SAMPLE PROGRAM LINE
FILL WITH $0 TO NEXT PG
or could have been DS $8100-*
SAMPLE LINE OF 2ND SEGMENT
THIS WILL START AT $8100

METHOD #4: USING THE REL OPCODE

The REL directive is used to create relocatable files. The Linker use these REL
files to create the
final object code to run at a given location. The Merlin 16 Linker supports mult
iple output files,
and so can be used to create two or more files with independent ORG values.
1 ******************
2 * MULTIPLE ORG'S *
3 * SOLUTION #4A *
4 * REL COMMAND *
5 ******************
6
7 REL ; RELOCATABLE FILE TYPE (LNK)
8 DSK F I LEONE. L ; CREATE 1ST LNK FILE
9 LDA #0 ; SAMPLE PROGRAM LINE

1 ******************
2 * MULTIPLE ORG'S *
3 * SOLUTION #4B *
4 * REL COMMAND *
5 ******************
6
7 REL
8 DSK FILETWO.L
9 LDA #0

RELOCATABLE FILE TYPE

CREATE 2ND LNK FILE
SAMPLE PROGRAM LINE
(LNK)

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The Assembler

This example is for the Merlin 16 Linker only. These two files would be linked f
or the desired
ORG addresses with a Link command file like this:

******************

* MULTIPLE ORG'S *

* LINKER *

* COMMAND FILE *

5
******************

6
7

ORG $8000

' SPECIFY 1ST ADDRESS

LNK F I LEONE. L

LINK 1ST FILE

SAV FILE1

SAVE 1ST OBJECT FILE

ORG $8100

i SPECIFY 2ND ADDRESS

LNK FILETWO.L

LINK 2ND FILE

13
SAV FILE2

; SAVE 2ND OBJECT FILE

Although the Linker is normally used to combine several source files, or to comm
unicate label
values between programs, it can be used to assemble even unrelated files.
REL (RELocatable code module)
REL
REL [ only option for this opcode ]
This opcode instructs the assembler to generate code files compatible with the r
elocating linker.
This opcode must occur prior to the use or definition of any labels. See the Lin
ker section of this
manual for more information on this opcode.
OBJ (set OBJect)
OBJ expression
OBJ $4000 [use of hex address]
OBJ START [ use with a label ]
The OBJ opcode is accepted only prior to the start of the code and it only sets
the division line
between the symbol table and object code areas in memory, which defaults to $800
0. The OBJ
address is accepted only if it lies between $4000 and $BFE0. This may cause a pr
oblem if you try to
assemble a listing OBJ'ed to $300, for example.
Nothing disastrous will happen if OBJ is out of range; when you return to the Ma
in Menu to save
your object file, no object file address and length values will be displayed on
the screen, and Merlin
8/16 will simply beep at you if you try to save an object file.

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The Assembler

The main reason for using OBJ is to be able to quit the assembler directly, test
a routine in memory,
and then be able to immediately return to the assembler to make any corrections.
If you want to do
this, simply use the GET command (Example: GET $300) in the DOS 3.3 version of M
erlin 8
before quitting to BASIC.
In the ProDOS version of Merlin 8/16, this isn't an option because you can't tem
porarily quit
Merlin 8/16 to BASIC. For ProDOS, it is recommended that you disregard the use o
f OBJ entirely.
To test a program from the Main Menu, you should save the source code, save the
object code, then
quit to BASIC.SYSTEM. Then BLOAD the object file. The file will automatically lo
ad at the
proper location.
Most people should never have to use OBJ. If the REL opcode is used then OBJ is
disregarded. If
DSK is used then you can, but may not have to, set OBJ to $BFE0 to maximize the
space for the
symbol table.
In Merlin 16, the address range of the symbol table is printed in hex, at the en
d of an assembly.
This allows you to see when a new OBJ value may be needed. You can also use the
DSK command
should the object file become too big.

PUT (PUT a text file in assembly)

PUT filename

DOS 3.3 Examples:

PUT SOURCEFILE
PUT ISOURCE
PUT !SOURCE,D2
ProDOS Examples:
PUT SOURCEFILE
PUT /PRE/SOURCE

[ PUTs file T.SOURCEF1LE ]

[ PUTs file SOURCE ]
[ PUTs file SOURCE from drive 2 ]

[ PUTs file SOURCEFILE.S ]

[ PUTs file SOURCE.S from subdirectory PRE
"PUT filename" reads the named file and inserts it at the location of the opcode
.
Occasionally your source file will become too large to assemble in memory. This
could be due to a
very long program, extensive comments, dummy segments, etc. In any case, this is
where the PUT
opcode can make life easy. All you have to do is divide your program into sectio
ns, then save each
section as a separate text file. The PUT opcode will load these text files and i
nsert them in the
"Master" source file at the location of the PUT opcode. This "Master" source fil
e usually only
contains equates, macro definitions (if used), and all of your PUT opcodes.

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The Assembler

A Master source file might look something like this:

********************
* Master Source *
********************
* LABEL DEFINITIONS
L ABE LI EQU $00
LABEL 2 EQU $02
COUT EQU $FDED
* MACRO DEFINITIONS
SWAP MAC
LDA ]1
STA ]2
<
* SAMPLE SOURCE CODE
LDA # LABEL 1
STA LABEL2
LDA #/ LABEL 1
STA LABEL2+1
LDA LABEL1
JSR COUT
RTS
* BEGIN PUTFILES
PUT FILE1 ; FIRST SOURCE FILE SEGMENT
PUT FILE2 ; SECOND SOURCE FILE SEGMENT
PUT FILE3 ; THIRD SOURCE FILE SEGMENT
NOTE: You cannot define macros from within a PUT file. Also, you cannot call the
next PUT file
from within a PUT file. All macro definitions and PUT opcodes must be in the Mas
ter source file.
There are other uses for PUT files such as PUTting portions of code as subroutin
es, PUTting a file
of ProDOS global page equates, etc. The possibilities are almost endless.
Here's an example of a Master program that uses 3 PUT files to create a final ob
ject file called
FINAL. OBJ, which is called from an Applesoft BASIC program. The DSK command is
not
required when using PUT files, but may be needed for object files that are too l
arge to fit in
memory, or where a special filetype, other than BIN, is desired for the object f
ile.

1 * MASTER CALLING PROGRAM

2
3 COUT EQU $FDED
4 HOME EQU $FC58
5

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Merlin 8/16 User's Manual

The Assembler

6 ORG $8000
7
8 DSK FINAL. OB J ; OUTPUT FILE
9 JSR HOME
10 PUT FILE1 ; Named "T.FILE1" on disk (Merlin 8, DOS 3.3)
11 PUT FILE2 ; Named "T.FILE2" on disk
12 PUT FILE3 ; Named "T.FILE3" on disk
13 ; Named "FILE1.S, etc. on ProDOS disk)

And here are the text files that the Master program calls in by using the PUT co
mmands:

1 * FILE1
2
3 LDX #0
4 LOOP1 LDA STRING1,X
5 BEQ FILE2
6 JSR COUT
7 INX
8 BNE LOOP1
9 STRING1 ASC "THIS IS FILE 1"
10 HEX 8D00

* FILE2

2
3

FILE2 LDX

4
LOOP2 LDA

STRING2,X

BEQ

FILE3

JSR

COUT

INX

BNE

LOOP2

STRING2 ASC

"NOW ITS FILE 2"

HEX

8D00

1
* FILE3

FILE3 LDX

LOOP3 LDA

STRING3,X

BEQ

DONE

JSR

COUT

INX

8
BNE

LOOP3

DONE RTS

STRING3 ASC

"FINALLY FILE 3"

HEX

8D00

Each PUT file (FILE1, FILE2, FILE3) prints a message identifying which file is i
n operation.

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The final assembly is tested by this Applesoft program:

10 TEXT : HOME
20 PRINT CHR$ (4);"BL0AD FINAL. OBJ"
25 CALL 327 68
30 VTAB 10: HTAB 10: PRINT "IT REALLY WORKS!"
40 VTAB 15: LIST : END
When this program is run, the following lines of text should appear on the scree
n:
THIS IS FILE 1
NOW ITS FILE 2
FINALLY FILE 3
IT REALLY WORKS!

DOS 3.3 NOTE: Drive and slot parameters are accepted in the standard DOS syntax.
The
"filename" specified must be a text file with the "T." prefix. If it doesn't hav
e the M T." prefix in the
disk catalog, the "filename" specified must start with a character less than "@"
in ASCII value.
This tells Merlin 8/16 to look for a file without the "T." prefix. The "!" chara
cter can be used for
this purpose. For example:
Disk file name = T.SOURCE CODE [ name in catalog ]
PUT file name = SOURCE CODE [ name in PUT opcode ]
Disk file name = SOURCE CODE [ name in catalog ]
PUT file name = ! SOURCE CODE [ name in PUT opcode ]
ProDOS NOTE: Drive and slot parameters are not accepted; pathnames must be used.
Note that
the above name conventions do not apply to ProDOS, since all source files under
ProDOS are text
files.
NOTE: "Insert" refers to the effect on assembly and not to the location of the s
ource. The file
itself is actually placed just following the main source. These files are only i
n memory one at a
time, so a very large program can be assembled using the PUT facility.
There are two restrictions on a PUT file. First, there cannot be macro definitio
ns inside a file which
is PUT; they must be in the Master source file or in a USE file. Second, a PUT f
ile may not call
another PUT file with the PUT opcode. Of course, linking can be simulated by hav
ing the Master
program just contain the macro definitions and call, in turn, all the others wit
h the PUT opcode.
Any variables, such as ]LABEL, may be used as "local" variables. The usual local
variables ]1
through ]8 may be set up for this purpose using the VAR opcode.
The PUT facility provides a simple way to incorporate often used subroutines, su
ch as SENDMSG
or PRDEC, in a program.

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USE (USE a text file as a macro library)

USE filename
USE MACRO LIBRARY
USE IMACROS
USE MACROS,S5,Dl
USE /LIB/MACROS

[DOS 3.3 example]

[DOS 3.3, no "T." prefix]
[DOS 3.3 with slot/drive]
[ProDOS pathname]

This works similarly to PUT but the file is kept in memory. It is intended for l
oading a macro
library that is US Ed by the source file.
It can also be used for including a common library of equates in source files to
avoid having to type
them into every new program you write. For example, this equate file:
**********************
* COMMON EQUATE FILE *
**********************

HOME EQU $FC58 ; MONITOR CLEAR SCREEN ROUTINE

VTAB EQU $FC22 ; MONITOR VERTICAL TAB ROUTINE
CH EQU $24 ; HORIZ. CURSOR POSITION
Etc...

Could be included in every program you write using the USE command:

**********************
* SAMPLE PROGRAM *
**********************

PTR EQU $06 ; POINTER FOR MY PROGRAM

USE EQUATES ; USE PRE-DEFINED EQUATES
BEGIN JSR HOME ; CLEAR SCREEN (USE HOME LABEL)
Etc.

The assembly speed of source programs that use DSK, PUT, USE or S AV can be impr
oved
significantly by putting the referenced files on a RAM disk.
Here is an example listing of a program that creates two separate object files u
sing the DSK
command:

1 * DSK SAMPLE *
2 DSK FILEONE ; ASSEMBLE 'FI LEONE 1 TO DISK
3 ORG $300 ; ' FILEONE' AT $300 (CALL 768)
4 COUT EQU $FDED
5 HOME EQU $FC58
6 JSR HOME
7 LDX #0
8 L00P1 LDA STRING1,X

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9 BEQ D0NE1
10 JSR COUT
11 INX
12 BNE LOOP1
13 DONE1 RTS
14 STRING1 ASC "THIS IS ONE"
15 HEX 8D00
16
17 DSK FILETWO /ASSEMBLE 'FILETWO 1 TO DISK
IB ORG $8000 ; 'FILETWO 1 AT $8000 (CALL 32768)
19
20 LDX #0
21 LOOP2 LDA STRING2,X
22 BEQ DONE2
23 JSR COUT
24 INX
25 BNE LOOP 2
26 DONE 2 RTS
27 STRING2 ASC "NOW IT'S TWO"
28 HEX 8DO0

This can be tested with the following Applesoft program.

10 PRINT CHR$ (4);"BLOAD FI LEONE"
15 CALL 768
20 PRINT CHR$ (4);"BLOAD FILETWO"
25 CALL 32768
30 END
When run, the following text should appear on the screen:
THIS IS ONE
NOW IT'S TWO

END (END of source file)

END
END [ only option for this opcode ]
This rarely used or needed pseudo opcode instructs the assembler to ignore the r
est of the source.
Labels occurring after END will not be recognized.

DUM (DUMmy section)

DUM expression
DUM $1000
DUM LABEL
DUM END-START

[ start DUMmy code at $1000 ]

[ start code at value of LABEL]
I start at val of END-START ]
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This starts a section of code that will be examined for the values of labels but
will produce no object
code. The expression must give the desired ORG of this section. It is possible t
o re-ORG such a
section using another DUMMY opcode or using ORG. Note that although no object co
de is
produced from a dummy section, the text output of the assembler will appear as i
f code is being
produced, so you can see the addresses as they are referenced.
DEND (Dummy END)
DEND
DEND [ only option for this opcode ]
This ends a dummy section and re-establishes the ORG address to the value it had
upon entry to the
dummy section.
DUM and DEND are used most often to create a set of labels that will exist outsi
de of your
program, but that your program needs to reference. Thus, the labels and their va
lues need to be
available, but you don't want any code actually assembled for that particular pa
rt of the listing.
Sample usage of DUM and DEND:

1
2

ORG

$1000

3
4
IOBADRS

$37EB

DUM

IOBADRS

IOBTYPE

DFB

I0BSL0T

DFB

$60

IOBDRV

DFB

I0BV0L
DFB

IOBTRCK

DFB

I OB SECT

DFB

IOBBUF

14
DA

IOBCMD

DFB

IOBERR

DFB

ACTVOL

DFB

PREVSL

DFB

PREVDR
DFB

DEND

START

LDA

#SLOT

STA

I0BSL0T

* And

so on
;pointer to DCT

Note that no code is generated for lines 5 through 20, but the labels are availa
ble to the program
itself, for example, on line 23.

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FORMATTING PSEUDO OPS

AST (send a line of ASTerisks)

AST expression

AST 30
ASTNUM

[ send 30 asterisks to listing ]

[ send NUM asterisks ]

This sends a number of asterisks (*) to the listing equal to the value of the op
erand. The number
format is base 10, so that AST10 will send decimal 10 asterisks, for example. Th
e number is treated
modulo 256 with being 256 asterisks.
CYC (calculate and print CYCle times for code)

This opcode will cause a program cycle count to be printed during assembly. A se
cond CYC opcode
will cause the accumulated total to go to zero. CYC OFF causes it to stop printi
ng cycles. CYC
AVE will average in the cycles that are underterminable due to branches, indexed
and indirect
addressing.
The cycle times will be printed or displayed to the right of the comment field a
nd will appear similar
to any one of the following:
5 , 0326 or 5' ,0326 or 5", 0326
The first number displayed, the 5 in the example above, is the cycle count for t
he current
instruction. The second number displayed is the accumulated total of cycles in d
ecimal.
An apostrophe or single quote after the cycle count indicates a possible added c
ycle, depending on
certain conditions the assembler cannot forsee. If this appears on a branch inst
ruction then it
indicates that one cycle should be added if the branch occurs. For non-branch in
structions, the single
quote indicates that one cycle should be added if a page boundary is crossed.

CYC
CYC OFF
CYC AVE
CYC FLAGS

[ print opcode cycles & total ]

[ stop cycle time printing ]
f print cycles & average ]
[ print cycles & current mx flag status - Merlin 16 only ]

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A double quote after the cycle count indicates that the assembler has determined
that a branch would
be taken and that the branch would cross a page boundary. In this case the extra
cycle is displayed
and added to the total.
The CYC opcode will also work for the extra 65C02 opcodes in Merlin 8/16. It wil
l not work for
the additional 65C02 opcodes present in the Rockwell 65C02, i.e. RMB#, SMB#, BBR
# and BSS#.
These opcodes are not supported by Merlin 8/16, except when USEing the ROCKWELL
macro
library. All of these unsupported opcodes are 5-cycle instructions with the usua
l possible one or
two extra cycles for the branch instructions BBS and BBR.
In Merlin 8, the CYC opcode will also work for the 65802 opcodes, but it will no
t add the extra
cycles required when M=0 or when X=0, In Merlin 16, there is an additional optio
n, CYC FLAGS,
that will print out the current assembler status of the registers sizes, M and X
. This can be useful
for verifying that register states are as you want them throughout a listing. Th
e CYC function in
Merlin 16 does correctly take the M and X bits into account when calculating cyc
le times.

DAT (DATe stamp assembly listing - ProDOS only)

DAT
DAT [ only option for this opcode ]
This prints the current date and time on the second pass of the assembler Availa
ble only in the
ProDOS versions of Merlin 8/16.

EXP ON/OFF/ONLY (macro EXPand control)

EXP ON or OFF or ONLY

This puts a delimited string into memory with a leading length byte. Otherwise i
t works the same
as the ASC opcode. This facility is mainly intended for use with ProDOS which us
es this type of
data extensively.
Note that following HEX bytes, if any, are not counted in the length. Thus, alth
ough the third
example above will not generate an error, it should not be used since any hex by
tes appended to the
end of a defined string would not be printed or otherwise recognized by a routin
e using the length
byte as part of the descriptor for the string data.

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DATA AND STORAGE ALLOCATION PSEUDO OPS

DA or DW (Define Address or Define Word)
DA expression or DW expression
DA $FDF0 [ results: FO FD in memory ]
DA 10,$300 [ results: OA 00 00 03 ]
DW LAB1,LAB2 [ example of use with labels ]
This stores the two-byte value of the operand, usually an address, in the object
code, low-byte first.
These two pseudo ops also accept multiple data separated by commas (such as DA 1
,10,100).
DDB (Define Double-Byte)
DDB expression
DDB $FDED+1 [ results: FD EE in memory ]
DDB 10,$300 [ results: 00 OA 03 00 ]
As above with DA, but places high-byte firsL DDB also accepts multiple data (suc
h as DDB
1,10,100).

DFB or DB (DeFine Byte or Define Byte)

DFB expression or DB expression
DFB 10 f results: OA in memory ]
DFB $10 I results: 10 in memory J
DB >$FDED+2 [ results: FD in memory ]
DB LAB [ example of use with label ]
This puts the byte specified by the operand into the object code. It accepts sev
eral bytes of data,
which must be separated by commas and contain no spaces. The standard number for
mat is used and
arithmetic is done as usual.
The pound sign (#) is acceptable but ignored, as is the less-than sign (<). T
he greater-than sign (>)
may be used to specify the hi-byte of an expression, otherwise the low-byte is a
lways taken. The >
should appear as the first character only of an expression or immediately after
#. That is, the
instruction DFB >LAB 1-LAB2 will produce the hi-byte of the value of LAB 1-LA
B2.
For example:
DFB $34,100,LAB-LAB2,%011,>LAB1-LAB2

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is a properly formatted DFB statement which will generate the hex object code:
34 64 DE OB 09
assuming that LAB1=$81A2 and LAB2=$77C4.
ADR (Define Long Address - 3 bytes Merlin 16 only)
ADR expression
ADR $01FDF0 [ results: F0 FD 01 in memory ]
ADR 10,$020300 [ results: OA 00 00 00 03 02 ]
ADR LAB 1 ,L AB2 [ example of use with labels ]
This stores the three-byte value of the operand, usually an address, in the obje
ct code, low -byte, hi-
byte, then bank byte. This pseudo op also accepts multiple data separated by com
mas such as ADR
1,10,100).
ADRL (Define Long Address - 4 bytes - Merlin 16 only)
ADRL expression
ADRL $01FDF0 [ results: F0 FD 01 00 in memory ]
ADRL 10,$020300 [ results: OA 00 00 00 00 03 02 00 ]
ADRL LAB 1 ,LAB2 [ example of use with labels ]
This stores the four-byte value of the operand, usually an address, in the objec
t code, low-byte, hi-
byte, bank byte, then hi-byte of the high word. This pseudo op also accepts mult
iple data separated
by commas (such as ADR 1,10,100).
The decision as to whether to use ADR or ADRL will depend largely on whether the
addresses
defined are to be used as an indirect pointer (for example, JSR [PTR]), or as a
address to be accessed
with two LDA type instructions (LDA LABEL, LDA LABEL+2).
HEX (define HEX data)
HEX hex-data
HEX 0102030F [ results: 01 02 03 OF in memory ]
HEX FD,ED,C0 [ results: FD ED CO in memory ]
This is an alternative to DFB which allows convenient insertion of hex data. Unl
ike all other cases,
the $ is not required or accepted here. The operand should consist of hex number
s having two hex
digits, thus you would use OF, not F. They may be separated by commas or may be
adjacent. An
error message will be generated if the operand contains an odd number of digits
or ends in a comma,
or in any case, contains more than 64 characters.

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DS (Define Storage)

DS experesssion
DS expression 1, expression!

DS\
DS 10
DS 10,$80
DSN
DS \$80
DS \expression2

[ zero out 10 bytes of memory ]

{ put $80 in 10 bytes of memory ]
[ zero memory to next memory page ]
[ put $80 in memory to next page ]
[ put expresson2 in memory to next page ]

This reserves space for string storage data. It zeros out this space if the expr
ession is positive. DS
10, for example, will set aside 10 bytes for storage.
Because DS adjusts the object code pointer, an instruction like DS-1 can be used
to back up the
object and address pointers one byte.
The first alternate form of DS, with two expressions, will fill expressionl byte
s with the value of
the low -byte of expression2, provided expression! is positive. If expression! i
s missing, is used

The second alternate form, DS \ will fill memory with zeroes until the next memo
ry page. The
"DS \expression2" form does the same but fills using the low-byte of expression!
.
Notes for REL files and the Linker
The back slash (\) options are intended for use mainly with REL files and work s
lightly differently
with these files. Any DS \ opcode occurring in a REL file will cause the linker
to load the next file
at the first available page boundary, and to fill with zeroes or the indicated b
yte. Note that for REL
files, the location of this code has no effect on its action. To avoid confusion
, you should only use
this code at the end of a fde.

for the fill.

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USING DATA TABLES IN PROGRAMS

Merlin's various data commands are used by the programmer to store pure data byt
es, as opposed to
executable program instruction bytes, in memory for use by the program. As an ex
ample, here is a
program that prints the square of three numbers.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31

DATA

HOME
COUT
START

PRINT1

LOOP1

PRINT2

DONE
DATA1
DATA2
DATA3

TABLE
ORG
EQU
EQU
JSR
LDY
LDA
JSR
LDX
LDA
BEQ
JSR
INX
BNE
LDA
JSR
LDA
JSR
INY
CPY
BCS
JMP
RTS
DFB
ASC
HEX
DFB

DEMO *
$8000
$FC58
$FDED
HOME
#0
DATA1 , Y
COUT
#0
DATA2 , X
PRINT2
COUT
LOOP1
DATA3 , Y
COUT
#$8D
COUT
#$03
DONE
PRINT1

; CLEAR SCREEN
;SET Y TO ZERO
; PRINT NUMBER TO BE SQUARED
;SET X TO ZERO
;LOOP TO PRINT TEXT

/PRINT SQUARED VALUE

;ARE 3 LOOPS COMPLETED?

