MICRO-MEASUREMENTS

Strain Gages and Instruments Tech Note TN-501-2

Noise Control in Strain Gage Measurements

Introduction Electrical noise from these sources can be categorized into

two basic types: electrostatic and magnetic. The two types
Strain measurements must often be made in the presence of noise are fundamentally different, and thus require
of electric and/or magnetic fields which can superimpose different noise-reduction measures. Unfortunately, most
electrical noise on the measurement signals. If not of the common noise sources listed produce combinations
controlled, the noise can lead to inaccurate results and of the two noise types, which can complicate the noise-
incorrect interpretation of the strain signals; and, in severe reduction problem.
cases, can obscure the strain signals altogether. In order to
control the noise level, and maximize the signal-to-noise Electrostatic fields are generated by the presence of
ratio, it is necessary first to understand the types and voltagewith, or without current f low. Alternating
characteristics of electrical noise, as well as the sources of electrical fields inject noise into strain gage systems
such noise. With this understanding, it is then possible to through the phenomenon of capacitive coupling, by which
apply the most effective noise-reduction measures to any charges of correspondingly alternating sign are developed
particular instrumentation problem. on any electrical conductors subjected to the field
(Figure 1). Fluorescent lighting is one of the more common
This technical note identifies some of the more common sources of electrostatic noise.
noise sources, and describes the routes by which the
noise is induced into strain gage circuits. It should be
noted that the treatment here is limited to noise from
external electrical and magnetic sources. This note does
not cover effects from nuclear or thermal sources, nor
does it consider the effects of variable wiring or contact
resistance caused by slip rings, connectors, switches, etc.
Following the discussion of noise sources, specific methods
are given, varying with the noise-coupling mechanism, for
noise avoidance. The information in this technical note
is equally applicable to both analog and digital systems
employing dc amplifiers. It also applies to systems using
carrier excitation and carrier amplifiers.

Noise Sources and Pickup Media

Virtually every electrical device that generates, consumes, Figure 1. Electrostatic noise coupling.
or transmits power is a potential source for causing noise in
strain gage circuits. And, in general, the higher the voltage
or current level, and the closer the strain gage circuit to Magnetic fields are ordinarily created either by the
the electrical device, the greater will be the induced noise. flow of electric current or by the presence of permanent
Following is a list of common electrical noise sources: magnetism. Motors and transformers are examples of the
former, and the earths magnetic field is an instance of the
ac power lines arc welders latter. In order for noise voltage (emf) to be developed
TECH NOTE

motors and motor starters vibrators in a conductor, magnetic lines of f lux must be cut
by the conductor. Electric generators function on this
transformers fluorescent lamps basic principle. In the presence of an alternating field,
relays radio transmitters such as that surrounding a 50/60-Hz power line, voltage
will be induced into any stationary conductor as the
generators electrical storms
magnetic field expands and collapses (Figure 2). Similarly,
rotating and soldering irons a conductor moving through the earths magnetic field has
reciprocating machinery a noise voltage generated in it as it cuts the lines of flux.

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Noise Control in Strain Gage Measurements

b) Check for line- (mains-) radiated noise.

c) If feasible, reduce amplifier gain and compensate by
increasing bridge voltage.

3. Having eliminated or satisfactorily minimized noise

pickup by the instrument, turn next to the external
circuitry. With the excitation set to off, connect the
gage or transducer circuit (including leadwires) to
the instrument, and observe noise. Of course, any
additional noise picked up in this step is attributed to
leadwire and/or gage pickup. If the output changes
when the instrument chassis is touched with a finger,
this is an indication of a poor ground and/or radio-
frequency interference.
Figure 2. Electromagnetic noise coupling.
4. Apply a load to the part under test (with excitation still
Since most irons and steels are ferro-magnetic, moving off). If additional noise is observed, the noise is due to
machine members redirect existing lines of flux, and may something associated with the loading system such as
cause them to be cut by adjacent sensitive conductors. As a motor creating a magnetic field, or the motion of the
a result, signal conductors in the vicinity of moving or gage or wiring (generating emf).
rotating machinery are generally subject to noise voltages 5. If possible, remove the load from the test part and apply
from this source. excitation voltage to the bridge circuit. After balancing
the bridge, any subsequent change in output, if gradual,
Detecting and Troubleshooting is zero-shift, not noise. This may be due to gage self-
heating effects (see Tech Note TN-502, Strain Gage
In order to effectively assess the presence and magnitude Excitation Levels)or other time-dependent resistance
of noise, the strain gage instr ument selected for changes.
use should incorporate a simple, but very significant
featureprovision for removing the excitation from the The following sections of this Tech Note give recommended
Wheatstone bridge. With such a control, the instrument noise-reduction procedures for electrostatic noise, and for
output can be easily checked for noise, independently of magnetic noise.
any strain signal. This represents a very powerful tool for
evaluating the effectiveness of shields and grounding, and Electrostatic Noise Reduction
for experimentally modifying these methods to minimize
the effects of noise. All Micro-Measurements strain gage The simplest and most effective barrier against electrostatic
instruments and data systems are equipped with this noise pickup is a conductive shield, sometimes referred to
important feature. as a Faraday cage. It functions by capturing the charges that
would otherwise reach the signal wiring. Once collected,
The following procedure can be used to troubleshoot a these charges must be drained off to a satisfactory
system for noise: ground (or reference potential). If not provided with a
1. If not already known, determine the tolerable levels of low-resistance drainage path, the charges can be coupled
noise in output units (millivolts, inches of deflection, into the signal conductors through the shield-to-cable