;IF SO WE'RE DONE
;IF NOT BEGIN AGAIN

#177,178,179
M SQUARED IS N
00
#177,180,185

Notice how the data portion of the program (DATA1, DATA2, DATA3) is referenced i
n the main body
of the program. Also notice that for the purpose of illustration several data de
finition styles have been
used. The actual numbers printed by the program (example, 3 SQUARED IS 9) are st
ored in the
program as defined bytes (DFB) on lines 28 and 31. This could just as easily bee
n done with the ASC
pseudo-op. The pseudo-op HEX is also used on line 30 to create the zero byte tha
t terminates the string
" SQUARED IS ". 6

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The Assembler

CONDITIONAL PSEUDO OPS

DO (DO if true)

DO expression

DO
DO 1
DO LABEL
DO LAB1/LAB2
DO LAB1-LAB2
DO LABEL- 1

[ turn assembly off ]

[ turn it on ]

[ if LABELoO then on ]
[ifLABl<LAB2thenoff ]
[ if LAB1=LAB2 then off ]

[ if LABEL = 0, only if LABEL = or 1 ]

This together with ELSE and FIN are the conditional assembly pseudo ops. If the
operand evaluates
to zero, then the assembler will stop generating object code (until it sees anot
her conditional). See
the section on "Building Expressions" for more examples of testing for certain v
alues. Except for
macro names, it will not recognize any labels in such an area of code. If the op
erand evaluates to a
non-zero number, then assembly will proceed as usual. This is very useful for ma
cros.
It is also useful for sources designed to generate slightly different code for d
ifferent situations. For
example, if you are designing a program to go on a ROM chip, you would want one
version for the
ROM and another with small differences as a RAM version for debugging purposes.
Conditionals
can be used to create these different object codes without requiring two sources
.
Similarly, in a program with text, you may wish to have one version for Apples w
ith mousetext
characters and one for those without. By using conditional assembly, modificatio
n of such programs
becomes much simpler, since you do not have to make the modification in two sepa
rate versions of
the source code.
Every DO should be terminated somewhere later by a FIN and each FIN should be pr
eceded by a DO.
An ELSE should occur only inside such a DO/FIN structure. DO/FIN structures may
be nested up
to eight deep, possibly with some ELSE's between. If the DO condition is off, i.
e. value 0, then
assembly will not resume until its corresponding FIN is encountered, or an ELSE
at this level
occurs. Nested DO/FIN structures are valuable for putting conditionals in macros
.

This inverts the assembly condition for the last DO. Thus, ON becomes OFF and OF
F becomes

ELSE (ELSE do this)

ELSE

[ only option for this opcode ]

ON.
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IF (IF so then do)

IF charjvar (IF char is the first character of ]var)
IF MX plus expression

IF (,]1 [ if first char of ]1 is "(" then assemble following code]

IF "JTEMP [ if first char is ", assem ]
IF "=] 1 [ alternate use with *'=" ]
IF MX ( if MX = 1, 2 or 3; Merlin 16 only ]

This checks to see if char is the leading character of the replacement string fo
r ]var. IF cannot be
used for testing whether a label is equal to a value, etc. Use the DO pseudo-op
for value tests.
NOTE: Position is important since the assembler checks the first and third chara
cters of the
operand for a match. If a match is found then the following code will be assembl
ed. As with DO,
this must be terminated with a FIN, with optional ELSEs between. The comma is no
t examined,
so any character, such as the equal sign, may be used there. For example:
IF "=]1
could be used to test if the first character of the variable ] 1 is a double quo
te (") or not, perhaps
needed in a macro which could be given either an ASCII or a hex parameter.
In Merlin 16, IF can be used to check the status of the assembler M & X bits
. MX is interpreted as
though it has a value in the range 0-3, depending on the current MX flag. The MX
can then be
included in an expression to control a conditional assembly. This is intended fo
r use in macros to
determine register length. For example:
IF MX/2

DO if M is short

IFMX/2-1

DO if M is long

IFMX&l

DO if X is short

IFMX&l-l

DO if X is long

IF MX/3

DO if both M and X are short

IFMXI3/3

DO if both M and X are long

IFMX-2/-1

DO if M is long and X is short

IFMX-3/-1

DO if M is short and X is long

IFMX+1&3

DO if either M or X or both are long

IF MX

DO if either M or X or both are short

FIN (FINish conditional)
FIN
FIN [ only option for this opcode ]
This cancels the last DO or IF and continues assembly with the next highest leve
l of conditional
assembly, or it cancels ON if the FIN concluded the last or outer DO or IF.

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USING CONDITIONAL ASSEMBLY

Here's a short example that shows how different program segments can be controll
ed with
conditional assembly:
********************************
* CONDITIONAL ASSEMBLY EXAMPLE *
********************************

HOME

EQU

$FC58

COUT

EQU

$FDED

t
BELL

EQU

$FBDD

FLAG

EQU

t
i
t

BEGIN

JSR

HOME

t
t

FLAG

PARTI

LDA

# H A H
TCD

LUU1

EiLbJli

PART2

LDA

# M B"

TCD

LUU1

r in

BELL

JSR
BELL

FLAG-1

r
t

PART 2 A

LDA

# H b H

JSR

COUT

ELSE

PARTI A

LDA *

a M
JSR

COUT

FIN

DONE

RTS

MONITOR CLEAR SCREEN ROUTINE

MONITOR PRINT ROUTINE
MONITOR M BELL W ROUTINE
FLAG = 1 = DO THIS VERSION
IN YOUR PROGRAMS, FLAG CAN HAVE ANY NAME AND
HAVE WHATEVER RANGE OF VALUES YOU NEED FOR TI
NUMBER OF POSSIBLE ASSEMBLIES YOU WISH.
CLEAR SCREEN - ALL PROGRAMS DO THIS
ASSEMBLE THIS PART IF FLAG = 1
PRINT LETTER N A H
DO PART 2 IF FLAG =
PRINT LETTER H B H
END OF CONDITIONAL SEGMENT
RING BELL IN ALL VERSIONS
DO NEXT PART IF FLAG =
THIS SHOWS HOW TO DO INVERSE LOGIC OF 'FLAG'
(ASSUMES FLAG = OR FLAG = 1)
PRINT LETTER " b "
DO THIS PART IF FLAG = 1
PRINT LETTER H a H
END OF CONDITIONAL SEGMENT
ALL VERSIONS END HERE

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Using IF to test the first character of a parameter passed to a macro lets you a
dd a variety of possible
addressing modes to a macro that will depend on the input parameters. Assume we
start with a
simple macro to move data from one location to another:
The MOV macro moves data from ]1 to ]2:
MOV MAC
LDA ]1
STA ]2
<

We can then construct a more sophisticated macro that uses MOV, but which suppor
ts a wide
variety of addressing modes:
The MOVD macro moves data from ]1 to ]2 with many available syntaxes

MOVD

MAC
MOV

]i;]2

; Syntax MOVD (ADR1 ) , Y; ????

INY

(,]2

; MOVD

(ADR1) , Y; (ADR2) , Y

MOV

]i;]2

ELSE

; MOVD
(ADR1) , Y;ADR2

MOV

]i;]2+i

FIN

ELSE

(,]2

; Syntax

MOVD ????; (ADR2) , Y

INY

; MOVD
#ADR1; (ADR2) , Y

MOV

]1/$100;]2

ELSE

; MOVD

ADR1; (ADR2) , Y

MOV

]1+1;]2

FIN

ELSE

; Syntax

MOVD ????;ADR2

]1/$100;]2+1
; MOVD

#ADR1;ADR2

MOV

ELSE

; MOVD

ADR1; ADR2

MOV

] 1+1; ] 2+1

FIN

;MUST close ALL

FIN

;conditionals, Count DOs

FIN

;& IFs,
deduct FINs. Must

;yield zero at end.

*The call syntaxes supported by MOVD are:

MOVD ADR1; ADR2
MOVD (ADR1) , Y;ADR2
MOVD ADR1; (ADR2) , Y
MOVD (ADR1J ,Y; (ADR2) , Y
MOVD #ADR1; ADR2
MOVD #ADR1; (ADR2 ) , Y

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MOVD #ADR1;ADR2
MOVD #ADR1; (ADR2) , Y

Here's a macro that can be created for use with the 65816 to push an immediate v
alue on the stack
using PEA, or to first load the contents of another memory location, and then pu
sh that value on the
stack with a PHA. This type of operation is very common when programming on the
Apple Ilgs.

PushWord

MAC

DEFINE MACRO
IF #=

= ]1

IF FIRST CHARACTER OF ]1 IS A '#'

PEA

PUSH VALUE OF ]1 ON STACK

ELSE

OTHERWISE

LDA

GET con ten Ls OF ]1

PHA

PUSH THAT ON STACK

FIN

END OF CONDITIONAL PART OF MACRO

EOM

END OF MACRO DEFINITION

Thus, the PushWord macro could be used in any of these forms:
PushWord #$80 ; PUSH VALUE $80 ON STACK
PushWord # LABEL ; PUSH VALUE LABEL ON STACK
or,
PushWord $80 } PUSH CONTENTS OF LOCATION $80 ON STACK
PushWord LABEL ; PUSH CONTENTS OF LOCATION LABEL ON STACK

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MISCELLANEOUS PSEUDO OPS

CHK (place CHecKsum in object code)

CHK
CHK [ only option for this opcode ]
This places a checksum byte into object code at the location of the CHK opcode.
This is usually
placed at the end of the program and can be used by your program at runtime to v
erify the existence
of an accurate image of the program in memory.
The checksum is calculated with Exclusive-ORing each successive byte with the ru
nning result.
That is, byte 1 is EORed with byte 2 and the result put in the accumulator. Then
that value is
EORed with byte 3 and the process continued until the last byte in memory has be
en involved in the
calculation. It is not a foolproof error checking scheme, but is adequate for mo
st uses. If you will
be publishing your source listing in a magazine, or loading object code in any s
ituation in which
you want to assure that a functional copy of the object code has been loaded, th
en the use of the
checksum pseudo-op is recommended.
The following program segment will confirm the checksum at run time:
1

STARTCHK

LDA

#<STARTCHK

STA

PTR

LDA

#>STARTCHK

STA

PTR+1

LDY
#$00

LDA

#$00

7
8

PHA

; PUSH ZERO ON STACK

LOOP

PLA

; RETRIEVE CURRENT CHKSUM

EOR

(PTR) , Y
11

PHA

; PUT TEMP BACK

INC

PTR

BNE

CHK

; WRAP AROUND YET?

INC

PTR+1

; YEP

CHK
LDA

PTR+1

CMP

#>PR0GEND

; SEE IF WE'RE DONE YET. . .

BCC

LOOP

; NOT YET...

LDA

PTR

CMP

#<PR0GEND
20

BCC

LOOP

; NOPE

BEQ

LOOP

CHKCS

PLA

; RETRIEVE CALCULATED VALUE

CMP

CHKSUM

; COMPARE TO MERLIN'S VALUE

24
BNE

ERROR

; ERROR HANDLER

; FALL THROUGH IF O.K.

REAL START

???

; REAL PROGRAM STARTS HERE

???

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998 PROGEND
9 99 CHKSUM

RTS
CHK

; END OF FUNCTIONAL PROGRAM

; Merlin 8/16 CHECKSUM DIRECTIVE

ERR (force

ERRor)

ERR expression
ERR Expression
ERR ($300)-$80
ERR *-l/$4100
ERR \$5000

[ error if $80 not in $300 ]

[error if PC > $4100]
[ error if REL code address exceeds $5000 ]

"ERR expression" will force an error if the expression has a non-zero value and
the message
"BREAK IN LINE ???" will be printed. This may be used to ensure your program doe
s not exceed,
for example, $95FF by adding the final line:
ERR *-l/$9600
NOTE: The above example would only alert you that the program is too long, and w
ill not
prevent writing above $9600 during assembly, but there can be no harm in this, s
ince the assembler
will cease generating object code in such an instance. The error occurs only on
the second pass of
the assembly and does not abort the assembly.
Another available syntax is:
ERR ($300)-$4C
which will produce an error on the first pass and abort assembly if location $30
0 in main memory
does not contain the value $4C. The primary purpose for this function is to allo
w your source file to
check to see if a USR defined opcode routine has been loaded prior to the assemb
ly. This does not
check a memory location in the object code,
NOTES ON REL FILES AND THE ERR PSEUDO OP
The "ERR Nexpression" syntax gives an error on the second pass if the address po
inter reaches
expression or beyond. This is equivalent to ERR *-l/expr, but when used with REL
files, it
instructs the Linker to check that the last byte of the current module does not
extend to expression or
beyond. The expression must be absolute. If the Linker finds that the current mo
dule does extend
beyond expression, linking will abort with a message "Constraint error:" followe
d by the value of
expression in the ERR opcode. You can see how this works by linking the PI files
which are a
series of sample file on the Merlin 8/16 disks. They should be linked to an addr
ess over $8 1C.
Note that the position of this opcode in a REL file has no bearing on its action
, so that it is best to
put it at the end.

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KBD (define label from KeyBoarD)

label KBD
label KBD d-string
OUTPUT KBD [ get value of OUTPUT from keyboard ]
OUTPUT KBD "send to printer" [ prompt with the d-string for the value of OUTPUT
]
This allows a label to be equated from the keyboard during assembly. Any express
ion may be input,
including expressions referencing previously defined labels, however a BAD INPUT
error will occur
if the input cannot be evaluated.
The optional delimited string will be printed on the screen instead of the stand
ard "Give value for
LABEL:" message. A colon is appended to the string.
KBD generated labels are used most often to control conditional assemblies. For
example, this code
segment asks the user to press or 1 to signify which version of a program should
be assembled:

FLAG

KBD

"Assemble Part 1

or Part 2? (0/1)"

FLAG-1

' DO IF FLAG =

PARTI

LDA

r'A"

JSR

COUT

PRINT "A"

FIN
DO

FLAG

DO IF FLAG = 1

PART2

LDA

#"B"

JSR

COUT

PRINT "B"

FIN

DONE

RTS

Instead of pressing or 1, you can use the fact that KBD will accept a label as i
nput to accept a Y or
N input:
N EQU ; NO =
Y EQU 1 ; YES = 1
FLAG KBD "Assemble Part 1 or Part 2? ( Y/N) "

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LUP (begin a loop)

LUP expression (Loop)
--a (end of LUP)
The LUP pseudo-opcode is used to repeat portions of source between the LUP and t
he -- A
"expression" number of times. An example of this is:
LUP 4
ASL
which will assemble as:
ASL
ASL
ASL
ASL
and will show that way in the assembly listing, with repeated line numbers.
Perhaps the major use of this is for table building. As an example:
]A =
LUP $FF
]A = ]A+1
DFB ]A
A
will assemble the table 1, 2, 3, ...,$FF.
The maximum LUP value is $8000 and the LUP opcode will simply be ignored if you
try to use
more than this.
NOTE: The above use of incrementing variables in order to build a table will not
work if used
within a macro. Program structures such as this must be included as part of the
main program
source.
In a LUP, if the @ character appears in the label column, it will be increased b
y the loop count,
thus A,B,C...etc. Since the loop count is a countdown, these labels will go back
wards, i.e. the last
label has the A. This makes it possible to label items inside a LUP. This will w
ork in a LUP with
a maximum length of 26 counts, otherwise you will get a BAD LABEL error and poss
ibly some
DUPLICATE LABEL errors.

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MX (long status Mode of 65802)

MX expression
MX %00 [ M & X = 16 bit modes ]
MX %01 [ M = 16 bits, X = 8 bits ]
MX %10 [ X = 8 bits, M = 16 bits ]
MX %11 [ X = 8 bits, M = 8 bits ]
MX 3 [ sameasMX%ll ]

This pseudo-op is used to inform Merlin 8/16 of the intended status of the long
status of the 65802
or 658 16 processor. In Merlin 8, it functions only when the assembler is in the
65802 mode, i.e.
when two consetutive XC opcodes have been given. The assembler cannot determine
if the
processor is in 16 bit memory mode (M status bit=0) or 16 bit index register mod
e (X status bit=0).
The purpose of the MX opcode is to inform the assembler of the current status of
these bits.
Three of the above examples use binary expressions as the operand of the MX opco
de. Note that
any valid expression may be used as long as it is within the range of 0-3.
NOTE: This opcode must be used when using 65802 or 65816 instructions on either
Merlin 8 or
Merlin 16 to inform the assembler of the proper mode to use in order to insure p
roper assembly of
immediate mode commands such as LDA #expression, etc.
At startup, Merlin 16 assumes the MX setting to be MX %1 1, that is, Emulation M
ode with both
Accumulator and Memory register sizes set to 8 bits, although this default can b
e changed in the
Merlin 16 PARMS file.

PAU (PAUse)

PAU
PAU [ only option for this opcode ]
On the second pass, PAU causes assembly to pause until a key is pressed. This ca
n also be done
from the keyboard by pressing the space bar. This is handy for debugging.

SW (SWeet 16 opcodes - Merlin 8 only)

SW
SW [ only option for this opcode ]
This enables Sweet 16 opcodes available in Merlin 8 only. If SW, and similarly f
or XC, is not
selected then those opcode names can be used for macros. Thus, if you are not us
ing Sweet 16, you
can use macros named ADD, SUB, etc.

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USR (USeR definable op-code)

USR optional expressions
USR expression [ examples depend on definition]
This is a user-definable pseudo-opcode. It does a JSR $B6DA. This location will
contain an RTS
after a boot, a BRUN MERLIN or BRUN BOOT ASM. To set up your routine you should
BRUN
it from the Main Menu as a disk command. This should just set up a JMP at $B6D A
to the your
main routine and then RTS.
The following flags and entry points may be used by your routine:

USRADS

= $B6DA

;must have a JMP to your routine

PUTBYTE

= $E5F6

;see below

EVAL

= $E5F9

;see below

PASSNUM

= $2

; contains assembly pass number

ERRCNT

= $1D

; error count
VALUE

- $55

; value returned by EVAL

OPNDLEN

= $BB

; contains combined length of

; operand and comment

NOTFOUND

= $FD

;see discussion of EVAL

WORKSP

= $280

; contains the operand and

; comment in positive ASCII

Your routine will be called by the USR opcode with A=0, Y=0 and carry set. To di
rect the
assembler to put a byte in the object code, you should JSR PUTBYTE with the byte
in A.
PUTBYTE will preserve Y but will scramble A and X. It returns with the zero flag
clear so that
BNE always branches. On the first pass PUTBYTE only adjusts the object and addre
ss pointers, so
that the contents of the registers are not important. You must call PUTBYTE the
same number of
times on each pass or the pointers will not be kept correctly and the assembly o
f other parts of the
program will be incorrect!
If your routine needs to evaluate the operand, or part of it, you can do this by
a JSR EVAL. The X
register must point to the first character of the portion of the operand you wis
h to evaluate, thus set
X=0 to evaluate the expression at the start of the operand. On return from EVAL,
X will point to
the character following the evaluated expression. The Y register will be 0, 1, o
r 2 depending on
whether this character is a right parenthesis, a space, a comma, or the end of a
n operand.
Any character not allowed in an expression will cause assembly to abort with a B
AD OPERAND or
other error. If some label in the expression is not recognized then location NOT
FOUND will be
non-zero. On the second pass, however, you will get an UNKNOWN LABEL error and t
he rest of
your routine will be ignored. On return from EVAL, the computed value of the exp
ression will be
in location VALUE and VALUE+1, low-byte first. On the first pass this value will
be insignificant
if NOTFOUND is non-zero.

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Appropriate locations for your routine are $300-$3CF and $8A0-$8FF. You must not
write to
$900.
You may use zero page locations $60-$6F, but should not alter other locations. A
lso, you must not
change any thing from $226 to $27F, or anything from $2C4 to $2FF. Upon return f
rom your
routine with an RTS, the USR line will be printed on the second pass.
When you use the USR opcode in a source file, it is wise to include some sort of
check in source
that the required routine is in memory.
If, for example, your routine contains an RTS at location $3 10 then:
ERR ($310) -$60
will test that byte and abort assembly if the RTS is not there. Similarly, if yo
u know that the
required routine should assemble exactly two bytes of data, then you can roughly
check for it with
the following code:
LABEL USR OPERAND
ERR *-LABEL-2

This will force an error on the second pass if USR does not produce exactly two
object bytes.
It is possible to use USR for several different routines in the same source. For
example, your
routine could check the first operand expression for an index to the desired rou
tine and act
accordingly. Thus "USR 1, whatever" would branch to the first routine, "USR 2,st
uff" to the
second, etc.
In Merlin 16, the USR opcode has been extended to allow up to 10 USR opcodes, US
RO through
USR9. The Merlin 8 USR is equivalent to USRO and is upward compatible. The numbe
r 0-9 is
doubled and placed in the X Register and then a JSR $B6DA is done, the standard
USR vector. At
$B6DA you can place a JMP ( VECTORTB L,X) instruction, where VECTORTBL is a list
of
addresses of your routines placed at any free spot such as page 3. To use routin
es that would not fit
on page 3, you could set the source address at $A,B higher though you may have t
o copy this to
$E00A,$E00B, or you could set HIMEM lower. To do the latter, set both $C,D and $
73,74 to the
lower address.
USR routines are entered in native 8 bit mode and can be exited in any mode. The
documented
routines that can be called must be entered in native 8 bit mode.
An example source file with 3 USR routines is provided in the Merlin 16 file
S OURCE/US R. EX AMPLE .S .

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XC (extended 65C02, 65802 and 65816 opCodes)

XC
XC (twice in a row)

[ enable the 65C02 option ]

[ enable the 65802/65816 option ]

NOTE: On Merlin 8, if XC is used at the beginning of the listing, the 65C02 opco
des are enabled.
If XC is used twice, that is, if it is used on the first two lines of the listin
g, the 65802/65816 codes
can also be assembled.
On Merlin 8, some of the 65802 long addressing codes are not enabled since they
have no
application on the 65802. In Merlin 16, all 65816 opcodes are enabled. With Merl
in 16, you will
not have to use the XC pseudo-ops unless you have altered the PARMS file to requ
ire their use.
The XC pseudo-op will not enable the extended BIT opcodes used on the Rockwell 6
5C02 chip.
There is, however, a macro library file included on the Merlin disk that can be
US Ed to implement
these additional codes.
To use Sourceror to disassemble 65C02 code with the older (unenhanced) He ROMs,
you must first
BRUN MON.65C02. See the section on Sourceror for details. This utility is not ne
eded with the
newer He (enhanced) or lie (Unidisk 3.5 compatible) ROMs.
Whether you are using the ProDOS or DOS 3.3 version of Merlin 8, you must use th
e XC opcode
as the very first line in your code. This serves as a flag to tell Merlin 8 that
you are using the
65C02 or 65802 opcodes.
You may wonder why the XC opcode is needed. After all, if simply using it on a l
ine within a
source listing enables the extended opcodes within Merlin 8/16, surely the abili
ty to assemble the
opcodes are there all along. Why burden the user with an extra requirement? The
reason is in the
interest of efficient de-bugging and ultimately, your sanity. Merlin 8 does its
best to alert you to
possible errors in a source listing, but what happens if you use 65C02 opcodes o
n the older 6502
microprocessor? The 6502 will perform quite unpredictably, and yet Merlin 8 can'
t tell what system
your program ultimately is destined for, so an error is not necessarily in order
.
The solution is to make the programmer deliberately set a flag signifying that h
e knows he's using
the extended codes. That way you're less likely to get in the habit of using cod
es like INC
(Increment accumulator directly, available on the 65C02), and then accidentally
use the same opcode
on a 6502.

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MACROS
WHY MACROS?
Macros represent a shorthand method of programming that allows multiple lines of
code to be generated
from a single statement, or macro call. They can be used as a simple means to el
iminate repetitive
entry of frequently used program segments, or they can be used to generate compl
ex portions of code
that the programmer may not even understand.
Examples of the first type of macro call are presented throughout this manual an
d in the files called
MACROS.S and MACROS.816.S on the Merlin 16 disk, MACROS.S on the Merlin 8 ProDOS
disk,
and T.MACRO LIBRARY on the Merlin 8 DOS 3.3 disk. Examples of the second, more c
omplex
type, can be found in the FPMACROS.S on the Merlin 8 ProDOS disk and in the T.FP
MACROS
and T.RWTS MACROS libraries found on the DOS 33 disk.
Macros can also be used to simulate opcodes from other microprocessors such as t
he Rockwell 65C02
extended bit-related opcodes, as shown in the ROCKWELL.S file on the Merlin 8 Pr
oDOS disk and the
T.ROCKWELL MACROS file on the DOS 3.3 disk.
Macros literally allow you to write your own language and then turn that languag
e into machine code
with just a few lines of source code. Some people even take great pride in how m
any bytes of source
code they can generate with a single macro call.
MACRO PSEUDO OPS
MAC (begin MACro definition)
Label MAC
This signals the start of a macro definition. It must be labeled with the macro
name. The name is
then reserved and cannot be referenced by anything other than that macro pseudo-
op. For example,
DA NAME will not be accepted if NAME is the label assigned to MAC.
EOM (End of Macro
< (Alternate form)
EOM
< (alternate syntax)
This signals the end of the definition of a macro. It may be labeled and used fo
r branches to the end
of a macro.

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Macros

PMC (Put Macro Call)

> (alternate form)
PMC macro-name
> macro-name (al temate syntax # 1 )
macro-name (alternate syntax #2)
This instructs the assembler to assemble a copy of the named macro at the presen
t location. It may
be labeled.

HOW A MACRO WORKS

A macro is simply a user-named sequence of assembly language statements. To crea
te the macro, you
indicate the teginning of a definition with the macro name in the label field, f
ollowed by the definition
of the macro itself.
The macro definition ends with a terminator command in the opcode field of eithe
r EOM or the alternate
form (<).
For example, suppose in your program that locations $06 and $07 need to be incre
mented by one, as in
this listing:
1 INCR INC $06 ; INCREMENT LO BYTE
2 BNE DONE
3 INC $07 ; INCREMENT HIGH BYTE
4 DONE ??? ; PROGRAM CONTINUES HERE...
If this is to be done a number of different times throughout the program, you co
uld make the operation
a subroutine, and JSR to it, or you could write the three lines of code every ti
me you need it.
However, a macro could be defined to do the same thing like this:
1 INK MAC ; DEFINE A MACRO NAMED INK
2 INC $06
3 BNE DONE
4 INC $07
5 DONE ; NO OPCODE NEEDED
6 < ; THIS SIGNALS THE END OF THE MACRO
Now whenever you want to increment bytes $06,07 in your program, you could just
use the macro call:
100 INK ; use the macro "INK"

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You could also use either of these alternate forms:

100 PMC INK ; alternate form of macro call
or:
100 > INK ; alternate form of macro call
Now, suppose you notice that there are a number of different byte-pair locations
that get incremented
throughout your program. Do you have to write a macro for each one? Wouldn't it
be nice if there was
a way to include a variable within a macro definition? You could then define the
macro in a general
way, and when you use it, via a macro call, Till in the blanks" left when you de
fined it. Here's a new
example:

INK

MAC

; define a macro named INK

INC

; increment 1st location

BNE

DONE

A
5

DONE

INC
]1+1

; increment location + 1
; NO OPCODE NEEDED

; this signals the end of the macro

This can now be called in a program with the statement:

100 INK $06
m the assembled object code, this would be assembled as:
100 INC $06
100 BNE DONE
100 INC $07
100 DONE ; NO OPCODE NEEDED
Notice that during the assembly, all the object code generated within the macro
is listed with the same
line number. Don't worry though, the bytes are being placed properly in memory,
as will be evidenced
by the addresses printed to the left in the actual assembly.
Later, if you need to increment locations $0A,0B, this would do the trick:
150 INK $0A
En the assembled object code, this would be assembled as:
150 INC $0A
150 BNE DONE
150 INC $0B
150 DONE ; NO OPCODE NEEDED
As you can see, once a macro has been defined, you can use it just like any othe
r assembler opcode.
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Let's suppose you want to use several variables within a macro definition. No pr
oblem! Merlin 8/16
lets you use 8 variables within a macro, ]1 through ]8. Here's another example:
MOVE MAC ; define a macro named MOVE
LDA ] 1 ; load accum with variable ] 1
STA ]2 ; store accum in location ]2
< ,- this signals the end of the macro
This is a macro that moves a byte or value from one location to another. In this
example, the variables
are ]1 and ]2. When you call the MOVE macro you provide a parameter list that "f
ills in" variables ]1
and ]2. What actually happens is that the assembler substitutes the parameters y
ou provide at assembly
time for the variables. The order of substitution is determined by the parameter
's place in the parameter
list and the location of the corresponding variable in the macro definition. Her
e's how MOVE would be
called and then filled in:
MOVE $00; $01
MOVE: macro being called
$00: takes place of ]1 (1st variable)
$01 : takes place of ]2 (2nd variable)
Then, the macro will be expanded into assembly code:
MOVE $00; $01
LDA $00 {$00 in place of ]1}
STA $01 {$01 in place of ]2)
It is very important to realize that anything used in the parameter list will be
substituted for the
variables. For example,
MOVE # K A H ; DATA
would result in the following:
MOVE # "A" ; DATA
LDA #"A H
STA DATA
You can get even fancier if you like:
MOVE #"A"; (STRING) ,Y
LDA #"A"
STA (STRING), Y
As illustrated, the substitution of the user supplied parameters for the variabl
es is quite literal. It is also
possible to get into trouble this way, but Merlin 8/16 will inform you with an e
rror message if you get
too carried away.

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One common problem encountered is forgetting the difference between immediate mo

de numbers and
addresses. The following two macro calls will do quite different things:
MOVE 10; 20
MOVE #10; #20
The first stores the contents of memory location 10 (decimal) into memory locati
on 20 (decimal). The
second macro call will attempt to store the number 10 (decimal) in the number 20
! What has happened
here is that an illegal addressing mode was attempted. If it were possible, the
illegal macro call would
have been expanded into something like this:

In order to use the macros provided with Merlin, or to write your own, study the
macro in question and
try to visualize how the required parameters would be substituted.
The number of values must match the number of variables used in the macro defini
tion. A BAD
VARIABLE error will be generated if the number of values is less than the number
of variables used.
No error message will be generated, however, if there are more values than varia
bles.
Note that in giving the parameter list, the Macro is followed by a space, and th
en each parameter
separated with a semicolon. When used in the opcode column, the macro name canno
t be the same as
any regular opcode or pseudo opcode, such as LD A, STA, ORG, EXP, etc. Also, it
cannot begin with
the letters DEND or POPD.
The PMC and > forms of a macro call are not subject to the above restrictions.
In that case, the
macro name will be in the operand column, and a comma is usually used to separat
e the macro from the
parameter list. For example,
> MOVE,#10;#20
The assembler will accept some other characters in place of the comma between th
e macro name and the
expressions in a macro call. You may use any of these characters:
. / , - ( and the space character

The semicolons are required, however, between the expressions, and no extra spac
es are allowed.
NOTE: When the assembler sees a macro name in the opcode field like FIND, it fir
st looks to see if
there is a macro defined by that name. If, for example, the needed macro library
was not included with
the USE function, or wasn't defined at the beginning of the source listing, and
thus the macro was not
found, then the first three characters (FIN) are taken as the opcode. If this is
a legal opcode or pseudo
opcode, and in this example FIN is, then it is treated as such, and no error is
generated. This can be a

MOVE #10; #20

LDA #10
STA #20

; call the MOVE macro

; nothing wrong here
; oops! can't do this!
; Merlin will let you know!

* BAD ADDRESS MODE *

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Macros

source of confusion, but fortunately there are few such potential conflicts in t
he macro definitions. This
can also be avoided by using, for example, an underscore as the first character
of a macro, as in
_FindControl.
Macros will accept literal data. Thus the assembler will accept the following ty
pe of macro call:
MUV MAC ; MACRO DEFINITION
LDA ]1
STA ]2
<
MUV (PNTR) ,Y;DEST
MUV #3; FLAG, X
with the resultant code from the above two macro calls being:
MUV (PNTR) , Y;DEST ; macro call
LDA (PNTR) , Y ; substitute first parm

STA DEST ; substitute second parm

and,

MUV #3; FLAG, X ; macro call

LDA #3 ; substitute first parm
STA FLAG,X ; substitute second parm
Variables passed can be used as the operand to pseudo-ops like ASC:
MACRO DEFINITION RESULTANT CODE EXAMPLE
PRINT MAC PRINT "Example"
JSR SENDMSG JSR SENDMSG
ASC ]1 ASC "Example"
BRK BRK
<
Some additional examples of the PRINT macro call:
PRINT !"quote"!
PRINT 'This is an example 1
PRINT "So's this, understand?"
NOTE: If such strings contain spaces or semicolons, they must be delimited by si
ngle or double
quotes. Also, literals in macros such as PRINT "A" must have the final delimiter
. This is only true in
macro calls or VAR statements, but it is good practice in all cases.

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MORE ABOUT DEFINING A MACRO

A macro definition begins with the line:
Name MAC (no operand)
with Name in the label field. Its definition is terminated by the pseudo-op EOM
or <. The label
you use as Name cannot be referenced by anything other than a valid macro call:
NAME, PMC NAME
or > NAME,
Forward reference to a macro definition is not possible, and would result in a N
OT MACRO error
message. That is, the macro must be defined before it is called by NAME, PMC or &
gt;.
The conditionals DO, IF, ELSE and FIN may be used within a macro.
Although it is possible to define and invoke a macro at the same time, it is not
recommended. The
more common approach is to turn off assembly, define the macros to be used later
, then turn assembly
back on. The DO ... FIN conditional assembly opcodes are used to enclose the mac
ro definitions as
follows:
****************** * SAMPLE PROGRAM * ******************

ERROR

; TURN OFF ASSEMBLY

ERR0R1

DEY

; BEGIN COUNTDOWN

BEQ

FINISH

;IF Y = THEN EXIT

JSR

COUT

; BEEP THE SPEAKER

JMP

ERR0R1

;G0 BACK FOR ANOTHER

FINISH
*

;END OF MACRO
FIN

; TURN ASSEMBLY BACK ON

* PROGRAM CONTINUES HERE

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DOS 3.3
T.MACRO LIBRARY
T.FPMACROS
T.OUTPUT
T.PRDEC
T.ROCKWELL MACROS
T.RWTS
<none>

ProDOS
Macro Libary functions

MACROS . S Often used macros for general use.

MACROS .8 16.S General use macros for 658 16 programs.
TOOL.MACROS Directory of Ilgs Toolbox macros. Must be
used withMACROS.816,S.
FPMACROS.S Allow easy access to Applesoft floating point
math routines.
<none> To be used with SENDMSG.
PRDEC.S Prints A,X in decimal
ROCKWELL.S Implements extended bit related opcodes on the
Rockwell 65C02.
<none> Allow easy access to DOS 3.3's RWTS disk
routines.
TOOL.EQUATES Directory of Ilgs label equates for use with
toolset data structures.

Any of these macro libraries may be included in an assembly by simply including

a USE pseudo op
with the appropriate library name. There is no limit to the number of libraries
that may be in memory
at any one time, except for available memory space. See the documentation on the
USE pseudo op for
a discussion on its use in a program.

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THE MERLIN 8/16 LINKERS

WHY A LINKER?
The linking facilities built into Merlin offer a number of advantages over assem
blers without this
capability:
1) Extremely large programs may be assembled in one operation.
2) Large programs may be assembled much more quickly with a corresponding decrea
se in development
time.
3) Libraries of subroutines, i.e. for disk access, graphics, screen/modem/printe
r drivers, etc., may be
developed and linked to any Merlin program.
4) Programs may be quickly re-assembled to run at any address.
With a linker, you can write portions of code that perform specific tasks, such
as general disk I/O
handler, and perform whatever testing and debugging is required. When the code i
s correct, it is
assembled as a REL file and placed on a disk. Whenever you need to write a progr
am that uses disk I/O
you won't have to re-write or re-assemble the disk I/O portion of your new progr
am. Just link your
general disk I/O handler to your new program and away you go. This technique can
be used for a variety
of often-used subroutines.
Wouldn't a PUT file or macro USES library serve the same purpose? A PUT file com
es the closest to
duplicating the utility of REL files and the linker, but there are a few rather
large drawbacks for certain
programs. First, using a PUT file to add a general purpose subroutine would resu
lt in slower assembly
because the entire program has to be assembled even when changes are made only t
o the subroutine
Second, any label definitions contained in the PUT file would be global within t
he entire program.
This means the person writing the subroutine would have to be careful not to use
a label like LOOP
that might occur in one of the other modules, or in the main program itself. Wit
h a REL file only
labels defined as ENTry in the REL file, and EXTemal in the current file, would
be shared by both
programs. There is no chance for duplicate label errors when using the Linker. C
onsider the following
simple example: 6
Ixm xT^,? SemWed *" ddveS a plotter - m six enti y Points into the driver: PENUP,
PENDOWN, NORTH. SOUTH, EAST, WEST. To further illustrate the value of a linker,
assume the
driver was written by a friend who has moved 2000 miles from you. Your job is to
write a simple
program to draw a box.

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The code would look something like this:

1 REL ; RELOCATABLE CODE

2 PENUP EXT ; EXTERNAL LABEL
3 PENDOWN EXT ; ANOTHER ONE
4 NORTH EXT
5 SOUTH EXT
6 EAST EXT
7 WEST EXT
9 BOX LDY #00 ; INITIALIZE Y
10 JSR PENDOWN ; GET READY TO DRAW
11 LOOP JSR NORTH ; MOVE UP
12 INY ; INC COUNTER
13 CPY #100 ; 100 MOVES YET?
14 BNE LOOP 7 NOTICE LOCAL LABEL
15 LDY #00 ; INIT Y AGAIN
16 LOOP 2 JSR EAST ? NOW MOVE TO RIGHT
17 INY
18 CPY #100
19 BNE LOOP 2 ; FINISH MOVING RIGHT

20 * YOU GET THE IDEA, DO SOUTH, THEN WEST, AND DONE!

This simple sample program illustrates some of the power of RELocatable, linked
files. Your program
doesn't have to concern itself with conflicts between its labels and the REL fil
es labels, you don't
concern yourself with the location of the EXTemal labels, your program listing i
s only 30 to 40 lines
and it is capable of drawing a box on a plotter. Also, notice that you are free
to use the label LOOP
because it is local to your module, and will not be known to any of the other mo
dules.
In addition, changes to your module will not require re-assembly of the plotter
driver. In short, with
REL files and a linker, changes to large programs can be made quickly and effici
ently, greatly speeding
the program development process.

ABOUT THE LINKER DOCUMENTATION

There are three pseudo opcodes that deal directly with relocatable modules and t
he linking process. These
are:
REL - instructs the assembler to generate relocatable files.
EXT - defines a label as external to the current file.
ENT - defines a label in the current file as accessable to other REL files.

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There are two other pseudo opcodes that behave differently when used in a REL fi
le, relative to a normal
file. These are:
DS - define Storage opcode.
ERR - force an ERRor opcode.
Each of these five pseudo opcodes will be defined or redefined in this section a
s they relate to REL files.
Also, an Editor command unique to REL files will be defined: LINK.
In order to use the Linker, the files to be linked must be specifed. The Linker
uses a file containing the
names of the files to be linked for this purpose. The format of this linker name
file differs from DOS
3.3 and ProDOS. These differences will be illustrated here.

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PSEUDO OPCODES FOR USE WITH RELOCATABLE CODE FILES

REL (generate a RELocatable code file)

REL [ only options for this opcode ]
This opcode instructs the assembler to generate a relocatable code file for subs
equent use with the
relocating Linker.
This must occur prior to definition of any labels. You will get a BAD REL error
if not. REL files
are not compatible with the SAV pseudo-op and with the Main Menu's Save Object C
ode command.
To get an object file to the disk you must use the DSK opcode for direct assembl
y to disk.
There are additional illegal opcodes and procedures that are normally allowed wi
th standard files, but
not with REL files. For example, an ORG at the start of the code is not allowed.
The ORG address
is specified at link time. A further restriction on REL files is that multiplica
tion, division or
logical operations can be applcd to absolute expressions, but not to relative on
es.
Examples of absolute expressions are:
- An EQUate to an explicit address
- The difference between two relative labels
- Labels defined in DUMMY code sections
Examples of relative expressions that are not allowed are:
- Ordinary labels
- Expressions that utilize the current Program Counter (PC), like: LABEL = *
The initial reference address of a REL file is $8000. Note that this is only a f
ictional address, since
it will later be changed by the Linker. It is for this reason that no ORG opcode
is allowed.
There are some restrictions with the Merlin 8 Linker involving use of EXTernal l
abels in operand
expressions. No operand can contain more than one external. For operands of the
following form:
#>expression
or
expression
where the expression contains an external, the value of the expression must be w
ithin 7 bytes of the
external labels' value.

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For example:

LDA #>EXTERNAL+8
DFB >EXTERNAL-1

[ illegal expression ]
[ legal expression ]

Object files generated with the REL opcode are given the file type LNK under Pro
DOS. This is the
type that will show if the disk is cataloged by Merlin 8/16. This type is file t
ype $F8. These
restrictions do not apply to the Merlin 16 Linkers.
EXT (define a label EXTernal to the current REL module)
label EXT
EXT labell,label2,etc.
PRINT EXT [ define label PRINT as EXT ]
EXT LABEL 1, LABEL2 [ define LAB ELI and LABEL2 and entries - Merlin 16 only ]
This defines the label in the label column as an external label. This means that
references to this
label within the source will assume the value for LABEL is an as-yet undefined a
ddress, presumably
found in another module that will be ultimately linked with this source file. An
y external label
must be defined as an ENTry label in its own REL module, otherwise it will not b
e reconciled by
the Linker since the label would not have been found in any of the other linked
modules. The
EXTernal and ENTry label concepts are what allows REL modules to communicate and
use each
other as subroutines, etc.
The value of the label is set to $8000 and will be resolved by the Linker. In th
e symbol table
listing, the value of an external will be $8000 plus the external reference numb
er ($0-$FE) and the
symbol will be flagged with an X.
In Merlin 16, the EXT and ENT opcodes accept the following syntax:
ENT LABEL 1, LABEL2, LABEL3
This makes it possible to declare absolute symbols as entries. Thus, if LABEL 1
was an equate
instead of a location in the code, then it can still be used as an external by o
ther modules.
Thus, it does not have to be equated in ail the files using it. For example, if
all three modules in a
linked system used the labels HOME, COUT and BELL, the first module could define
these labels
with the usual HOME EQU $FC58, etc. equates, and then use ENT HOME, COUT, BELL t
o make
these equates available to the other modules being linked. This would avoid havi
ng to define the
labels in each of the other modules.
With this particular syntax, you must not use a label in the label column. That
will cause the
assembler to assume you are using the more usual syntax.

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NOTE: Using this function instead of putting all the common equates in all the s
ource files, most
easily accomplished by a common USE file, does take more space in the Linker sym
bol library, and
hastens the time of a memory overflow.
ENT (define a label as an ENTry label in a REL code module)
label ENT
ENT labell, labeI2, etc.
PRINT ENT [ define label PRINT as ENTry ]
ENT LABEL1, LABEL2 [ defme LABEL 1 and LABEL2 and entries - Merlin 16 only ]
This defines the label in the label column as an ENTry label. This means that th
e label can be
referred to by an EXTemal label in another source file somewhere. This facility
allows other REL
modules to use the label as if it were part of their source file. If a label is
meant to be made
available to other REL modules it must be defined with the ENT opcode, otherwise
other modules
wouldn't know it existed and the Linker would not be able to reconcile it.
The following example of a REL module segment illustrates the use of this opcode
:

STA

POINTER

;some meaningless code

INC

POINTER

; for our example

BNE

SWAP

;CAN BE USED AS NORMAL

JMP

CONTINUE
25 SWAP

ENT

;MUST BE DEFINED IN THE

LDA

POINTER

;C0DE PORTION OF THE

STA

PTR

; MODULE AND NOT USED

LDA

POINTER+1

;AS AN EQUated label

STA

PTR+1
30 * etc.

Note that the label SWAP is associated with the code in line 26 and that the lab
el may be used just
like any other label in a program. It can be branched to, jumped to, used as a s
ubroutine, etc.
ENT labels will be flagged in the symbol table listing with an E.

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DS (Define Storage)
DS \
DS Expression
DS \ [ skip to next REL file, fill mem with zeros to next
page break ]
DS \1 [ skip to next REL file, fill mem with the value 1 to
next page ]
When this opcode is found in an REL file, it causes the Linker to load the next
file in the linker
name file at the first available page boundary, and to fill memory either with z
eros or with the value
specified by the expression- If used, this opcode should only be placed at the e
nd of your source file.
Notice that DS expression , for example DS 5, still has the usual function even
in REL files.

ERR (force an ERRor)

ERR Expression
ERR \$4200 [ error if current code passes address $4200 ]
This opcode will instruct the Linker to check that the last byte of the current
file does not extend to
"expression" or beyond. The expression must be absoulute and not a relative expr
ession.
If the Linker finds this is not the case, linking will abort with the message: C
ONSTRAINT
ERROR: followed by the value of the expression in the ERR opcode.
The position of this opcode in a REL file has no bearing on its action. It is re
commended that it be
put at the end of a file.
You can see how this works by trying to link the sample PI files on the Merlin 8
/16 disks to an
address greater than $81C.

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THE MERLIN 8 LINKER

In Merlin 8, linking is done by using the LINK command in the Command Mode to sp
ecify the address
at which the final file will be loaded, i.e. the non-linker equivalent to the OR
G function, and the name
of the file which contains a list of the REL files created by the individual ass
emblies of the files that
make up the complete application. The Linker is part of the Editor/Assembler sys
tem, and is available
at any time with the LINK command.
The general use of the LINK command looks like this:
LINK $1000 "NAMES [ link files in NAMES - DOS 3.3 ]
LINK $2000 "/VOL/NAMES" [ link files in NAMES - ProDOS ]
The LINK command invokes the linking loader. For example, suppose you want to li
nk the object
files whose names are held in a "linker name file" called NAMES. Suppose the sta
rt address desired for
the linked program is $1000. Then you would type: LINK $1000 "NAMES" and press R
eturn. If you
are using the ProDOS version, this assumes the prefix has been set. The final qu
ote mark in the name
is optional. You can use other delimiters such as the apostrophe (') or colon (;
). The specified start
address has no effect on the space available to the Linker.
To provide space for the Linker, any source file must be removed from memory wit
h the NEW
command. This command is only accepted if there is no source file in memory.
LINKER NAME FILES (DOS 3.3)
The linker name file is just a text file containing the file names of the REL ob
ject modules to be
linked. It should be created with the Merlin editor and written to the disk with
the Write Text File from
the Main Menu. Remember to type a space to start the filename for the W command
if you don't want
the T. prefix appended to the start of the filename. Thus, if you want to link t
he object files named
MYPROG. START, MYPROG.MID, and LIB.ROUTINE,D2, you would create a text file with
these
lines:
MYPROG.START
MYPROG.MID
LB.ROUTINE,D2
In this example, you would write this to disk using the W command under the file
name
MYPROG.NAMES. You can use any filename you wish here; it is not required to call
it NAMES.
Then you would link these files with a start address of $1000 by typing NEW and
then issuing the
editor command as follows:
LINK $1000 "MYPROG.NAMES "

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The Linker will not save the object file it creates. Instead, it sets up the obj
ect file pointers for the
Main Menu Save Object Code command and returns directly to the Main Menu upon th
e completion of
the linking process.
LINKER NAME FILES (ProDOS)
The linker name file is just a specially formatted file containing the pathnames
of the LNK files to be
linked. This file is most easily created by assembling a source file with the pr
oper format, as follows:
Each pathname in the source file should be given the form STR "pathname", 00
NOTE: The 00 must be include at the end. The entire source file must end with a
BRK, i.e. another
00. This tells the Linker that there are no more pathnames in the file. Thus, if
you want to link the
LNK files names /MYDISK/START, /MYDISK/MID, AND /OTHERDISK/END, you would make a
source file containing these lines:
STR "/MYDISK/START.OO
STR "/MYDISK/MID M ,00
STR 7OTHERDISK/END",00
BRK
It is best to use full pathnames as shown, but this is not required. You should
then assemble this file
and save the object code as, for example, /MY DISK/MYPROG/NAMES. You can use any
pathname
you want here; it is not necessary to have NAMES in a subdirectory nor to call i
t NAMES. Then you
can link these files to address $803 by typing NEW and then:
LINK $803 "/MYDISK/MYPROG/NAMES "
The file type used by the Save Object Code command is always the file type used
in the last assembly.
Thus it is BIN unless the last assembly had a TYP opcode and then it will be tha
t type. This will be
used by the Save Object Code command after you link a group of files. That is, t
he Linker does not
change this type. If you make a mistake and the file gets saved under a type you
did not want, just
assemble an empty file, which would reset the object type to BIN ($06). You will
, however, have to
link the files again.

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THE LINKING PROCESS

Various error messages may be sent during the linking process See the ERRORS sec
tion of this
manual for more information. If a DOS error occurs involving the file loading, t
hen that error message
will be seen and linking will abort. If the DOS error FILE TYPE MISMATCH occurs
after the
message "Externals:" has been printed then it is being sent by the Linker and me
ans that the file
structure of one of the files is incorrect and the linking cannot be done.
The messsage MEMORY IN USE may occur for two reasons. Either the object program
is too large to
accept, i.e. the total object size of the linked file cannot exceed about $A100,
or the linking dictionary
has exceeded its allotted space, i.e. it is greater than $B000 in length. Each o
f these possibilities is
exceedingly remote.
After all files have been loaded, the externals will be resolved. Each external
label referenced will be
printed to the screen and will be indicated to have been resolved or not resolve
d. An indication is also
given if an external reference corresponds to duplicate entry symbols. With both
of these errors, the
address of the one or two byte field effected is printed. This is the address th
e field will have when the
final code is BLOADed.
If you use the TRON command prior to the LINK command, only the errors will be p
rinted in the
external list, i.e. NOT RESOLVED and DUPLICATE errors. .
This listing may be stopped at any point using the space bar. The space bar may
also be used to single
step through the list. If you press the space bar while the files are loading th
en the Linker will pause
right after resolving the first external reference.
The list can be sent to a printer by using the PRTR command prior to the LINK co
mmand. At the end,
the total number of errors, i.e. external references not resolved and references
to duplicate entry symbols,
will be printed. After pressing a key, you will be sent to the Main Menu and can
save the linked object
file with the Save Object Code command, using any desired filename or pathname.
You can also return
to the Editor and use the GET command to move the linked code to main memory.

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USING MERLIN 8 LINKED FILES

The following example shows how two source files are used to generate the LNK fi
les that will be
combined by the Linker into a final application:
********************************
* RELOCATING LINKER SAMPLE *
* PART ONE *
********************************

REL

DSK

FILE1.L

ROMP

y r \j3

>? UEjU

BEGIN2

EXT

; EXTERNAL LABEL

BEGIN
JSR

HOME

; CLEAR SCREEN

LDX

#$00

; INITIALIZE COUNTER

LOOP

LDA

STRING, X

; GET CHARACTER

BEQ

DONE

; END OF STRING

JSR

COUT

I NX
BNE

LOOP

; ALWAYS

DONE

JMP

BEGIN2

; JUMP TO 2ND SEGMENT

STRING

ASC

"THIS IS

FILE #1"

HEX

8D,00

; END OF STRING

LST

OFF
And this is the second part:

********************************

* RELOCATING

LINKER SAMPLE *

PART

TWO

********************************

REL

DSK

FILE2.L

HOME

EQU

$FC58

COUT
EQU

$FDED

BEGIN2

ENT

; ENTRY LABEL

LDX

#$00

; INITIALIZE COUNTER

LOOP

LDA

STRING, X

; GET CHARACTER

BEQ

DONE

; END OF STRING

JSR
COUT

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I NX
BNE

LOOP

ALWAYS

DONE

RTS

END OF

PROGRAM

STRING

ASC
HEX
LST

"THIS IS FILE #2"

8D,Q0 ; END OF
OFF

STRING

Having entered and assembled each of the source files, FILE1.L and HLE2.L will b
e created on the disk.
These are the intermediate REL files that will be linked to create the final app
lication program. Now
you need to create the file containing the list of files to be linked. Li this e
xample, the file will be
called NAMES and it will link the FILE1.L and FILE2.L files.
For the DOS 3.3 version of Merlin 8, you would just use the editor to type in th
e lines:

There are no leading spaces; the names FILE1.L and FTLE2.L go in the label colum
n of the Editor.
This file is then saved as a text file using the Write Text File command from th
e Main Menu.
Remember to add a space at the beginning of the filename to save under if you wi
sh to avoid the T.
prefix in the name.
To link the file, type NEW to clear the source workspace, then type LINK $8000 "
NAMES" and press
Return, The file NAMES will be read to determine which files to link. If there a
re no errors, you will
be returned to the Main Menu when the link is complete. At that point, use the S
ave Object Code
command to save the object file to disk under the name FINAL.OB J.
To test the program, use this Applesoft BASIC program:
10 TEXT: HOME
20 PRINT CHR$ (4) ;"BL0AD FINAL. OBJ"
30 CALL 32768: REM $8000
40 VTAB 12: HTAB 15: PRINT "IT REALLY WORKS!"
50 LIST: END
To create the names file for the ProDOS version of Merlin 8, you will need to cr
eate a separate source
file for the names list. This is because the ProDOS Linker requires that the nam
es list be in a special
format. Remember that each name in the ProDOS Merlin 8 names list must be define
d with the STR
pseudo-op, terminated with a zero, and that the list itself is terminated with a
zero also. To create the
names list, type in this text:

FILE1.L
FILE2.L
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********************************

* MERLIN 8 LINKER NAMES FILE *

* ProDOS *

********************************

DSK "NAMES"
STR, "FILE1.L\00
STR "FILE2.L",00
BRK

; CREATE NAMES FILE

; 1ST LINK FILE
; 2ND LINK FILE
; ZERO TO TERMINATE LIST

Assemble this file, which will create the actual NAMES file for the Linker, and
save the source file
under the file name NAMES. This will actually be saved on the disk as NAMES. S,
so you needn't
worry about any confusion when you use NAMES in the Linker.
To link the files under ProDOS, type NEW to clear the workspace, and then type L
INK $8000
"NAMES" and press Return. When the link is complete, use the Save Object Code co
mmand at the
Main Menu and save it under the name HNAL.OB J. You can use the same Applesoft p
rogram shown
for the DOS 3.3 example to test the program.
In looking at the example, notice how the ENT and EXT pseudo-ops are used to com
municate the label
BEGIN2 between the two programs. Also notice how there is no conflict over the u
se of the labels
LOOP, DONE and STRING.
Compare this example to the sample program shown for the PUT directive. Notice h
ow the same resul
of combining separate source files is achieved, but without the disadvantages of
PUT files discussed at
the beginning of this chapter.

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THE MERLIN 16 LINKERS

The Merlin 16 assembler supports three different linkers. These are separate and
distinct from the
built-in Linker in Merlin 8, and are as follows:
LINKER: This Linker combines multiple relocatable LNK files into a file that run
s at a specified
address, such as a ProDOS 8 BINary or SYS tern type file. This is also referred
to as the Absolute
Linker, since the final output file must be run at a specified location.
LINKER.GS: This is a Linker specifically for creating Object Module Format (OMF)
files to be run
on the Apple Hgs under ProDOS 16 and the System Loader. On the Apple Ilgs, appli
cations have no
way of knowing where in memory they will ultimately be loaded and run, and so mu
st contain a
relocation dictionary as part of the final output file. If you wish to write App
le Ilgs ProDOS 16
programs, you should use Linker GS or Linker.XL, discussed next.
LINKER.XL: This is special version of Linker GS which makes two passes and links
to disk to
produce a multi-segment file. This feature is a trade-off with linking speed, th
at is, Linker XL is slower
than Linker GS, and so you will normally want to use Linker GS unless you specif
ically require
multi-segment files. A multi-segment file is where one program is broken up into
multiple segments
on the disk, but which ultimately all come together to form the final program in
memory. This is
different from a program which just happens to have other segments that it loads
under its own control,
such as printer drivers or program overlays.
Linker.GS is automatically loaded into memory when Merlin 16 is run, and so is a
vailable for
immediate use. You can manually set up either of the other two Linkers by just t
yping -LINKER or
-LINKER.XL as a Disk Command from the Main Menu. Alternatively, you can also cha
nge the
PARMS.S file to load any version of the Linker that you wish. See the discussion
of the PARMS file
in the Technical Information section.
The Linkers use the same space as USER programs. LNK files that you may have cre
ated on Merlin
Pro, an earlier version of Merlin 8, should be upward compatible as long as they
do not have externals
or entry declarations. If your programs have external or entry declarations, or
you are in doubt or
encounter difficulties, just re-assemble the source files with Merlin 16 to crea
te updated LNK files.
As was discussed for the Merlin 8 Linker, creating an output file consists of se
veral steps. First, source
files are created using the Merlin editor. These are assembled and the output fi
le (type $F8 = LNK) is
created using the REL and DSK or SAV directives. This intermediate file is not u
sable in and of itself.
Rather, it is to be used as the input for the next step, which is the actual lin
king of several LNK files to
create the final object file. This file may be a stand-alone BIN or SYS file for
ProDOS 8, or it may be
an OMF file for ProDOS 16, such as a SYS 16, CDA (Classic Desk Accessory), or an
y other ProDOS
16 loadable file.

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The linking process in Merlin 16 is controlled by a linker command file. The lin
ker command files are
a more advanced form of the Merlin 8 NAME files, and have much more flexibility.
They support
comments, are able to do batch assemblies before linking, and are able to create
multiple output files.
Let's look at each Merlin 16 Linker:
THE ABSOLUTE LINKER (LINKER)
To start the link, you must first delete any source file in memory to provide th
e memory for reading the
Link command file. Remember to save the file first if necessary. To start the li
nk, type Open-Apple-0
to open the Command Box, and then type LINK "FILENAME" and press Return, where F
ILENAME is
the name of the linker command file. The LINK command from the Merlin 16 editor
has slightly
different syntax from the Merlin 8 Linker in that you do not specify an address.
Instead, the address is
provided within the command file with an ORG directive.
NOTE: The command file is just a text file looking very much like a standard sou
rce file, but you do
not assemble it.
The command file can have comments in the usual comment format for source files.
Commands to the
Linker are put in the opcode field. Commands supported are:
ASM, PUT, OVR, LNK (or LINK), ORG, ADR, SAV, TYP, EXT, ENT, DAT, LKV, END, and
LIB.
These have the following syntax and meanings:
ASM pathname
ASM FILENAMES
Assemble the source file specified in pathname. The source should do a DSK or SA
V to create the
LNK file to ultimately be used by the Linker. All ASMs must be done before any o
ther linker
commands. The ASM command is a conditional operation, and only assembles those s
ource files that
have been changed since the last time the files were linked. This is a convenien
ce feature that lets you
create a command file to build a final application. Re-assemblies will only be d
one on just those parts
of the application that have changed since your last linking.
To determine whether to do an assembly, the ASM command checks bit of the "auxty
pe" of the
source file. It does not do the assembly if this set. Otherwise it sets that bit
and does the assembly.
You can defeat this by zeroing the appropriate bit in the PARMS file. See the Te
chnical Information
section for details. This bit is cleared whenever you save a source file, so thi
s will force assembly of
that file. Also see the PUT command below.

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PUT pathname
PUT FILENAMES
Check and set auxtype bit of this file, presumably a PUT file in the next source
. If the file has been
modified then force the assembly of the next ASM instruction. This should preced
e the ASM command
for any files that use a particular PUT file, and is used to cause a re-assembly
in the event you change a
PUT file used by a particular master file. This command is not needed if your so
urce files do not use
PUT files, or you don't wish to use the feature.
OVR [ALL]
OVR or OVR ALL
Override the auxtype 0-bit check and force assembly of the next ASM instruction.
This flag is reset by
any ASM. With the OVR ALL syntax, it will force assembly of all files in the lin
ker list, so you
don't have to use OVR before each ASM instruction if you want all assemblies to
be done.

LNK pathname
LNK FILENAME.L
Link the LNK file specified. Generally you will have several of these in a row.

ORG hex address

ORG $2000
Sets the run time address of the following LNKs. Must be used between each SA V
and the next group
of LNKs. The address will also be put in the auxtype if no ADR command follows.
NOTE: The Linkers have only hexadecimal address calculation ability. All address
es must be in hex
and preceded with the $ sign.

ADR address
ADR $2000
Sets the load address of the next linked file. Must be used only after an ORG se
tting the run time
address. The ORG automatically sets this address, so you don't have to have an A
DR command if it is
the same as the ORG. The load address is the address put in the auxtype of the f
ile. For non-BIN files
it could have some other meaning.
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SAV pathname
SAV FINAL.SYSTEM
Saves the linked file. This must be in the command file or there will be no resu
lting linked file. It
should come after all the LNKs for a given output file. The Absolute Linker supp
orts up to 64 separate
output files. r
SAV must only be used after one or more LNKs. It is not to be used to save the o
bject code after an
ASM. The assembly source should do this with the SAV or DSK command, or DSK if l
inking is to
be done and the Linker is not just being used to do batch assemblies. All ASMs m
ust precede any
LNKs and SAVs. * 3

TYP byte
TYP $06
Sets the file type for the next linked file. If all the SAVs are to use the same
type output file, this need
only be used once in the command file.

EXT
EXT

Tells the Linker to print addresses of all resolved externals and not only the o
nes with errors This is
turned off after each SAV

ENT
ENT

Tells the Linker to print the entry list. This should come after all the linking
of all output files.
DAT
DAT
Causes the Linker to print the current date and time.

END
END
Marks end of linker command file. Optional.

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LIB directory name

LIB TOOL.LIBR
If used, this should come after all LNKs and before the last S AV. It tells the
Linker to look for any
unresolved (at that point) external labels and search the given directory for co
rresponding files. The files
must be LNK files of the same name as the entry label to which they correspond.
Any such files found
will be linked to the present module. Not finding a file will not cause an error
because some other file
linked this way may contain the entry in question. If not, an error will result
when the final external
resolution is done. This feature could have been made automatic, but was not bec
ause that would
substantially impair performance when it is not needed. Making it an option in t
he command file
provides more versatility.
For example, suppose one of the linked files has the label PRINT declared as an
external. The Linker
comes to the line LIB LIBRARY, and suppose that at that point, none of the linke
d files has an entry
called PRINT. The Linker will look in the directory LIBRARY for a file called PR
INT, and if that file
is found, it will be linked to the present module. Then the Linker will search f
or further unresolved
externals, including those from the file PRINT just linked, and act on them in a
similar way.
Verifies that the cortrect version of the Linker in us. LINKER is version 0, LIN
KER.GS is version 1,
and LINKER.XL is version 2. For example, if you want to guarantee that LINKER.XL
is the Linker
in use, you would put the command LKV $02 in the linker command file.
THE LINKER COMMAND FILE
The linker command file is a standard Merlin 16 source file, i.e. BUILD. S, but
it is not assembled
itself. Instead, the linker command file is executed with the LINK command.
A simple linker command file would look like this:

This would take the LNK file FILE.L and adjust all internal address references,
i.e. JMPs, JSRs, etc. for
a load address of $2000. The final object file would be saved on the disk under
the name FILE.

LKV byte
LKV $02

ORG $2000
LNK FILE.L
SAV FILE

DEFINE LOAD ADDRESS

SPECIFY LNK FILE
SAVE THE OBJECT FILE

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The default filetype for S AV is BIN, i.e. type $06. Thus, if you were writing a
SYStem file, you
would have to add a TYP command to tell the Linker to save the final object file
with the appropriate
file type:
ORG $2000 ; DEFINE LOAD ADDRESS
LNK FILE.L ; SPECIFY LNK FILE
TYP $FF ; SYSTEM FILETYPE
SAV FILE ; SAVE THE OBJECT FILE
If TYP is used, all succeeding SAVs, within a given Link operation, use the curr
ent TYP value.
ASM is added to a command file to automatically re-assemble a file that might ha
ve been changed
without a re-assembly of a new copy of the corresponding LNK file:

ORG $2000 ; DEFINE LOAD ADDRESS

ASM FILE.S ; RE-ASSEMBLE IF CHANGED
LNK FILE.L ; SPECIFY LNK FILE
TYP $FF ; SYSTEM FILETYPE
SAV FILE ; SAVE THE OBJECT FILE

USING MERLIN 16 LINKED FILES

Although linked files may be of any filetype and are not restricted to use by BA
SIC, here's an exampL
that combines the output from two assemblies to create an object file that is lo
aded and called from
BASIC. Compare this to a similar PUT file example. This is the first part of the
program:
********************************
* RELOCATING LINKER SAMPLE *
* PART ONE *
********************************

REL
DSK

FILE1.L

HOME

EQU

$FC58

C0UT

EQtJ

$FDED

BEGIN2

EXT

? EXTERNAL LABEL

BEGIN

JSR

HOME

; CLEAR SCREEN

LDX

#$00
; INITIALIZE COUNTER

LOOP

LDA

STRING, X

; GET CHARACTER

BEQ

DONE

; END OF STRING

JSR

COUT

I NX

BNE

LOOP

; ALWAYS

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The Linkers

DONE JMP BEGIN2 ; JUMP TO 2ND SEGMENT...

STRING ASC "THIS IS FILE #1"
HEX 8D f 00 ; END OF STRING
LST OFF
And this is the second part:
********************************
* RELOCATING LINKER SAMPLE *
* PART TWO *
********************************

REL

DSK

FILE2.L

HOME

EQU

$FC58
COUT

EQU

$FDED

BEGIN2

ENT

; ENTRY LABEL

LDX

#$00

; INITIALIZE COUNTER

LOOP

LDA

STRING, X

; GET CHARACTER

BEQ

DONE

; END OF STRING

JSR
COUT

INX

BNE

LOOP

; ALWAYS

DONE

RTS

; END OF PROGRAM

STRING

ASC

"THIS IS

FILE #2 K

HEX

8D,00

; END OF STRING
LST

OFF

Having entered and saved these source listings, you would then enter and save th
is Linker command file:
********************************
* MERLIN 16 LINKER NAMES FILE *
********************************

LKV

$00

; OPTIONAL CHECK FOR "LINKER"

ASM
ASM

PARTI. S
PART 2 . S

; ASSEMBLE IF NEEDED
; ASSEMBLE IF NEEDED

ORG

$8000

; SPECIFY LOAD ADDRESS

LNK
LNK

FILEl.L
FILE2.L

; LINK FILE
; LINK FILE

TYP
SAV

$06
FINAL. OB J

; BINARY

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The Linkers

These are assembled and linked together by typing LINK "FILENAME" where FILENAME
is
whatever name the command file has been saved under on the disk. Before linking
the command file,
remember to clear the workspace with NEW from the Command Box.
The generated object file, FINAL. OBJ could be tested with this Applesoft progra
m:
10 TEXT: HOME
20 PRINT CHR$(4);"BLQAD FINAL. OBJ"
30 CALL 32768: REM $8000
40 VTAB 12: HTAB 15: PRINT "IT REALLY WORKS!"
50 LIST: END
Things to notice in the linker command file are the way that all the assemblies
are done first, before any
use of ORG or LNK instructions. In general, all ASMs should be done at once, fol
lowed by ORG and
all LNKs.
The ORG $8000 specifies the load address of the final object file. This is used
when linking the two
LNK files called FILE1.L and FILE2.L into the final output file called FINAL.OBJ
.
Both ASM and the check for the proper version of Linker with LKV are optional, a
nd are not
specifically required for this example. The main reason for including LKV in a c
ommand file is to
make sure that the proper Linker is used for linking a particular command file.
If you are developing
both ProDOS 8 and ProDOS 16 applications at the same time, it would be easy to a
ccidentally have the
wrong Linker in the machine when you were trying to link a file for the other op
erating system.
In looking at the example, notice how the ENT and EXT pseudonops are used to com
municate the label
BEGIN2 between the two programs. Also notice there is no conflict over the use o
f the lables LOOP
DONE and STRING.
Compare this example to the sample program show for the PUT directive. The same
result of
combining separate source files is achieved, but without the disadvantages of PU
T files discussed at the
beginning of this Chapter.

MULTIPLE OUTPUT FILES

For applications running under ProDOS 8, you can use the Absolute Linker to gene
rate separate output
files during the linking process. The advantage is that each output file has acc
ess to the values of any
entry point definitions in the other modules. Thus, if you wanted to write a pro
gram with other
modules that needed to know the address of entry points within the main program,
you could use the
Absolute Linker to generate all the files at the same time.
For multiple output files, start each group of LNKs with an ORG and end it with
a SAV. External
references will be resolved between such groups by a second linker pass.

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The Linkers

For example:
*************** A A*** ********AAAA
* MERLIN 16 LINKER NAMES FILE *
* MULTIPLE OUTPUT SAMPLE *
********************************
LKV

$00

; OPTIONAL CHECK FOR "LINKER"

ASM
ASM

PROGIA.S
PROGIB.S

; ASSEMBLE IF NEEDED
; ASSEMBLE IF NEEDED

ORG

$2000

; SPECIFY LOAD ADDRESS

LNK
LNK

FILE1A.L
FILE1B.L

; LINK FILE
; LINK FILE

IIP
SAV

PROGRAM1

dtt umvnr pvnmrni

; i lLhlYPE = SYSTEM
; SAVE 1ST OUTPUT FILE

ASM
ASM
PROG2A.S
PROG2B.S

; ASSEMBLE IF NEEDED
; ASSEMBLE IF NEEDED

ORG

$8000

; SPECIFY LOAD ADDRESS

LNK
LNK

FILE2A.L
FILE2B.L

; LINK FILE
; LINK FILE

TYP
SAV

$06
OVERLAY

; FILETYPE = BINARY
; SAVE 2ND OUTPUT FILE

THE GS LINKER (LINKER.GS)

The GS Linker, on the Merlin 16 disk as LINKER.GS, works in the same way as the
Absolute Linker
except that it creates OMF (Object Module Format) files for the Apple Ilgs only.
The ORG is accepted,
but should not be used, since memory is assumed to be assigned on an "as-availab
le" basisin the Apple
Ilgs. However, you can use the ORG if you want to specify a specific load addres
s for an object file.
NOTE: For Linker GS, the default SAV type is S16. Only one output file is suppor
ted, and there is a
maximum length of the final file of about 32K for the code portion and another 3
2K for the relocation
dictionary. LINKER.XL does not have these restrictions.
The main reason for using the GS Linker will be for creating application program
s to run under
ProDOS 16. Such files cannot be called from an Applesoft program, since ProDOS 1
6 is not available
to Applesoft. In addition, the file format is such that a relocating dictionary
is included as part of the
final output object file. Thus, BLOADing it and listing it in the Monitor would
reveal a certain
amount of additional data saved with the file.

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In addition to the linker commands of the standard Linker, the GS Linker has the
following commands:
VER (version)
VER $01
This is used to specify the version of the OMF, i.e. the System Loader, that is
to be used with the
output object file. Versions 1 and 2 are supported. Thus, the operand must be $1
or $2. The VER
instruction should come before any other linking instructions except ASMs, which
are not dependent on
the version of the Loader in use. ProDOS 16 version 1.2 uses version 2 of the lo
ader format, and this
is the default version used by the GS Linker if VER is not specified. You will h
ave to decide what
OMF version to use. If you specify OMF version 1, your file can be loaded by any
version of ProDOS
16. If you specify OMF version 2, ProDOS 16 vers. 1.2 or later will be required.

KND address
KND $80
KND $8000
This specifies the value that you want put in the KIND location of the OMF heade
r. You would use 1
byte for VER $1 and 2 bytes for VER $2. This must come after the VER so that the
format is known
to the Linker. If in doubt, ignore this command and accept the default.
ALI address
ALI $10000
This specifies the ALIGN field in the file header. It defaults to 0. Use only $1
0000 to align to a bank
boundary or $100 to align to a page boundary. In most cases, you should leave th
is at the default 0.
NOTE: Our tests indicate that the bank align does not work on OMF version 1.
DS address
DS $2000
This tells the Linker to reserve this number of bytes to be zeroed by the loader
at the END of the
program. This number is put in the RESSPC field of the header. Using this instea
d of reserving space
with a DS in the source file will result in smaller object files.
QUICK LINK (LINKER.GS ONLY)
In LINKER.GS, but not in the other Linkers, the command LINK =, or simply LINK w
ithout a file
name, from the Command Box will assemble the file given by the default file name
, i.e. the name
appearing when you give the Load or Save commands from the Main Menu, then will
link the resulting
file. This assumes that a LNK file was produced by the DSK and REL opcodes. The
linked file will
then be saved using the name of the LNK file with the last two characters cut of
f.

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It is suggested that you add a .L suffix to the DSK filename, i.e. MYFILE.L, so
the saved file will be
MYFILE. For example, a source file with the lines:
REL
DSK MYFILE.L
could be saved to disk, and then assembled and linked with the Editor LINK comma
nd, and the final
object file will be saved on the disk under the name MYFILE.
NOTE: This command does not require a linker command file, and that it uses the
defaults in the Link
which produces an S16 filerype in object module format version 2, and of "kind"
$1000, i.e. code
segment that cannot be loaded to special memory. This syntax should not be used
if you wish load
preferences different than the defaults, or if you require the advanced features
of a command file. The
command LINK1 can be used to produce a file in object module format 1 of "kind"
and type S 16.
If there is a source file in memory when this command is issued, you will be ask
ed if it is OK to save
the source file to disk using the current name. If you agree, that file will aut
omatically be saved under
the default file name Caution: this can be dangerous. If the workspace is empty
when the LINK
command is used, then the file given by the default file name will be loaded, as
sembled, linked and the
object file saved.
MULTIPLE LNK INPUT FILES
If you have multiple LNK files being linked to create the final object file, you
should use a command
file. However, Linker.GS does provide a short-cut way of linking up to 10 LNK fi
les without requiring
a command file. If the LNK file produced by the assembly has a name ending in ".
x" where x is a digit
from to 9, i.e. MYFILE. 3, then the Linker will not immediately link that file i
nto the output file.
Instead, it will look for the file with the same name but ending in .0, i.e. MYF
ILE. 0, and will link that
file with subsequently numbered LNK object files, i.e. MYFILE. 1, MYFILE.2, MYFI
LE.3, etc., until
it finds no more.
Up to 10 files can be linked without using a linker command file with this metho
d. Note that only the
default name source file is re-assembled. The source files for the other LNK fil
es in the sequence are not
assembled; only the LNK files are used as is, in the final object file. If a fil
e is missing from the
sequence, i.e. MYFILE.2 not present on the disk, the linking is terminated at th
at point, although no
error is generated. Thus some care must be taken to make sure that all the neede
d files are on the disk.

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USING THE GS LINKER

Because the GS Linker is used most often for linking a single input file, and cr
eating a ProDOS 16
application of some sort, this example will demonstrate a simple ProDOS 16 progr
am that waits for a
keypress, and then returns to whatever program launched it.
Notice that the characteristic ENT and EXT, etc. items do not show up, since the
primary goal is to just
produce a single OMF file that can be loaded and run by a ProDOS 16 program laun
cher.

******
* S

******************* *******
IMPLE PI 6 SYSTEM FILE *
* MERLIN 16 ASSEMBLER *
********************************

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10 PRODOS
11 KYBD
12 STROBE
13 SCREEN
14
15 ENTRY
16
17
18 PRINT
19 LOOP
20
21
22
23
24
25
2 6 GETKEY
27
28
29
30
31
32 QUIT
33
34
35
36
37
38 PARMBL
39 FLAG
40
41 ERROR
42
43 MSSG

MX %00
REL
DSK P16. SYSTEM. L

EQU
EQU
EQU
EQU
PHK
PLB
LDX
LDA
BEQ
STAL
INX
INX
BNE

CMP
BCC

JSL
DA

BRK
ASC

FULL 16 BIT MODE

RELOCATABLE OUTPUT

$E100A8
$O0COO0
$OOC010
$000400

#$00
MSSG,X
GETKEY
SCREEN ,X

LOOP

LDAL KYBD
AND #$00FF
#$0080
GETKEY

STAL STROBE

PRODOS
$29

ADRL PARMBL
BCS ERROR
BRK $00
ADRL $0000
DA $00

$00

; PRODOS 16 ENTRY POINT

; LINE 1 ON SCREEN
; GET PROGRAM BANK
; SET DATA BANK
; INIT X-REG
; GET CHAR TO PRINT
; END OF MSSG.
; "PRINT 14 IT
; NEXT TWO CHARS
; X = X + 2
; WRAP-AROUND PROTECT
; CHECK KEYBOARD
; CLEAR HI BYTE
; KEYPRESS?
; NOPE
; CLEAR KEYPRESS
; DO QUIT CALL
; QUIT CODE
; ADDRESS OF PARM TABLE
; NEVER TAKEN
; SHOULD NEVER GET HERE,
; PTR TO PATHNAME
; ABSOLUTE QUIT
; WE'LL NEVER GET HERE?

"PLEASE PRESS A KEY -> " ; EVEN NUMBER OF CHARACTERS

SYMBOL TABLE
The symbol table is printed after assembly unless LST OFF has been used. It is d
isplayed first sorted
alphabetically and then sorted numerically. The symbol table can be canceled at
any time by pressing
Control-C. Stopping it in this manner will have no ill effect on the object code
which was generated.
The symbol table is flagged as follows:
MD = Macro Definition
M = Label defined within a Macro
V = Variable (symbols starting with "]")
? = A symbol that was defined but never referenced
X = External symbol
E = Entry symbol
Local labels are not shown in the symbol table listing. In Merlin 16, this can b
e enabled by changing
the PARMS file.
When in EDIT mode, Merlin 8/16 takes total control of input and output. The effe
ct of typing a control
character will be as described in this manual and not as described in the manual
for your 80 column card.
For example, Control-L will not blank the screen, but is the case toggle. Contro
l-A, which acts as a
case toggle on many 80 column cards, will not do this in the Editor and simply p
roduces a Control-A in
the line being edited.
ULTRATERM INFORMATION
The Ultraterm is an 80 column display card manufactured by Videx. If you do not
have this card, skip
to the next page. When in the Editor, the Ultraterm mode can be altered by the E
SCAPE sequence
given in the Ultraterm manual. Thus, the following commands give the indicated e
ffects:

ESCO 40x24 same effect as VID $10 or 16

ESC 1 80 x 24 standard character set
ESC 2 96 x 24
ESC 3 160 x 24
ESC 4 80 x 24 high quality character set
ESC 5 80 x 32

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Technical Information

ESC 6 80 x 48
ESC 7 132 x 24
ESC 8 128 x 32
Exit to the Main Menu will return to the default state as set up in the HELLO pr
ogram for DOS 3.3 or
the PARMS file for ProDOS. The same is true of a VID 3 command.
Except for the normal 24 x 80 format, support for the Ultraterm depends on the c
ard being in slot 3.
There may be problems if you try to send things to the printer while in some of
the Ultraterm modes.
It is recommended that you switch to 40 columns before doing this. Using a PRTRl
"<Control-I>80N"
command sometimes overcomes the problem
MEMORY ALLOCATION WITH MERLIN 8/16
The memory areas $300-$3EF in main memory and $800-$FFF in auxiliary memory are
available for
user supplied USER and USR routines. The page 3 area in main memory is intended
for I/O interface
routines. One cannot send a character to COUT, for example, from auxiliary memor
y. Merlin does not
use these areas. Zero page locations $90-$9F are not used by Merlin and are rese
rved for USER routines
(note that the XREF program uses these locations). Zero page locations $60-$6F a
re reserved for user
supplied routines and may be used as you wish. No other zero page locations are
available.
CONFIGURING MERLIN 8 (ProDOS)
Configuration data is kept in a file called PARMS which is loaded when the assem
bler is run. To
change the data just change the \+Italic\source\-Italic\ file PARMS.S and reasse
mble it.
To load the file, set the prefix to /MERLIN 8 and type L to load a source file.
Then type
SOURCE/PARMS at the prompt. When you are done making changes, reassemble the fil
e. Use S to
SAVE the source code as /MERLIN/S OURCE/PARMS . Remember that Merlin 8 adds the
.S suffix
automatically. Then save the object code as /MERLIN/PARMS by using the O command
.
CONFIGURING MERLIN 8 (DOS 3.3)
The data statements in the Applesoft boot program HELLO contain the configuation
information. To
change the data just LOAD HELLO, change the data in the DATA statements and SAVE
HELLO.
DATA DESCRIPTION FOR MERLIN 8 CONFIGURATIONS
DATA # DEFAULT PURPOSE
1 60 Number of lines per page (for PRTR) .
2 Lines to skip at page perforation (0 sends a form feed
character.
3 80 Number of characters per line (for PRTR).

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On the DOS 3.3 version of Merlin 8 are files called MERLIN.CORVUS and MERLIN.COR
VUS.X.
Normally, the DOS 3.3 version of Merlin 8 makes certain patches to DOS 3.3 to al
low faster file
loading, and the optional cancelling of a Catalog at the screen pause. With hard
disks, RAM disks,
DOS 3.3 for 3.5" disks, or any other custom version of DOS 3.3, the standard ver
sion of Merlin 8 may
not work properly. The files MERLIN.CORVUS and MERLIN.CORVUS.X are versions of M
erlin 8
which do not modify DOS 3.3 in any way, and are thus compatible with the Corvus
and other custom
DOS 3.3 software. To use the file called MERLIN.CORVUS, rename the file called M
ERLIN to
TEMP.MERLIN and then rename MERLIN.CORVUS to MERLIN. MERLIN.CORVUS.X is a main
memory version of MERLIN.CORVUS, which you may want to use if you are using the
SpeeDemon
accelerator card instead of MERLIN. X.
CONFIGURING MERLIN 16
Merlin 16 can be customized by re-assembling the file PARMS.S in the SOURCE dire
ctory of the
Merlin 16 diskette. The object file, PARMS, must be saved to the same directory
that Merlin.System
is located in.

THE MERLIN 16 PARMS FILE

Here is a listing of the PARMS.S file for Merlin 16. By examining the comments,
you can see which
attributes of the assembler can be changed.
2 * PARMS for Merlin. 16
3 *
4
5 TR ADR
6 TR

7
8 Y
9 y
10 N
11 n
12
13 SAVOBJ

EQU
EQU
EQU
EQU

KBD

1
1
"Save object code? (Y,N) H

14
15
16

ORG

$8000

17 DATA

ORG

$E4F3

18
19
20
21
22

DFB
DFB
DFB
DFB

80
$80

# lines/page for PRTR

Page skip {formfeed if 0)
# printer columns
- if printer does CR at

Page 170

Merlin 8/16 User's Manual

Technical Information

23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75

ORG
ORG
DFB

$E009
$83

end of # columns

;80 col flag (DO NOT CHANGE

; except V-bit which will
; cause ProDOS to be moved
; to aux memory and Merlin
; to load into main memory.
; I.e., use $C3 for this.)

Source address must be $901 or above.

It can be set higher to protect an area

SOURCE

above

$900 for

any purpose:
$901

SOURCE

; Start of source

$9E00

; Reserved

SOURCE

;End of source

DFB

;main menu accepts RTN as

; if this is set to $FF

DFB

;# of symbol columns

Following flags byte has all bits significant:

Bit 7 = print date on page header of assembly.
Bit 6 = return to main menu after a key press
at end of an assembly, or to full screen editor
at point of error if an assembly abort occurs
(or also if REL is active). If this bit is 0,
and bit is 1, then it goes to the command line
editor.
Bit 5 = linkers should check auxtype bit of
source files to decide whether to do assemblies.
Bits 4,3 = default XC mode:
00 = defaults to 6502
10 = 65C02 mode
11 = 65816 mode
(Do not use other values.)
Bits 2,1 = default MX mode on entry:
00 = full 16-bit mode on entry
10 = short M, long X
01 = long M, short X
11 = 8 bit mode
Bit 0, if set, enables command line editor access.

DFB

%11111110 ;Misc flags, see above

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Merlin 8/16 User's Manual

Technical Information

76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
S2
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128

DFB 9,15,26 ; Default tabs

DFB 4 ;# obj bytes/line after 1st
K _ - -. .
* Following flags byte has 3 high bits significant:
*
* Bit 7 = wait forever for key upon assembly error.
* Bit 6 = defeat most bells if set.
* Bit 5 = do not pause or sound alarm on an assembly
* error (must also have bit 7 clear for this) .
*
* Low nibble is Ultraterm entry mode:
*
* Eg., $05, $45, $85, etc give 32x80 interlace mode.

DFB $05

DFB %01000000

;Bell flags & UT mode.

Upper case convert mode
when entering full screen
editor if negative.
(Conversion is done for
label, opcode and operand
fields only and only when
tabs are not zeroed.)
V-bit = default cursor
mode, l=insert cursor

* Following flags byte has 5 significant bits:

Bit 7 = assembler is label case insensitive if on

Bit 6 = defeat screen ed screen blank, if on.
Bit 5 = enable list of local labels, if on.
Bit 1 = LSTDO default, DO off areas not listed if
this bit is on (and default not overridden)
Bit = defeat shift to 40 columns on PRTR1, if
bit is on {shift only occurs when Ultraterm
is active with more than 24 rows, so it is
best to leave this bit as is (off) ) .
DFB %01000000 ; case senst., no blanking
DFB 80-8 ; Column for cycle count

ORG
ORG $B23E
DFB $9F&"[

;Catalog abort key, now ESC

Page 172

Merlin 8/16 User's Manual Technical Information

129 ORG
130
131 ERR *-DATA-23 ;23 data bytes to here.
132
133 * User file type names:
134
;Adrs subject to change

135

orc:

9D OD

136

137

ASC

"$F1 H
138

ASC

"$F2"

139

ASC

$F3"

140

ASC

"$F4"

141

ASC

"$F5"

142

ASC

"$F6

143

ASC

$F7"

144
145

ORG

146

147

ERR

*-DATA-

148
14 9 * ================================== = ====m
150 * Screen editor variable parameters:
151 * Cursors are: insert, find in insert mode,
152 * overstrike, find in overstrike mode.
153 *
154
155 ORG $DFBC
156
157 CURSORS INV 'IF F'
158
159 DFB $A0 ; Cursor blink rate
160
161 *===========================================
162 * Screen editor cmd chars:
163 * The cursor keys (although here) must NOT
164 * be changed or the editor will not work
165 * correctly.
1 66 *
167

168

DFB

$9F&"U"

; Don't change

169

DFB

$88

. ii
r

170

DFB

$9F&"I"

;Tab key insert toggle

171

DFB

$9F "T"

; A T (remember this place)

172
DFB

$9F&"B"

;Go to line beginning

173

DFB

$9F&"N"

;Go to line end

174

DFB

$9F&"R"

/Cancel changes

175

DFB

$9F&"S"

; Status box

176

DFB

$9F H F"

;Find char

177
DFB

$9F&"W"

;Next word

178

DFB

$9F&"L"

; Toggle uc/lc auto shift

179

DFB

$9F&"D"

; Delete char under cursor

180

DFB

$FF

/Delete previous char

181

DFB

$9F& H Y"

;Clear to end-of-line
Page 173

Merlin 8/16 User

Technical Information

182

DFB

$9Ft"0"

/Accept next key literal

183

184

* Odpti 3'D'dIp

Icpv rvnci ^ *

mil q1~ bp nrir^pr

185

186

DFB

#"X"

;Cut
187

DFB

#"C M

188

DFB

#V"

Paste

189

DFB

1 lip II

Find

190

DFB

#"W H

! Fi nd wnrrl

191

DFB

#"E"

/Exchange text
192

DFB

#"T"

; Go to A T splprtpri noint

193

DFB

$9FS"I H

; Insert line at cursor

194

DFB

#"1"

. ii

195

DFB

$9Fi" ["

; Go to cmd line ed if enabled

196

DFB

#"B"

;Go to beginning
197

DFB

#"N"

Go to end

DFB

#"8"

j Li np of ?) ^tpri

208

DFB

#"9 M

/Line bordered by asterisks

209

DFB

#"-"

/Line of dashes

210

DFB

#" = "

; Line of equal signs

211

DFB

#"1"
;PRTR1 + assemble

212

DFB

# M 2"

;PRTR1 + USER + assemble

213

DFB

#"3"

;PRTR3 + assemble

214

DFB

#"4"

;PRTR3 + USER + assemble

215

DFB

# "A"

;ASM command

216

DFB

#"0"
Quit to rn^in TTipnn

217

DFB

#"H"

;Tocralp ^olit ^rrppn

218

DFB

#"0"

; Ooen command box

219

DFB

#6"

;LINK (for LINKER. GS only)

220

DFB

1 " R "

/Replace line

221
222

ORG

223

224

ERR

*-DATA-99

225

226

227 * Printer init string, used when PRTR

228 * issued with empty first string.
229 * A CR is always issued after the
230 * string, so none need be here.
231 *
232
233 ORG $DBF0
234

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Merlin 8/16 User's Manual

Technical Information

235 DS 15 ; PRTR init default string

236
237 ORG
238
239 ERR *-DATA-114
240
241 *=========================
242 * Default STARTUP file:
243 *
244
245 ORG $2006
246
247 STUP STR "LINKER. GS" ; You can change this string
248
249 DS $40-*+STUP ; but not this line
250
251 ORG
252
253 ERR *-DATA-178
254
255 * ================================
256 * The PARMS file must be in the
257 * SAME DIRECTORY as MERLIN. SYSTEM
258 *
259
2 60 DO SAVOBJ
2 61 SAV PARMS
262 FIN

Screen Blanking
The PARMS file for Merlin 16 supports an optional setting for telling Merlin 16
to blank the screen if
nothing is typed for an extended period. Pressing any key, such as Return, will
restore the normal
screen display.
This is intended to protect your monitor screen in situations where the computer
is left unattended for
long periods of time, and Merlin 16 is the only program generally run on that co
mputer. Any video
image will tend to "bum" itself into a monitor screen if left on continuously fo
r several hours a day,
every day, for a period of many months. Note this is not a specific problem to M
erlin 8/16.
You should not concern yourself with this unless you are in a working environmen
t where the Merlin
16 menu is left on all day when the computer is unattended.
Because it can be disconcerting to have the screen suddenly go blank if you are
not aware of this feature,
Merlin 16 is shipped with this feature disabled. To enable screen blanking, set
the high bit of the flag
near line 120 of the Merlin 16 PARMS.S file. See the comments in the source list
ing for details.

Page 175

Merlin 8/16 User's Manual

Technical Information

MERLIN 8/16 MEMORY MAPS

Merlin 16 - ProDOS
BankO
$FFFF

SCOOOn

$900 i

$800
$400
$3F0

$300
$200
$100
$oL

I/O locations

Merlin ProDOS interpreter

Macros
(USE files)
mfflffikifrmmmi L I L L L L L L LUL UUHU JM M

Unused space
www^w^w wmM mm

Source file

Editor & Assembler

Workspace
Text screen use

Misc. Vectors

I/O interfaces for

USER routines

Stack

Zero Page

$FFFF

$D000
$C000h

$1800

$800
$400

$300
$200
$100h
$o[

Bankl

Monitor

Merlin 16
I/O locations

Object code and

linking dictionary

Symbol table
or Clipboard

USER programs
(XREF, etc.)
or
(free space)

80 col. screen use

Free space

Merlin's Stack

Merlin's Zero Page

Page 176

Merlin 8/16 User's Manual

Technical Information

Merlin 8 - ProDOS

BankO

$FFFFa
ProDOS

$D000h
$C000

SA600
($9E00with|
Screen Editor)

S900

$800.
$400
$3F0

$300h
$200
$100
$0

I/O locations

Merlin ProDOS interpreter

Macros
(USE files)

Unused space

www
Source file

Editor & Assembler

Workspace

Text screen use

Misc. Vectors

I/O interfaces for

USER routines

$FFFF
$F800U

$D00O
$C000

$8000

$1000

$800h
$400.

Bankl

Monitor

Merlin 8

VO locations
Object code and
linking dictionary

Symbol table
or Clipboard

USER programs
(XREF, etc.)
or
(free space)

80 col. screen use

Free space

Merlin's Stack

Merlin's Zero Page

Page 177

Merlin 8/16 User's Manual

Technical Information
Merlin 8 - DOS 3.3

BankO

Bank 1

J
1

Monitor

Integer BASIC
(if loaded)

VO locations

DOS 3 J

Macros
(USE files) ,
f ...

Unused space

Source file

Editor & Assembler

Workspace

Text screen use

Misc. Vectors

I/O interfaces for

USER routines
1

Input Buffer

Stack
1

1 Zero Page

$FFFF
SF800

$D000n
$C000i

$8000

$1000

$800
$400

$300
$200
$100

Monitor

Merlin 8

I/O locations
Object code and
linking dictionary

Symbol table
or Clipboard

USER programs
(XREF, etc)
or
(free space)

80 col. screen use

Free space

Used by XREF

Merlin's Stack

j0 ^ Merlin's Zero Page

Page 178

f
Merlin 8/16 User's Manual

Error Messages

ERROR MESSAGES
BAD ADDRESS MODE
The addressing mode is not a valid 6502 instruction; for example, JSR (LABEL) or
LDX
(LABEL),Y.
BAD BRANCH
A branch (BEQ, BCC, etc.) to an address that is out of range, i.e. further away
than +127 bytes.
NOTE: Most errors will throw off the assembler's address calculations. Bad branc
h errors should
be ignored until previous errors have been resolved.
BAD EXTERNAL
EXT or ENT in a macro or an equate of a label to an expression containing an ext
ernal, or a branch
to an external (use JMP).
BAD INPUT
This results from either no input, i.e. Return alone or an input exceeding 37 ch
aracters in answer to
the KBD opcode's request for the value of a label.
BAD LABEL
This is caused by an unlabeled EQU, MAC, ENT or EXT, or a label that is greater
than 13
characters, or one containing illegal characters. A label must begin with a char
acter at least as large
in ASCII value as the colon and may not contain any characters less than the dig
it zero.
BAD OBJ
An OBJ after code start or OBJ not within $4000 to $BFE0.
BAD OPCODE
Occurs when the opcode is not valid, or misspelled, or the opcode is in the labe
l column.
BAD ORG
Results from an ORG at the start of a REL file.

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Merlin 8/16 User's Manual

Error Messages

Sourceror

SOURCEROR
Sourceror is a sophisticated and easy to use co-resident disassembler designed t
o create Merlin 8/16
source files out of binary programs, usually in a matter of minutes. There are t
wo versions of
Sourceror in Merlin 8/16. Sourceror on the Merlin 16 disk disassembles 6502, 65C
02, 65802 and
65816 object code. Sourceror on the Merlin 8 diskettes disassembles 6502, 65C02,
and 65802 object
code and is not designed for use on the Ilgs.
USING SOURCEROR ON MERLIN 16
To use Sourceror on the Merlin 16 diskette, follow these steps:
1. From the Main Menu, press D for Disk Command.
2. At the Disk Command prompt type: BRUN SOURCEROR/OBJ
3. Press F to enter the Editor.
4. Press Open-Apple-0 to open the Command Box.
5. Type DIS "MYFILE" where MYF1LE is the name of the object file to be disassemb
led.
The DIS command is available in Merlin 16 only and uses the following syntaxes:
DIS "MYFILE" [ disassemble MYFILE at the original running address ]
DIS $1000"MYFILE" [ disassemble MYFILE at the specified address of $1000 ]
SYS files are always assumed to have a running address of $2000. If a non-zero a
ddress is specified in
the DIS command, that address is taken as the initial running address. If the ad
dress is not specified,
the Merlin 16 Sourceror uses the information in the AUXTYPE field for the runnin
g address.
USING SOURCEROR ON MERLIN 8
NOTE: On the ProDOS version of Merlin 8, the Full Screen Editor uses the same pa
rt of memory as
Sourceror. Therefore you will have to temporarily deactivate the Full Screen Edi
tor. This is not
necessary with the DOS 33 version of Merlin 8.
To deactivate the Full Screen Editor on Merlin 8 ProDOS version:
1. From the Main Menu, press D for Disk Command.

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Merlin 8/16 User's Manual Sourceror

2. At the Disk Command prompt type: BRUN /MERLIN.8/UTILITIES/REMOVE.ED
To use Sourceror on the Merlin 8 diskette, follow these steps:
1. Merlin 8 DOS 3.3 version
From the Main Menu, press C to Catalog.
At the Command prompt, type BRUN SOURCEROR and press Return.
Merlin 8 ProDOS version
After deactivating the editor as shown above, you should be at the Disk Command
prompt.
At the Disk Command prompt, type BRUN /MERLIN.8/SOURCEROR/OBJ and press Return.
2. Merlin 8 DOS 3.3 version
Press E to enter the Editor.
Merlin 8 ProDOS version
Press Return to go back to the Main Menu.
Press E to enter the Editor.
3 . Press Escape Control-Q to set the screen to 40 columns.
The USER command will be ignored and Sourceror will not run if the 80 column scr
een is in effect.
Do not use Escape 4 to change to 40 columns.
4. From the 40 column screen, type USER and press Return.
5. You will be prompted to "Load an object file?"
If you have loaded the object file prior to using Sourceror, press N.
If you have not loaded an object file yet, press Y and enter the filename. It wi
ll be loaded showing
the load address and end of program address. After you have noted these addresse
s, press any key.
NOTE: If you type Control-S after the filename to be loaded, files using a RAM v
ersion of SWEET
16 can be disassembled.
7. If you have loaded a file prior to using Sourceror you will be prompted regar
ding the location of the
object code.
Press Return if the program to be disassembled is at its original (running) loca
tion.
If not, you must specify in hex the present location of the code to be disassemb
led. You will also
be prompted to give the original location of that program.

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Merlin 8/16 User's Manual

Sourceror

8. The Sourceror Main Menu appears.

Your first command must include a hex address. Thereafter this is optional, as e
xplained shortly.
You may now start disassembling or use any of the other commands.
NOTE: When disassembling, you must use the original address of the program, not
the address
where the program currently resides. It will appear that you are disassembling t
he program at its
original location, but Sourceror is actually disassembling the code at its prese
nt location and translating
the addresses.
65C02 OPCODES ON OLDER IIE/IIC COMPUTERS
To disassemble 65C02 codes with the older He/lie ROMs, you must first BRUN the f
ile called
MON.65C02 on the Merlin 8 diskette.
If you are using Merlin 8 DOS 3.3, before using Sourceror, you must quit to BASI
C from the Main
Menu, then type BRUN MON.65C02 and press Return.
For the ProDOS version of Merlin 8, type in D for Disk Command at the Main Menu,
and then BRUN
/MERLIN/UTIL/MON.65C02 and press Return.
See the information on using the XC opcode for details on assembling 65C02 progr
ams.
This utility is not needed with the enhanced He or He (Unidisk 3.5 compatible) R
OMs.
DISASSEMBLY COMMANDS
Your first command must include a hex address. Therefore, if you wanted to list
the first 20 lines and
the starting address was $8000, at the $ prompt you would type 8000L and press R
eturn. All
commands accept a 4-digit hex address before the command letter. If this number
is omitted after the
first command, the disassembly continues from its present address.
If you specify a number greater than the present address, a new ORG will be crea
ted.
More commonly, you will specify an address less than the present default value.
In this case, the
disassembler checks to see if this address equals the address of one of the prev
ious lines. If so, it simply
backs up to that point. If not, then it backs up to the next used address and cr
eates a new ORG.
Subsequent source lines are erased. It is generally best to avoid new ORGs when
possible. If you get a
new ORG and don't want it, try backing up a bit more until you no longer get a n
ew ORG upon
disassembly.

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Merlin 8/16 User's Manual

Sourceror

This backup feature allows you to repeat a disassembly if you have, for example,
used a HEX or other
command, and then change your mind.

H (Hex)
This creates the HEX data opcode. It defaults to one byte of data. If you insert
a one byte hex number
using one or two digits after the H, that number of data bytes will be generated
.
L (List)
This is the main disassembly command. It disassembles 20 lines of code. It may b
e used in multiples,
thus 2000LLL will disassemble 60 lines of code starting at $2000. In the Merlin
8 Sourceror, if a JSR
to the SWEET 16 interpreter is found, disassembly is automatically switched to t
he SWEET 16 mode.
The L command always continues the present mode of disassembly, SWEET 16 or norm
al.
NOTE: If an illegal opcode is encountered, the bell will sound and opcode will b
e printed as three
question marks in flashing format. This is only to call your attention to the si
tuation. In the source
code itself, unrecognized opcodes are converted to HEX data, but are not display
ed on the screen.
N (Normal - Merlin 8 only)
This is the same as L, but forces disassembly to start in normal 6502 mode.
O (Org - Merlin 16 only)
This command can be used to change the ORG on the fly during disassembly. It is
useful for programs
that move code to other locations after loading. The syntax for this command is
address O newaddress.
Do not use any spaces in this command syntax, and note that it uses the letter O
and not zero.
ADRS ONEW ADRS [ backup to ADRS and place and ORG to NEWADRS there ]
Therefore a command of 10450300 followed by a Return would tell Sourceror to bac
kup to address
1045 and place an ORG $300 there.

Q (Quit)
This ends disassembly and goes to the final processing which is automatic. If yo
u type an address
before the Q, the address pointer is backed to, but does not include, that point
before the processing.
For example, if at the end of the disassembly, the lines included:

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Merlin 8/16 User's Manual

Sourceror

2341- 4C 03 E0
2344- A9 BE 94

JMP 5E003
LDA $94BE,Y

and the last line was garbage, you could type 2344Q and press Return. This would
cancel the last line,
but retain all the previous lines.

In Merlin 8, this allows you to look at memory in a format that makes imbedded t
ext stand out. For
example, to look at the data from $1000 to $10FF, you would type 1000R and press
Return. After
that, R and Return will bring up the next page of memory. The numbers you use fo
r this command are
totally independent of the disassembly address.
You may also disassemble, then use (address)R and Return, then L and Return, and
the disassembly will
proceed just as if you never used R at all. If you don't intend to use the defau
lt address when you return
to disassembly, it may be wise to note where you wanted to resume, or to use the
/ command before the
R command. Merlin 16 prints ASCII during disassembly.
S (SWEET 16 - Merlin 8 only)
This is similar to L, but forces the disassembly to start in SWEET 16 mode. SWEE
T 16 mode returns
to normal 6502 mode whenever the SWEET 16 RTN opcode is found.
T or TT (Text)
This attempts to disassemble the data at the current address as an ASCII string.
Depending on the form
of the data, this will automatically be disassembled under the pseudo-opcode ASC
, DCI, INV or FLS.
The appropriate delimiter ( " or ') is automatically chosen. The disassembly wil
l end when the data
encountered is inappropriate, or when 62 characters have been treated, or when t
he high bit of the data
changes. In the last condition, the ASC opcode is automatically changed to DCL
Sometimes the change to DCI is inappropriate. This change can be defeated by usi
ng TT instead of T
in the command.
Occasionally, the disassembled string may not stop at the appropriate place beca
use the following code
looks like ASCII data to Sourceror. In this event, you may limit the number of c
haracters put into the
string by inserting a one or two digit hex number after the T command.
T or TT may also have to be used to establish the correct boundary between a reg
ular ASCII string and a
flashing one. It is usually obvious where this should be done.

R (Read)

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Merlin 8/16 User's Manual

Sourceror

W, WW, or W- (Word)
This disassembles the next two bytes at the current location as a DA opcode. Opt
ionally, if the
command WW is used, these bytes are disassembled as a DDB opcode.
If W- is used as the command, the two bytes are disassembled in the form DA LAB
EL- 1. The latter is
often the appropriate form when the program uses the address by pushing it on th
e stack. You may
detect this while disassembling, or after the program has been disassembled. In
the latter case, it may
be to your advantage to do the disassembly again with some notes in hand.
/ (Cancel)
This essentially cancels the last command. More exactly, it re-establishes the l
ast default address (the
address used for a command not necessarily attached to an address). This is a us
eful convenience which
allows you to ignore the typing of an address when a backup is desired.
As an example, suppose you type T to disassemble some text. You may not know wha
t to expect
following the text, so you can just type L to look at it. Then if the text turns
out to be followed by
some HEX data such as $8D for a carriage return, simply type / to cancel the L a
nd type the appropriate
H command.

MERLIN 16 SOURCEROR NOTES

Sourceror on the Merlin 16 disk is fully 65816 compatible. It attempts to follow
the flow of the
program in assigning the length of immediate operands, thus changing REP, SEP, a
nd XCE when
appropriate. Since this cannot always be successful, you can reset this mode by
using an address with
the L command. When an address is used with the L command, the M and X status bi
ts are taken from
the byte following the L. The default is MX = 00. Thus, 1012L01 and Return would
restart the
disassembly at $1012 with a long M and a short X, and MX would be set to 01.
The reversed DDB is not supported in the Merlin 16 version of Sourceror. Instead
, you can use the WW
command to generate a 4-byte long address using the psuedo-op ADRL.
The Merlin 16 Sourceror only uses the 80 column screen.
SOURCEROR XL
For large object files, there is an alternative version of Sourceror on the Merl
in 16 disk. To load it
from the Main Menu Disk Command prompt, you would type BRUN SOURCEROR/XL and pre
ss
Return. This version disassembles to disk instead of memory. The files are place
d in the current prefix
directory active at the time the DIS command is issued.

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FINAL PROCESSING
After the Q command, the program does some last minute processing of the assembl
ed code. If you
press Reset at this time, you will return to Merlin 8/16 and lose the disassembl
ed code.
The processing may take from a second or two for a short program and up to sever
al minutes for a long
one. Be patient.
When the processing is done, you are returned to Merlin 8/16 with the newly crea
ted source in the
Editor. You can use the Editor to edit or assemble the listing. After a successf
ul assembly, you can
save the new code with the Main Menu Save Source and Save Object Code commands.
NOTE: If you are using the ProDOS version of Merlin 8, you can enter the Editor
and type USER1 to
get rid of Sourceror and free up the memory used by the disassembler. This is no
t necessary in the
DOS 3.3 version.

MODIFYING THE FINISHED SOURCE

In most cases, after you have some experience and assuming you used reasonable c
are, the source will
have few, if any, defects.
You may notice that some DA's would be more appropriate in a DA LABEL- 1 or a DD
B LABEL
format. In such cases, it may be best to do the disassembly again with some note
s in hand. The
disassembly is so quick and painless that it is often much easier than trying to
alter the source directly.
The source will have all the exterior or otherwise unrecognized labels at the en
d in a table of equates.
You should look at this table closely. It should not contain any zero page equat
es except ones resulting
from DA's, JMP's or JSR's. This is almost a sure sign of an error in the disasse
mbly (yours, not
Sourceror's). It may have resulted from an attempt to disassemble a data area as
regular code.
NOTE: If you try to assemble the source under these conditions, you will get an
error as soon as the
equates appear. If, as eventually you should, you move the equates to the start
of the program, you will
not get an error, but the assembly may not be correct.
It is important to deal with this situation immediately since trouble could occu
r if, for example, the
disassembler finds the data AD008D. It will disassemble it correctly, as LDA $00
8D. The assembler
always assembles this code as a zero page instruction, giving the two bytes A5 8
D. Occasionally you
will find a program that uses this form for a zero page instruction. In that cas
e, you will have to insert
a character after the LDA opcode to have it assemble identically to its original
form. Since it was data
in the first place rather than code, it must be dealt with to get a correct asse
mbly.

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THE MEMORY FULL MESSAGE

When the source File reaches within $600 bytes of the end of its available space
you will see MEMORY
FULL and be prompted to HIT A KEY. Sourceror will then go directly to the final
processing. The
reason for the $600 byte gap is that Sourceror needs a certain amount of space f
or this processing.
There is an optional override provision at the memory full point. If you press C
ontrol-0 for override,
then Sourceror will return for another command. You can use this to specify the
desired ending point.
You can also use it to go a little further than Sourceror wants you to, and disa
ssemble a few more lines.
Obviously, you should not carry this to extremes. If you get too close to the en
d of available space,
Sourceror will no longer accept this overide and will automatically start the fi
nal processing.
CHANGING SOURCEROR'S LABEL TABLES
The label tables used by Sourceror are just assembled Merlin 8/16 source files.
The source file is called
LABEL. S and is on the Merlin 8/16 diskettes. It can be modified directly by the
user. It must be
assembled and saved under the same name as the previous label file, i.e. you hav
e to replace the old
existing file.
If you have several label tables you wish to use, you may want to just rename th
em. For example, you
could keep TABLE.DOS, TABLE.PRODOS, etc. on the disk, and then just rename the f
ile as you
needed it to LABELS.

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Sourceror.FP

APPLESOFT SOURCE LISTING

SOURCEROR.FP
A fully labeled and commented source listing of Applesoft BASIC can be generated
by the program
called Sourceror.FP which is on side 2 of the Merlin 8 ProDOS diskette. Please n
ote that Sourceror
and Sourceror FP are two entirely different programs. Sourceror is the disassemb
ler in Merlin 8/16;
Sourceror.FP is a separate program that produces the source listing of Applesoft
BASIC. If you are
looking for details on the disassembler, see the section on Sourceror.
Sourceror.FP works by scanning the resident copy of Applesoft present in your co
mputer and generating
text files called Aplsoft.A, Aplsoft.B, AplsofLC, and Aplsoft.D.
To conserve space, these files contain macros that are defined in another file o
n the disk entitled
Applesoft.S. This file, when assembled using the PRTR command, will print out a
nicely formatted
disassembly of Applesoft, automatically bringing in and using the Apsof t files
as necessary. Exact
details on doing this are outlined below.
NOTE: This is not an official source listing from Apple Computer, Inc., but rath
er a product of the
Author's own research and interpretation of the original Applesoft ROM. Apple Co
mputer, Inc. was not
in any way involved in the preparation of this data, nor was the final product r
eviewed for accuracy by
that company. Use of the term Apple should not be construed to represent any end
orsement, official or
otherwise, by Apple Computer, Inc.
Additionally, Roger Wagner Publishing, Inc. makes no warranties concerning the a
ccuracy or usability
of this data. It is provided solely for the entertainment of users of the Merlin
8/16 assembler.
WARNING: Sourceror.FP and some temporary work files will be deleted when
Sourceror.FP is BRUN. For this reason, you should make a backup copy of the
SOURCEROR.FP side of the Merlin 8 disk before proceeding. Use the backup
copy to make the Applesoft listing as explained next.

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PRINTING THE APPLESOFT SOURCE LISTING

To get a printed source listing of Applesoft BASIC, follow these steps:
1 . Start the Merlin 8 ProDOS diskette.
2. The Merlin 8 Full Screen Editor uses the same part of memory as Sourceror.FP.
To use
Sourceror.FP, you will have to temporarily deactivate the Full Screen Editor.
Press D for Disk Command.
3. At the Disk Command prompt type: BR UN /MERLIN.8/UTILITIES/REMOVE.ED and pres
s
Return.
4. Turn the disk over to the Sourceror.FP side.
5. At the Disk Command prompt type: BRUN /APPLES OFT/SOURCEROR.FP and press Retu
rn.
A prompt appears to remind you that files will be deleted if you proceed (see wa
rning above).
If you are using a backup copy of Sourceror.FP, press Y to continue.
6. When SOURCEROR.FP finishes, type L to LOAD a source file.
7. At the Load prompt type: /APPLESOFT/APPLESOFT and press Return.
8. To format the listing type: PRTRl"" APPLESOFT LISTING and press Return.
9. Type ASM and press Return.
The assembler will prompt you to answer several questions about the format of th
e printout. You
have the options of:
a) PRINT THE DO OFF AREAS? (Y/N). Depending on whether you select the new ROM ve
rsion
(see next question), this choice gives you the option of printing those parts th
at are not actually
assembled within the listing. Since the completed listing with XREF listings is
on the order of 150
pages long, you probably won't want to print this listing too many times. We rec
ommend
answering Y to this first option.
b) ASSEMBLE NEW ROM VERSION? (Y/N). If you answer N, you'll get the Apple 11+ ve
rsion of
Applesoft. If you answer Y, you will be prompted with:
c) ASSEMBLE IIC VERSION? (Y/N). If you have an Apple Ilgs, lie or Enhanced He, y
ou will want
to answer Y to this. If you want the original He version, answer N.

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USE SAMPLE. MACROS

Once the macro file is created, you can load the source file, and put in the act
ive USE instruction to
include the macro file in your source, or remove the semi-colon you put in to te
mporarily make that
instruction a comment.
Note #1: Upper/lower case of the filename is not important in Merlin 16 opcodes
and filenames.
Note #2: The Merlin 16 pseudo-op USE cannot be used in a Put file. It can only b
e called from
within the "master" calling program If the program you are assembling has a USE
macro library
reference, try moving it to the master calling program. See the Merlin 8/16 manu
al regarding Put files.
Nested Macros: MACGEN looks within macros to see if other macros are called. Thu
s, if the
macro _QDStartUp uses the macro Tool, the name Tool will be added to the list of
unresolved macros.
Usually, the macro will be found in other files, and so will be removed from the
unresolved macro
names before you even see it. However, if a macro definition is encountered in a
library before it is
referenced from within a later macro, you will have to make a second pass throug
h that directory so that
MACGEN will pick it up the second time. In practice, this is rarely needed.

Final Editing
There are certain further substitutions and editing that will need to be done to
complete the conversion
process. The easiest way to find the lines that need changes is to try to assemb
le the file (<3A), and see
where the errors occur. Remember that before you can use Linker. GS, you will ha
ve to re-install
Linker.GS by typing "-/MERLIN. 16/LINKER.GS" from the Main Menu, since MACGEN di
splaces
Linker.GS when it is loaded.
Some APW functions are duplicated in macro functions included in the UTIL.MACS a
nd
MACROS.816 files. Other functions in APW may have no equivalents, and so are con
verted to
comments by the Converter program. Following is a list of points to look for:
Comment/Line length: The Converter program automatically shortens lines to the 6
4 character
limit of the Merlin editor. Any text that is too long is turned into a comment w
ith an asterisk or a
semi-colon, and is made into a new line. This may make title boxes in the listin
g look uneven.
Case Sensitivity: In its original condition, Merlin 16 is case sensitive in its
handling of labels.
That is, it considers the label NAME to be different from Name or name. Case sen
sitivity gives you
more versatility in labels, for example, using the macro QUIT for ProDOS 16 and
Quit for ProDOS 8.
It also results in faster assembly speeds. APW, however, is not specifically cas
e sensitive unless the
CASE directive is used. In addition, many sample programs available for the Appl
e Ilgs written with
APW use a wide variety of conflicting -case labels. For example, a single progra
m may use pulllong,
PULLLONG, Pulllong and PullLong in different parts of the program, all referring
to the same macro.

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When converting an APW source file, you may either manually edit any conflicting
labels to be
consistent, or you may alternatively change the PARMS file for Merlin 16 to make
Merlin 16 case
insensitive (about line #120 in PARMS.S).
Duplicate Labels: APW blocks groups of labels in each START/END segment and cons
iders all
labels in that segment to be local, unless declared "known" to another segment b
y the APW using
pseudo-op. In Merlin 16, all labels are global unless preceded with a colon, as
in :LOOP. In
assembling a program, you may get "Duplicate Label" errors as Merlin 16 encounte
rs labels that were
used repeatedly in many different segments. To resolve these, you may either ren
ame offending labels,
i.e. LOOP1, LOOP2, etc., or you may put a colon in front of the offending label,
i.e. :LOOP.
The main caution has to do with when a label is declared "known" to one segment,
but may be local in
all others. For example, suppose you have a program with three program segments,
and the label
LOOP was used in segments #2 and #3, but only the LOOP in segment #3 was known t
o segment #1
through APW's using pseudo-op. Since Converter turns it into a comment, you woul
d have to pay
particular attention to the preserved using instruction and to the corresponding
START/END segment it
referenced when editing the source listing. In this example, you might leave the
label LOOP in
segment #3 alone, and change LOOP in segment #2 to :LOOP. Note that references t
o local labels
such as :LOOP cannot cross global labels. Thus, the following code segment would
not work:
BNE : DONE
TEST2 CMP #$7F
BEQ AGAIN
: DONE RTS
Processor Mode: Merlin 8 and Merlin 16, as configured in the original package, s
tart assembling a
file assuming that the microprocessor is in the 8-bit mode (MX %11). In the case
of Merlin 16, this is
done to rninirnize errors when assembling source files written with earlier (8-b
it) versions of Merlin,
such as Merlin, Merlin Pro, Merlin 8 or Big Mac. When assembling programs to run
under ProDOS
16, it is very important that you make sure the assembler starts assembling the
source in the full 16-bit
(MX %00) mode. There are two ways to handle this. The first is to just include t
he Merlin pseudo-op
MX %00 on one of the first lines of each source file. You may alternatively use
the macro M65816 1,
as defined in the Macros.816 file, which accomplishes the same function. The Con
verter program
automatically puts the proper instructions in when converting an APW program, so
this is only a
concern when manually converting a program, or writing a ProDOS 16 program from
scratch.
The other choice is to permanently change the appropriate bit in the flag in the
Merlin 16 PARMS file
(approx. line #75) so that Merlin 16 always starts in the 16-bit mode. Important
: If you do make this
change, you will have to be careful to remember to use an MX %l 1 (8-bit mode) i
nstruction in any of
your older ProDOS 8, etc. source files before assembling them with the altered M
erlin 16.
In addition, here are some of the APW pseudo-ops that are automatically handled
by the Converter, but
which may be of some interest:

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65816 ON In APW, this enables the 65816 assembly mode. In Merlin 16, this is equ
ivalent to two
XC instructions, plus an MX %00. This is automatically added to converted APW so
urce files by
Converter, but there is also a macro named M65816 in MACROS.816 that can be used
.
LONGI ON/OFF Merlin 16 uses and 1 as substitutes for APW's ON and OFF operands.
LONGI
and LONGA have equivalent macros in MACROS.816.
START/END APW delimits each program segment within a listing with a START and EN
D
pseudo-op. All labels within a segment are considered local by APW except for th
e label that is
associated with the START instruction. Local labels in APW within a segment may
be made known to
other segments with the APW "using label" instruction, which is not the same as
Merlin 16's "using"
instruction. The Converter program changes START to ENT so that the particular l
abel on that line
can be referenced by other Merlin 16 source files, if needed. END is converted t
o a comment, since
END in Merlin 16 would signify the end of the entire source file. This structure
may have to be
considered when handling local/global labels and label conflicts.
SYMBOL ON/OFF In APW this determines whether the symbol table should be printed
at the end
of the source listing. In Merlin 16 this is controlled by the presence of LST ON
/OFF at the end of the
listing.
GEN ON/OFF In APW, GEN ON tells the assembler to print the expanded form of macr
os.
EXPMAC is an equivalent function macro in Merlin 16 that duplicates this. Note:
EXP is the actual
Merlin 16 directive. See EXP in the Merlin 8/16 manual.
Programmer's Note: The Converter uses the file DICTIONARY in the UTILITIES subdi
rectory in
part of the conversion process. The Dictionary file contains search & replac
e entries that translate APW
opcodes to Merlin 16 equivalents. For example, the file Dictionary has the entry
:
COPYtPUT
This tells the converter to replace the opcode COPY with PUT. Thus the APW sourc
e line:
COPY HIRES. STUFF
would become:
PUT HIRES . STUFF
The pound sign (#) is the delimiter between the search and replacement strings.
Replacement strings
may include spaces and semi-colons to move the new statements to the comment fie
ld, as is done with
END becoming ;END. A pseudo-op can be removed completely by leaving the replacem
ent field blank.
You can edit the Dictionary file with Merlin 16 to add new search & replace
definitions. Remember to
use the filename DICTIONARY/ when loading or saving. You will probably also want
to turn off the
formatting (tabbing to assembler fields) with the Command Box TAB command.

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The Converter changes ON and OFF arguments to certain APW directives, such as ab
saddr, 65816, case,
longa, longi, etc., to 1 and so that the ON/OFF argument can be handled by an eq
uivalent Merlin 16
macro. These macros are presently defined in the file MACROS. 8 16 in the GEN.MA
CROS
subdirectory on the Merlin. 16 disk.
The source files for the Converter utility are also included on the Merlin. 16 d
isk. Although we do not
provide specific technical support for making alterations to this program, the s
ource files are
well-commented, and you may wish to make changes to the program for your own use
.
Sample APW Program: A sample program, called SIMP.SRC, is included on the Merlin
16 disk
in the directory SAMPLES. APW. You may want to try the procedure described here
to practice
converting an APW source file before tackling other files. A copy of the SIMP.SR
C in converted
Merlin format, and the final output file, SIMP, is included in the SAMPLES .Ml 6
directory. SIMP is
a ProDOS 16 S 16 type file that can be launched from the Finder or DeskTop.
As a general exercise in assembling, linking and running a ProDOS 16 application
that uses many
Apple Ilgs tools, there is also a program in the Samples.M16 directory called BR
ICKOUT. This file
can be assembled, linked and saved by linking the command file GAME.CMD.S. This
file was
converted from a listing originally in the APW format.
CROSS REFERENCE PROGRAMS
Xref - Xrefa
These utilities provide a convenient means of generating a cross-reference listi
ng of all labels used
within a Merlin 8/16 source program.
Such a listing can help you quickly find, identify and trace values throughout a
program. This becomes
especially important when attempting to understand, debug or fine tune portions
of code within a large
program.
Merlin 8/16 provides a printout of its symbol table only at the end of a success
ful assembly, provided
that you have not defeated this feature with the LST OFF pseudo op code. While t
he symbol table
allows you to see what the actual value or address of a label is, it does not al
low you to follow the use
of the label through the program.
This is where the XREF programs come in.
XREF gives you a complete alphabetical and numerical printout of label usage wit
hin an assembly
language program. XREFA gives a cross reference table by address. This is more u
seful for large
sources containing lots of PUT files. It also does not use as much space for its
cross-reference data and
therefore can handle larger source files than XREF.

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Sample Symbol Table Printout

Symbol table - alphabetical order:
ADD =$F786 BC =$F7B0 BK =$F706
Symbol table - numerical order:
BK =$F706 ADD = $F786 BC =$F7B0
Sample Xref Printout
Cross referenced symbol table - alphabetical order:
ADD =$F786 101 185*
BC =$F7B0 90 207*
BK =$F706 104 121*
Cross referenced symbol table - numerical order:

BK =$F706 104 121*

ADD =$F786 101 185*
BC =$F7B0 90 207*

As you can see from the above example, the definition or actual value of the lab
el is indicated by the
equal (=) sign, and the line number of each line in the source file that the lab
el appears in is listed to the
right of the definition, hi addition, the line number where the label is either
defined or used as a major
entry point is suffixed or flagged with an asterisk (*).
An added feature is a special notation for additional source files that are brou
ght in during assembly with
the PUT pseudo opcode. For example, 134.82 indicates line number 134 of the main
source file is the
line containing the PUT opcode and line number 82 of the PUT file is where the l
abel is actually used.
Using Xref
1. From the Main Menu, make sure you have saved the file and Merlin 8/16 is in t
he currently selected
drive.

2. Merlin 16: Press D for Disk Command.

At the Disk Command prompt type BRUN /MERLIN. 16/UTILITIES/XREF and press Return
.
Merlin 8 ProDOS version: Press D for Disk Command.
At the Disk Command prompt type BRUN /MERLIN.8/UTIL/XREF and press Return.
Merlin 8 DOS 3.3 version: From the Main Menu press C to catalog the disk. At the
Command
prompt type BRUN XREF and press Return.

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3. Enter the Editor, then type the appropriate USER command:

USER - Print assembly listing and alphabetical cross reference only. USER has th
e same effect as
USER 0.
USER 1 - Print assembly listing and both alphabetical an numerically sorted cros
s reference listings.
USER 2 - Do not print assembly listing but print alphabetical cross reference on
ly.
USER 3 - Do not print assembly listing but print both alphabetical and numerical
cross reference
listings.
For example, to print a cross-reference listing only to your printer, you could
type in:
PRTR 1""
USER 3
ASM
USER commands 0-3 cause labels within conditional assembly areas with the DO con
dition OFF to
be ignored and not printed in the cross reference table.
You can also use USER commands 4-7 which are identical to USER 0-3 except that t
hey cause
labels within conditional assembly areas to be printed regardless of the DO sett
ing. The only
exception to this is that labels defined in such areas and not elsewhere will be
ignored.
NOTE: You may change the USER command as many times as you wish, i.e. from USER
1 to
USER 2 and so on. The change is not permanent until you enter the ASM command.
4. Merlin 16: Press Open- Apple- A to begin the assembly and printing process.
Merlin 8: Type ASM and press Return to begin the assembly and printing process.
Since the XREF programs require assembler output, code in areas with LST OFF wil
l not be processed
and labels in those areas will not appear in the table. In particular, it is ess
ential to the proper working
of XREF that the LST condition be ON at the end of assembly since the program al
so intercepts the
regular symbol table output. For the same reason, the Control-D flush command mu
st not be used
during assembly. The program attempts to determine when the assembler is sending
an error message
on the first pass and it aborts assembly in this case, but this is not 100% reli
able.
NOTE: When using macros with XREF, labels defined within macro definitions have
no global
meaning and therefore are not cross-referenced.

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< Macro definition

#]1
DONE

< Beg. of program

GLOBAL < Macro call
In the above example, variable GLOBAL will be cross referenced, but local label
DONE will not.
XREFA Notes
This is an address cross reference program and is handy when you have lots of PU
T files. Since this
program needs only four bytes per cross reference instead of six, it can handle
considerably larger
sources. The "where defined" reference is not given here because it would equal
the value of the label.
The exception is EQUated labels where it would indicate the address counter when
the equate is done.
This also saves considerable space in the table for a larger source.

DEF

DONE

MAC
CMP
BNE
ASL
<

DEF

FORMATTER
This program is provided to enhance the use of Merlin 8/16 as a general text edi
tor. It will
automatically format a file into paragraphs using a specified line length. Parag
raphs are separated by
empty lines in the original file.
To use Formatter, you should first BRUN it from Main Menu. Formatter will then l
oad itself into
high memory.
This will simply set up the editor's USER vector. To format a file which is in m
emory, issue the
USER command from the editor.
The formatter program will request a range to format. If you just specify one nu
mber, the file will be
formatted from that line to the end. Then you will be asked for a line length, w
hich must be less than
250. Finally, you may specify whether you want the file justified on both sides,
rather than just on the
left.
The first thing done by the program is to check whether or not each line of the
file starts with a space.
If not, a space is inserted at the start of each line. This is to be used to giv
e a left margin using the
editor's TAB command before using the PRINT command to print out the file.
Formatter uses inverse spaces for the fill required by two-sided justification.
This is done so that they
can be located and removed if you want to reformat the file later. It is importa
nt that you do not use the
FIX or TEXT commands on a file after it has been formatted unless another copy h
as been saved. For
files coming from external sources, it is desirable to first use the FIX command
on them to make sure

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they have the form expected by Formatter. For the same reason, it is advisable t
o reformat a file using
only left justification prior to any edit of the file.
Don't forget to use the TABS command before printing out a formatted file.
KEYBOARD MACRO FILES
Edmac - Keymac
Edmac and Keymac are keyboard macro files for use with the Merlin 8/16 Editors.
Edmac is for use
with Merlin 8 and Merlin 16 full screen editors. Keymac is for the Merlin 8 line
editor. A macro
definition lets you type one key, and get a string of characters on the screen.
This should not be
confused with the assembler macros that Merlin 8/16 also supports.
An assembler macro is a definition of a set of assembler instructions, usually w
ith variables, that you
define within a given source listing. When the program is assembled, the assembl
er replaces the macro
call with the series of lines that have been assigned to that macro.
A keyboard macro is only a substitute for a small amount of typing that you migh
t do while you're in
the editor itself.
For example, you've probably typed LDA many times in assembly language programs.
With Edmac or
Keymac installed, you could type Solid-Apple-3 (Option-3 on the Apple Ilgs) and
the characters LDA #
would appear on the screen.
To install Edmac or Keymac, just BRUN it from the Main Menu, then enter the Edit
or and type USER
from the Merlin 16 Command Box or Merlin 8 Command Mode. When you type one of th
e Edmac or
Keymac Solid- Apple (Option- on the GS) commands shown on the following pages, t
he corresponding
text will be inserted.

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Utility Programs

KEYBOARD MACRO EQUIVALENT CHART

What You Type: To Get: Comments

AND

D
13

DV^
w

Q
J

pMD

n
1J

UL D

p
Hi

N/A
TCpvbn^rH Ma fro Not A^icrnpd. .

C
o

N/A

XpuVjn^rH Manrn Nor A^^inripd

C
D

tllliA

T
1

N/A

Kpvho^rd Maf ro Not Assianpd. .

JSR

JMP

LDA

BMI

*
N

BNE

ORA

BPL

BEQ
*

RTS

; PLUS CARRIAGE RETURN

STA

N/A

Keyboard Macro Not Assigned. . .

N/A
Keyboard Macro Not Assigned. . .

BVS

N/A

Keyboard Macro Not Assigned...

LDX

LDY
#0

; LEAVES IN INSERT MODE

N/A

Keyboard Macro Not Assigned. . .

N/A

Keyboard Macro Not Assigned. . .

*
3

LDA

LABEL

= $

; FOR HEX EQUATES

LABEL

DFB %

; FOR BINARY EQUATES

N/A
Keyboard Macro Not Assigned...

" s$9F

; USED TO DEFINE A CONTROL CHAR

i Y

; WITH INSERT MODE ON. . .

*
28

(/X)

; WITH INSERT MODE ON. . .

A J

PLA

; SAVE A,X,Y ON STACK

{down arrow)

TAY

; ALL 5 LINES WITH ONE MACRO.

PLA

; (MACRO KEY = DOWN ARROW)

TAX

PLA

A K

PHA

; RETRIEVE A, Y, Y FROM STACK

(up arrow)

TXA

; ALL 5 LINES WITH ONE MACRO.

PHA

; (MACRO KEY = UP ARROW)

TYA

PHA

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Utility Programs

39
ASC

SINGLE QUOTE WITH CURSOR BETWEEN QUOTES

ASC MM

DOUBLE QUOTE WITH CURSOR BETWEEN QUOTES

ERR \

FOR 'ERR' CHECK VALUE

MAC

DEFINE A MACRO.

43
EOM

FINISH DEFINITION.

ADC

*
t

= (SAME KEY AS ' + ')

SBC

"-" FOR SUBTRACTION.

]LOOP

*
t

VARIABLE FOR A LOOP.

[
47

[]

INDIRECT LONG ADDRESSING MODE.

Macros can be added or edited by adding or changing the data statements in KEYMA
C.S or EDMAC.S.
The only requirement for each definition is that it begin with the macro key its
elf, and that the assigned
string end with a "high bit off (value < $80) ASCII character.
MAKE DUMP
This Merlin 8/16 program will make a hex dump text file from an object file afte
r a valid assembly of
the source. Before using Make Dump, you should have already assembled and saved
the source code.
This is important because the existing source code in memory is destroyed when M
ake Dump is used.
To use Make Dump, BRUN it from the Main Menu. Then load the desired source file
and assemble it.
Finally, type USER from the Command Box or Command Mode of the Editor.
The current source in memory will be replaced with a hex dump of the previously
assembled object file.
The last line of the file will contain a BS AVE with the correct address and len
gth but without a
filename. You can use the Editor to insert the desired filename. You can then sa
ve the file for use as an
EXEC file. If you forget to insert the filename, Merlin 8/16 will give you a SYN
TAX ERROR when
the file is EXECed.

PRINTFILER
Printfiler is a utility designed to save an assembled listing to disk as a seque
ntial text file. It optionally
allows you to also select "file packing" for smaller space requirements and allo
ws you to turn video
output off for faster operation.
Text files generated by Printfiler can include the object code portion of a disa
ssembled listing,
something not normally available when saving a source file. This allows a comple
te display of an
assembly language program and provides the convenience of not having to assemble
the program to see
the object code.
Printfiler can also be used to save a source listing to disk as a text file with
the high bit clear (Merlin
source files normally have the high bit set), and with the option of each tab fi
eld filled with spaces for
compatibility with the APW (ORCA) assembler.

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Printfiler Applications
Other examples of where Printfiler might be used include:
- Incorporating the assembled text file in a document being prepared by a word p
rocessor.
- Sending the file over a telephone line using a modem.
- Mailing the file to someone such as a magazine editor who wants to work with t
he complete
disassembly without having to assemble the program.
Using Printfiler
1 . Make sure that you've saved the source file before using Printfiler.
Merlin 16 version: Press D for Disk Command.
At the Command prompt type BRUN /MERLIN. 16/UTILITIES/PRINTFILER and press Retur
n.
Merlin 8 ProDOS version: Press D for Disk Command.
At the Command prompt type BRUN /MERLIN. 8/UTILITIES/PRINTFILER and press Return
.
Merlin 8 DOS 3.3 version: Press C to catalog the Merlin 8 disk.
At the Command prompt type BRUN PRINTFILER and press Return.
2. Press L to load the desired source file.
3. From the Main Menu select the drive to save the assembly to if necessary.
Merlin 16 version: Enter the Editor and press Open-Apple-0 to open the Command B
ox.
From the Command Box type USER "FILENAME" where FILENAME is the name of your fil
e.
You may also use the PRTR command if you wish page headers to be sent with your
listing. In
that case enter the following instead of the USER command: PRTR 1 "T.MYFILE" MY
PAGE
HEADER and press Return.
Merlin 8 version: Enter the Editor by pressing E from the Main Menu. From the Co
mmand Mode
prompt (:) type USER "FILENAME" where FILENAME is the name of your file. You may
also
use the PRTR command if you wish page headers to be sent with your listing. In t
hat case enter the
following instead of the USER command: PRTR 1 "T.MYFILE" MY PAGE HEADER and pres
s
Return.
There will be a short disk access and the name of the file used for the text sav
e will appear on the
screen.

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Utility Programs

4. Merlin 16 version: Press Open-Apple-A to begin the assembly and Printfiler wi

ll automatically
assemble the source file directly to disk. Note that you will not see anything o
n your video screen
because Printfiler is preconfigured to operate with the video output turned off
for faster operation.
Merlin 8 version: From the Command Mode prompt type ASM and Printfiler will auto
matically
assemble the source file directly to disk. Note that you will not see anything o
n your video screen
because Printfiler is preconfigured to operate with the video output turned off
for faster operation.
NOTE: You should not use a filename that already exists on the disk as an object
file for the
output file. Printfiler uses the exact filename with no prefix or suffix that yo
u enter. Thus, if you
had the source file PROGRAM.S and the object file PROGRAM on a disk, you would n
ot want to
use the name PROGRAM for the PRINTF1LE name. PROGRAM.TEXT would be the
recommended name.
Printfiler will also print the output from the Merlin 16 "L" (list with line num
bers) and "P" (Print
without line numbers) commands. To output a text file for the APW (ORCA) assembl
er with each
tab field automatically filled with spaces, just use the "P" command in the comm
and box after
opening the text file to print the source file to a formatted text file with the
high bit clear. This file
can then be directly loaded by APW.

Changing Printfiler Options

Printfiler has two options that you may change: file packing and video output or
echoing. In addition,
you can make the change temporary or permanent.
File packing reduces the size of the text file saved to disk by replacing blanks
from the source file with
a single character with its high bit turned off. A listing of a packed file will
display the packed blank
characters as an inverse letter. Thus inverse A=l blank, inverse B=2 blanks, inv
erse C=3 blanks, etc.
Unpacking means restoring the text file to its original appearance. Note that wh
ile you cannot
assemble such a file, you can at least read it.
Echoing means printing on the screen what is sent to the disk. The time it takes
to do this can slow
Printfiler down.
The process of turning off video output or echoing makes Printfiler run approxim
ately 25% faster.
Additional speed can be gained by using packed files.
In addition, unpacked files are nearly twice as large as packed files and nearly
three times the size of the
original source file.

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Utility Programs

Changing Printfiler Options (temporarily)

To temporally change the Printfiler options you can go to the Monitor from the M
erlin 8/16 Editor
with the MON command. Enter the following:
300:00 00 for packed, video off, or.
300:00 80 for packed, video on, or
300:80 00 for unpacked, video off, or
300:80 80 for unpacked, video on
The Printfiler standard values are 300:80 00 (unpacked, video off)
Press Return, then Control-Y, then Return again to go back to Merlin 8/16. The v
alues you select will
stay in effect until you BRUN PRINTFILER again.
Changing Printfiler Options (permanently)
1. Load Printfiler as above and assemble with it. During assembly, it will promp
t you with the
following questions:
2. GIVE VALUE FOR FORMAT
Press to turn on the Pack option.. Press 1 to turn off the Pack option.
3. GIVE VALUE FOR MONITOR
Press to turn video output or echoing off. Press 1 to turn echoing on.
Printfiler will then immediately assemble into object code.
4. Quit the editor and save the Object code. Any time you BRUN this object code,
it will use the
values you specified in steps 2 and 3. Thus, it is possible to use different ver
sions of Printfiler
instead of setting options.
TXTED (MERLIN 16 ONLY)
This is an alternate version of the Merlin 16 Full Screen Editor which will brea
k a line upon a carriage
return, and carriage returns are deletable. TXTED can be substituted from the Ma
in Menu by typing
BRUN UTIL/rXTED and pressing Return.
TYPE. CHANGER
This utility will change the ProDOS file type of any file on a disk. It is an Ap
plesoft BASIC program
that can be run from either a file selector like ProSel, the DeskTop, etc., or b
y first setting the prefix to
/MERLIN. 16/UTILITIES at the BASIC prompt, and then typing RUN TYPE.CHANGER.

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Utility Programs
When Type.Changer runs, the first step is to place the disk containing the file
whose type is to be
changed into a disk drive. Then do the following:
1) Choose menu item #1, Select a file from disk.
2) The program will then present a list of all the on-line disk volumes. Press t
he number or use the
arrow keys to select the disk you want to look at, and press Return.
3) The program will then display all the files in the main directory of that dis
k. Subdirectories are
indicated by a slash at the end of the filename, i.e. UTILITIES/. Selecting a su
bdirectory will then
list all the files in that subdirectory. You can back out of a given subdirector
y by pressing the
Escape key.
4) When you see the file whose type you want to change, press the number key and
press Return.
5) The program will then display the current filetype of that file showing both
abbreviated file code and
hex filetype. For example, an Applesoft BASIC file would be listed with a file c
ode BAS and a
filetype of $FC.
6) You can enter the new filetype you want as either the "official" file code, s
uch as BIN, S16, etc., or
the hex code, such as $FF. If entering the hex code, you must include the dollar
sign at the
beginning of the number.
7) After the change, the new file code and type will be displayed. Pressing a ke
y will return to the
Main Menu. At that point you can either exit to BASIC, a program selector, or se
lect another file
to change.
NOTE: The file codes and types are all contained in DATA statements within the T
ype.Changer
program. These may be added to or edited as you desire to support new and/or cus
tom file types.
ADDITIONAL MERLIN 8/16 RESOURCE FILES
The Merlin 8/16 disks contain a number of source files for your reference includ
ing PUT file examples,
general macros that can be used in any program, Classic Desk Accessories, and To
olbox macros for the
Ilgs. These files are provided as resource material and can be helpful in unders
tanding how these tools
are designed and implemented.

Page 215
Merlin 8/16 User's Manual

Index

INDEX

"!", Exclusive OR 81
"&", Logical AND 81
7 (,-.", in Macros 131
M II
' 1
as a logical OR 77,81
T,
to abort a Change 38
Division operator 81
Editor - to List from last line 46, 69, 72
Editor - to abort List 42
in file names 18
to abort a Find 39
Line Range Delimiter 36, 37, 61, 62
in Macros 131
Sourceror (Cancel) 189
* for Comments 5, 77, 78
. (period),
Listings 46, 69, 72
in Macros 131
256 Externals 183

A:AppendFile 19
About the Assembler Documentation 75
About the Command Mode Documentation 36
About the Command Box Documentation 61
About the Linker Documentation 138
Absolute addresses, and Linker 140, 144, 151
Accumulator mode addressing 83-85
Add/Insert Mode Editing Commands 5-7, 8-9,
37, 63, 72
Addition operation, in operands 81
Addressing Modes 83-85
ADR 111
Linker command 152
ADRL 111
ALI 159
All text, to select 29, 34, 57, 71
AND operation, in operands 81-82
Angle brackets in Documentation 36, 61
Append a file 19

Apple Keys ((5)

(5A 9,52,71
(5B 27,34,52,71
C5C 52,71
3D 27,34,53,71
(5E 27,34,53,71
(5F 28,34,54,71
(5H 54,71
(5l 28, 34, 55, 71
(5L 28,34,55,71
<3N 29,34,55,71
60 8, 55, 71
C5Q 8, 12, 29, 34, 55, 58, 71
(5R 29,34,56,71
(5T 30,34,56,71
(5V 30,34,56,71
(5\V 30, 34, 56, 71
(5X 30, 34, 57, 71
CiY 31, 34, 57, 71
(5Z 30,34,57,71
3 Up 31,34,58,71
(5 Down31,34, 58,71
3 Right71
(5 DEL 31, 34, 57, 71
3 TAB 31, 34, 55, 58, 71
(5 - 31,34,60,71
(5 = 31, 34, 60, 71
(51 58,71
(32 59,71
(53 59,71
(54 59,71
(56 59,71
(58 32,34,59,71
(59 32,34,71
* 60,71
Applesoft source listing 192
APW to Merlin Converter 198-205
Arithmetic and Logical Expressions 81-82
ASC 107

Page 216

Index

Assembler,
to Pause 121, 123
Pseudo Opcode Descriptions 87
Syntax Conventions 77, 83
Assembling large files, and PUT, SAV, DSK
93-96, 98-99, 100-101, 147-148, 152, 153,
155-157
Assembly 9-11,47,52,63,73
ASM,
Command 9-11,47,63,72
and PRTR 43-44, 47, 66, 72
Linker command file 151,152
AST 103
Asterisks (*),
Comments 5, 77, 78
Line of in a comment 31, 34, 59, 71, 103
Auto edit 73, 197
Back-up copies of Merlin 3
Backing up Program Counter (DS) 89, 112
Backwards DELETE, in EDIT mode 26, 33, 50,
70 (see also Control-D)
Bad,
Address mode 179
Branch 179
External 179
Input 179
Label 179
OBJ 179
Opcode 179
ORG 179
PUT 180
REL 180
SAV 180
Variable 180
Beginning, move to,
of line of text 24, 33, 48
of source file 27, 34, 52
Bell, turning off 167, 172
BINary files 12,13,17

Binary numbers 80
BGE opcode 86
BLOAD 14, 19, 20, 21, 89
Block cursor 24, 26, 49, 167
BLT opcode 86
Branching,
to Variables and Local Labels 79, 86
BRK 180
BRUN 19,20,21
BSAVE 19
Bugs, common cause of 87
Building Expressions 81-82
C
C: Catalog 17-18
pause 17-18
CALL 14
Case sensitive labels 88
Center screen 30, 57
Change 38
Change drive 19
Change ProDOS filetype 214-215
Change Word 39
Changing Printfiler's Options 213-214
Changing Sourceror's Label Table 191
Character case change 24, 33, 49, 62
Character insert mode 24, 26, 33, 49, 70
Characters per line 34, 63, 73, 77, 167, 170,
172
Checksum, in object code 1 19-120
CHK 119-120
Classic Desk Accessories 197
Clipboard 30,34,52,73
Clock 197
Command box 8, 55, 61
Command mode (Merlin 8) 15, 34, 36
Command summary 33-34, 70-72
Comments 5, 77
Comment length 34, 63, 73
Conditional Assembly 82-83, 116-118, 151,
152

Page 217

Merlin 8/16 User's Manual

Index

Conditional Pseudo Ops 114-118

Configuration 4, 72, 166
Control characters 25, 33, 49, 70
Control-B (go to line begin) 24, 33, 70
Control-C,
during Catalog Command 17
to abort assembly 33, 47, 48, 70, 73
to abort List 42
to abort a Change 38
to abort a Find 39
or Control-X (to cancel lines) 34
Control-D (delete) 9, 24, 33, 49, 70
LST ON/OFF 47
Control-F (find) 24, 33, 49, 70
Control-I (insert) 24, 26, 33, 49, 70
Control-L 24, 33, 49, 70
Control-N (go to line end) 25, 33, 49, 70
Control-0 (insert "other" character) 25, 33,
49, 70
Control-R (restore line) 25, 33, 70
Control-S (status box) 25, 50, 70
Control-T 25, 33, 50, 70
Control-W 25, 33, 50, 70
Control-X (to Cancel global exchange) 25,
33, 50, 70
Control-Y 25,33,50,70
Control-Y, to return to Main Menu 15
Conv.lnk.rel 198
Converter, APW to Merlin source 198-205
Copy,
Command Mode, Editor 38
Full Screen Editor 52,71
Copying Merlin 3
Cursor keys 26, 31
Cursors,
appearance/types 24, 26, 49, 70, 167
moving 26, 33, 50
Customizing Merlin 4, 72, 166
Cut 30, 33, 56, 57
CW (Change Word) 39
CYC 103-104
Cycle times, 103-104

column to print 167, 172

D
Disk Commands 19
D:Drive Change 19
DA 110
DAT 104,153
Data,
definition of 76
immediate 76, 83
string 74, 107-109
storage 110-113
tables in programs 113
Data and Storage Allocation Pseudo Ops 76
Date, to set 22
DB 110
DCI 108
DDB 110
Decimal numbers 80
Defining,
a keyboard macro 209-211
a local label 78-79
a local variable 79
a Macro 127,128-132,133-134
Delete,
characters in a line 9, 24, 26, 33, 49, 50, 70
lines in Editor Command Mode 39
lines in Full Screen Editor 9, 27, 52
to end of line 25,33,50
entire Source File (New) 21, 43, 65
files on disk 19
Delete key 26,33,50,70
Delimited Strings, 37, 61, 76
as an operand 76
DEND 102
DFB 110
Dictionary full 180
Disassembling,
raw object code (Sourceror) 184-191
Page 218

Merlin 8/16 User's Manual Index

Disk files,
names - see "filenames"
renaming 19
Division operation, in operands 81
DO 114
DOS 3.3 technical information 164
Drive change 19
DS 90, 112
and Linker 112, 139, 143, 159
DSK 90, 100
and the Linker 147, 149, 155-156
DUM 101
Duplicate symbol 146, 180
Duplicating Merlin disk 3
DW 110
E
Edit command 38
Edit Mode Commands 33-34, 70-72
Editor 5-8,21
Edmac 35,73,209-211
ELSE 114
END 101, 153
End of line,
marker 23,48
move to 25, 33, 49
End of source, move to 29, 34, 55
ENT 88, 141, 142, 153
EOMor< 127
EQU(=) 87
ERR 120
and Linker 120-121, 139, 143
ERR: Memory Full 181
Error Messages (general) 1 79-183
Escape 26, 33, 50, 70
Evaluation of expressions 45, 69, 72, 81
Exchange, global 27, 34, 53
EXCLUSIVE OR operation, in operands 81-82
EXP ON/OFF/ONLY 104
EXT 141, 153
Expressions Allowed by the Assembler 81-83

Fast keys 50
Filenames,
ASM 151
DSK 90, 91, 100-101, 147, 155-156, 161
LIB 154
Link 144
Linker command files 154-155
Linker name files 144-145,148-149
LNK 147, 152, 155-156
Multiple LNK files 160
object 12, 13, 14, 19, 2
OVR 152
PUT 77, 93-96, 152
Quick Link 159-160
REL 147, 155-156, 161
SAV 90, 92, 98-99, 153
source 12, 13, 18, 19, 21, 22, 77
USE 77, 97, 136
Flletype mismatch error 146, 180
FIN 115
Find,
a character 24, 33, 49, 70
a string 25,28,39,54,71
a word 25, 28, 30, 39, 40, 50, 54, 56
Fmd and Replace (global exchange) 25, 27, 34,
38,53
FIX 40,63,72
FLS 108
Forced Assembly Errors 120, 121, 143
Formfeed, printer 166, 170
FW (Find Word) 40
Format error 180
Formatter 208-209
Formatting Pseudo Ops 103-106
Full Screen Editor,
commands 8-9
Merlin 8 23-35
Merlin 16 48-60
entering 5, 21, 23, 48
quitting 7, 44, 66, 71

Page 219

Merlin 8/16 User's Manual

Index

G
GET 15,41,64,72
GET Command, and Linked files 146
Global Exchange 25, 27, 34, 38, 53
GS Linker 158, 161-162, 163
H
Half -screen editing 54
H (Hex) 187
Hard disks 170
HEX 111
Hex-Dec Conversion 41, 64
Hex data 80, 107, 110
I
IF 115
Illegal,
char in operand 180
file type 181
forward reference 181
relative adrs 181
Initialization string, for printer 43, 66, 175
Insert,
with TAB key 24, 26, 28, 49, 50
character mode 9, 26, 49, 50
lines 8, 26, 28, 55, 58
control characters 25,49
Integer division, in operands 81
Inverse spaces 44, 67
Immediate Data Syntax 80, 83
Immediate Data vs. Addresses 80
INV 108
K
KBD 121
Keyboard input during assembly 121
Keymac 35,209-211
KND 159

L (list - Sourceror) 187

L: Load Source 18
Labels,
proper form of 6, 77
length 77
tables, changing Sourceror's 191
case sensitivity 88
jump to 28, 34, 55, 70
LENgth 42
LIB 154
Line length 34,73,78
Line numbers,
in Command box 62
in Command mode 36
Lines of text,
to delete 9, 27, 31, 34, 39, 52, 57, 70
to insert 9, 18, 28, 33, 34, 55, 70
to replace 25, 29, 30, 34, 50, 56, 70
lines per page 166,170
Link 72, 139
Linker 137-163
and DS opcode 139,142
and DSK opcode 147-149
and ENT opcode 138, 142
and ERR opcode 139, 143
and EXT opcode 138, 141
and ORG opcode 144, 152
andREL opcode 138,140-141
and SAV opcode 153
File Names 144-145
Linking process 146
List 8,41,64,72
andPRTR 43
from last listed line 46, 69, 72
from last specified line 46, 72
to printer, formatted 41, 64, 72
to screen, formatted 41, 64, 72
without line numbers 43, 66, 72
to abort 41
to pause 41

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Merlin 8/16 User's Manual

Index

Listing,
CYCLE times 103-104, 167, 172
DO OFF 114, 167, 172
Macros 104
limiting bytes printed in 167, 172
LKV 154
LNK 152
Load a source file 18
Local Labels, Global Labels & Variables 78-80
Local Variables,
defining 79-80
and PUT files 96
Locate a label or line 28, 34, 55
Lock file on disk 19
Logical operations, in operands 81
Lower case/upper case,
to change 24
in labels 88
LST ON/OFF 105
LSTDO or LSTDO OFF 105
LSTDO, configuring 167, 172
LUP 122
M
MAC 127
Macgen (utility) 200-202
Macros 127-136
defining 127, 128-132, 133-134
and PUT files 96
libraries, and USE opcode 97, 136
libraries, provided with Merlin 136
listings 104
nested 134
Pseudo Ops for, 127-129
variables 129-133
Main menu 5, 17, 55
Making Back-up Copies of Merlin 3
Make dump 211
Markers 28-29, 55, 56
Maximum,
length of comments 34, 63, 73

length of labels 77
Memory,
IN USE 146, 182
full 181
full error, in Sourceror 191
status 25, 33, 50, 70
use by Merlin 166
Merlin,
Memory Map 176-178
internal entry points 124
Misalignment error 182
Miscellaneous Pseudo Ops 1 19-126
Mistakes, fixing 25, 29, 34 (see also
Control-R and C5R)
MONitor 42, 65, 72
MOVE 42 (see Cut, Copy & Paste)
Moving,
the cursor 26, 33, 48, 49, 50
text 29,42
Multiple input LNK files 160
Multiple output files 157
Multiplication operation, in operands 81
MX 84, 123
N
N (Normal - Sourceror) 187
Nesting error 182
Nested Macros 134
New 21,43,65,72
Not macro error 182
Not resolved error 146
Number Format (Binary, Decimal, Hex) 80
O
O: Object Save Command 12,21
command, and Linker 146, 153
O (ORG - Sourceror) 187
OBJ 92
Object code 13,21
Online command 19, 20

Page 221

Merlin 8/16 User's Manual

Index

Opcode and Pseudo Opcode Conventions 78

Operand and Comment Length Conventions 78
OR operation, in operands 81-82
ORG 6, 21, 89
and the Linker 91, 152
Out of Memory 21, 182

PAG 106
Page Header, in listing 106
Parentheses,
and Precedence in Expressions 82
PARMS file 4, 34, 55, 72, 170
Paste 30,34,56
Pathnames 77
PAU 123
Personalizing Merlin 4, 72, 166
PFX 19,20
PMCor> 128
Precedence, in operand expressions 82
Prefix, ProDOS 13, 19, 20
Preliminary Definitions 75-76
Primitive expressions 81
Print command,
andPRTR 43,59,66
without line numbers 43,66
Printer,
slot#, in PRTR command 43,66
string, in PRTR command 43, 175
to print Catalog 17
Printfiler 211-214
PRinTeR 43, 59, 66, 175 (see also TTL, pg
106; PAG, pg 106)
ProDOS technical information 168
PUT 93-96, 137
linker command 152

Q(Quit),
to BASIC or program selector 22, 66
to Main Menu 7,44, 72
Sourceror 187
Quick Link 159

R: Read Text File 21

R (Read - Sourceror) 188
Range Error 183
REL Files 91, 92, 140
and the ERR Pseudo Op 143
and the Linker 112
and OBJ opcode 91
Relative expressions, and Linker 140
Renaming disk files 19
Replace 29, 56
Restoring lines in Edit mode 25
Return key 18,33,70
REV 108
Reversed string data 108
RTS return to Merlin 6
Running a program 14

S: Save source file 10, 13

SAV 90, 98, 153
".S\
suffix in file names 10, 18, 96, 97
Select all text 29
Semicolon,
for comments 6
in macros 131
SKP 106
Slot 19,20
Source code format 7, 77-78
Sourceror,
Merlin 8 184-191
Merlin 16 189
XL version 189
Spaces in a text line 7
Special macro variables 129-133

Page 222
r

Merlin 8/16 User's Manual Index

Split screen editing 54

Status, memory 25, 33, 50, 70
STR 109
String Delimiters 37, 61
Suggested reading 2-3
SW 123
Sweet 16 85, 123
SYM 67,72
Symbol table, description of 10-11, 165
Syntax error 183
Syntax, Source code 7, 75, 77
System requirements 1
T
T (Text - Sourceror) 188
TAB Key 18, 24, 26, 33, 50, 70
Tabs,
to set Tabs 44, 67, 72, 167, 172
to zero Tabs 21,67,72
and word processing text files 44, 67
Technical Information 164-178
TEXT 44, 67, 172
Text files 17,21
Text, select all 29, 57
TR ON/OFF/ADR 106
TRuncOFf 44, 68, 72
TRuncON 45, 68, 72
TTL 106 (see PRTR also)
Two Externals 183
Txted 73,214
TYP 99, 153
Type.Changer (utility) 214-215
U
Ultraterm information 165
Undo (fixing mistakes) 29, 34, 56, 73
Unknown Label 183
Unlocking files 19
Unnew 68,72
Upper case / lower case,

to change 24, 37
labels 88
USE, 97
and Macro Libraries 97
USER 45, 68, 72
USR 97, 124-125
Using Sourceror 184-191
Utilities 197-215
V
VAL 45, 69, 72
Value of labels 45
VAR 98
Variables 79-80, 98, 115, 122, 131, 135
VER 159
Vertical Tabs 30, 33, 34, 56, 70, 71
VIDeo 45, 69
W
W: Write Text File, 21
W (Word - Sourceror) 189
W command 46, 69
Word find 25, 28, 30, 39, 40, 50, 56
Where 45, 69, 72
Why Macros? 127
Why a Linker? 137
Wild Cards,
in Delimited Strings 37
character, changing the 167
Word processing text files 44, 67
X
XC 84, 123
XREF 205-207
XREFA 208
Page 223

Merlin 8/16 User's Manual

Index

Z
Zero Page Addresses used by Merlin for USR
commands 124
Zero page addressing, forced 85

Page 224

ASCII Character Chart

Hex

Dec

Binary

Hex

Dec

Binary

ASCII Character

$00

0000
0000

$80

128

1000

0000

A Q

NUL

Null

$01

a r\ a a

A A A 1
UUUI

$81

129

1 A A A
1 U U U

A A A 1
UUUI

A A

SOH
statu or neading

$02

a a a r\
UUUU

0010

$82

130

1000

010

A B

STX

Start of text

$03

0000

0011

$83

131

1000

0011
A C

ETX

Ena of text

$04

n n n n
uuuu

m nn
U1UU

$84

132

1 A A A
1 U UU

n i a a
U 1 u u

A D

EOT

End of transmission

$05

UUUU

A T A 1
Ul Ul

$85

133

1 A A A
1 U U U

A 1 A 1
U1U1

A E

ENQ

Enquiry

$06

onnn
uuuu

m i n
U 1 1 U

$86

134

i n n n
1 u u u

n 1 1 n
U 1 1 u

A"p
r
ACK

Acknowledge

$07

nn n n

mil
U 1 1 1

$87

135

i n n n
1 u u u

mil
U 1 1 1

TST7T

cen

$08

nn n n
UUUU

i nnn
x u u U
$88

136

i n n n
1 u u u

a rj
H

Backspace

$09

00 00

$89

137

i n n n

i nm
1 u u 1

A T
1

HOri Z 1 Ad
$0A

0000

1010

$8A

138

i nnn
1UUU

1 n i n

A T
U

Lie

Linefeed

$0B

0000

1011

$8B

139

i nnn
1 u u u

i ni 1
1 U 1 1

Up Arrow

$0C

nnn n

1 1 nn

$8C

140

i n n n
1 u u u

linn
1 1 u u

pp
r r

Formfeed

$0D

0000

1101
$8D

141

l nnn
1UUU

Tim
1 1 U 1

A M
M

Return

$0E

0000

1110

$8E

142

1 nnn
u u u

1 1 1 n
1 1 u

CA
b/lllL OUt

$0F

0000

1111

$8F

143

i n n n
1 u u u

1111
1111

A/>

S I

bnirt in

$10

nn n i
UU U 1

nn n n
UUUU

$90

144
1 A A 1
1 U U 1

A A A A
UUUU

DLE

Data link escape

$11

UUU1

0001

$91

145

1001

0001

A Q

DC1

XON

$12

UUU 1
A A 1 A
UU 1 U

$92

146

1001

0010

A R

DC2

AUXON

$13

nn n i
UUU 1

nm i
UU 1 1

$93

147

1001

0011

A S

DC3

XOFF
$14

UUUI

0100

$94

148

1001

0100

A T

DC4

AUXOFF

$15

0001

0101

$95

149

1001

0101

A U
NAK

Negative Ack. (Right Arrow)

$16

a a a i
UUU1

QUO

$96

150

1001

0110

A V

SYN

Synchronous file

$17

0001

0111

$97

151

1001
0111

A w

ETB

End of transmission block

$18

UUUI

10 00

$98

152

1001

1000

A x

CAN

Cancel line

$19

0001

1001

$99
153

1001

A Y

End of medium

$1A

0001

1010

$9A

154

1001

1010

A Z

SUB

Substitute

$1B

0001
1011

$ 9B

155

1001

1011

A [

ESC

Escape

$1C

0001

1100

S9C

156

1001

1100

A \

File or form separator

$1D
29

0001

1101

$9D

157

1001

1101

A ]

Group separator

$1E

000 1

1110

S9E

158

1001

1110

RS
Record separator

$1F

0001

1111

$9F

159

1001

1111

A _

Unit separator

$20

0010

0000

$A0

160

1010

0000
space

$21

0010

0001

SA1

161

1010

0001

$22

0010

$A2

162

1010
0010

$23

0010

0011

$A3

163

1010

0011

$24

0010

0100

$A4

164

1010
0100

$25

0010

0101

$A5

165

1010

0101

$26

0010

0110

$A6

166
1010

0110

$27

0010

0111

$A7

167

1010

0111

$28

a a 1 a
UU 1U

100

$A8

168
1010

1000

$29

0010

1001

$A9

169

1010

10 01

$2A

A A 1 A
UU 1 U

1010
$AA

170

1010

$2B

A A 1 A
UU1U

1 A 1 1
1U 1 1

$AB

171

1010

1011

$2C

0010
1100

$AC

172

1010

1100

$2D

0010

1101

$AD

173

1010

1101

$2E

0010
1110

$AE

174

1010

1110

$2F

A A 1 A
UU 1 U

1111

$AF

175

1010

1111

$30

48
0011

0000

$B0

176

1011

0000

$31

0011

0001

$B1

177

1011

0001

$32
50

0011

0010

$B2

178

1011

0010

$33

0011

$B3

179

1011

0011

3
$34

A A 1 1
UU1 1

A 1 A A
Ul UU

$B4

180

1011

0100

$35

0011

0101

$B5

181

1011

0101

5
$36

n a i i
UU 1 1

A 1 1 A
U 1 1 U

$B6

182

1011

0110

$37

nm i
UU 1 1

A 1 1 1
Ul 1 1

$B7

183
1011

0111

$38

nm i

i n n n
1UUU

$B8

184

i m i
1 U 1 1

i nnn
1UUU

$39

0011
1001

$B9

185

1011

1001

$3A

0011

1010

$BA

186

1011

1010

$3B

0011
1011

$BB

187

1011

$3C

0011

1100

$BC

188

1011

1100

$3D

61
0011

1101

$BD

189

1011

1101

$3E

0011

1110

$BE

190

1011

1110

$3F

63
0011

1111

$BF

191

1011

1111

$40

0100

0000

$C0

192

1100

0000

$41

65
0100

0001

$C1

193

1100

0001

$42

0100

0010

$C2

194

1100

0010

$43

0100

0011
$C3

195

1100

0011

$44

0100

$C4

196

1100

0100

$45

0100

0101

$C5

197
1100

0101

$46

0100

0110

$C6

198

1100

0110

$47

0100

0111

$C7

199

1100

0111
G

$48

0100

1000

$C8

200

1100

1000

$49

0100

1001

$C9

201

1100

1001

$4A
74

0100

1010

$CA

202

1100

1010

$4B

0100

1011

$CB

203

1100

1011

$4C

0100
1100

$cc

204

1100

$4D

0100

1101

$CD

205

1100

1101

$4E

0100

1110

$CE
206

1100

1110

$4F

0100

1111

$CF

207

1100

1111

$50

0101

0000

$D0

208

1101
0000

$51

0101

0001

$D1

209

1101

0001

$52

0101

0010

$D2

210

1101

0010

R
$53

0101

0011

$D3

211

1101

0011

$54

0101

0100

$D4

212

1101

0100

$55

85
0101

0101

$D5

213

1101

0101

$56

0101

0110

$D6

214

1101

0110

$57

0101

0111
$D7

215

1101

0111

$58

0101

1000

$D8

216

1101

1000

$59

0101

1001

$D9

217
1101

1001

$5A

0101

1010

$DA

218

1101

1010

$5B

0101

1011

$DB

219

1101

1011
[

$5C

0101

1100

$DC

220

1101

1100

$5D

0101

1101

$DD

221

1101

$5E
94

0101

1110

$DE

222

1101

1110

$5F

0101

1111

$DF

223

1101

1111

$60

0110
0000

$E0

224

1110

0000

$61

0110

0001

$E1

225

1110

0001

$62

0110

0010

$E2

226
1110

0010

$63

0110

0011

$E3

227

1110

0011

$64

100

0110

0100

$E4

228

1110

0100
d

$65

101

0110

0101

$E5

229

1110

0101

$66

102

0110

$E6

230

1110

0110

$67
103

0110

0111

$E7

231

1110

0111

$68

104

0110

1000

$E8

232

1110

1000

$69

105

0110
1001

$E9

233

1110

1001

$6A

106

0110

1010

$EA

234

1110

1010

$6B

107

0110

1011

$EB
235

1110

1011

$6C

108

0110

1100

$EC

236

1110

1100

$6D

109

0110

1101

$ED

237

1110
1101

$6E

110

0110

1110

$EE

238

1110

$6F

111

0110

1111

$EF

239

1110

1111

o
$70

112

0111

0000

$F0

240

1111

0000

$71

113

0111

0001

$F1

241

1111

0001

$72

114
0111

0010

$F2

242

1111

0010

$73

115

0111

0011

$F3

243

1111

0011

$74

116

0111

0100
$F4

244

1111

0100

$75

117

0111

0101

$F5

245

1111

0101

$76

118

0111

0110

$F6

246
1111

0110

$77

119

0111

$F7

247

1111

0111

$78

120

0111

1000

$F8

248

1111

1000
X

$79

121

0111

1001

$F9

249

1111

1001

$7A

122

0111

1010

$FA

250

1111

1010

$7B
123

0111

1011

$FB

251

1111

1011

$7C

124

0111

1100

$FC

252

1111

1100

$7D

125

0111
1101

$FD

253

1111

1101

$7E

126

0111

1110

$FE

254

1111

1110

$7F

127

0111

1111

$FF
255

1111

Delete/ rubout

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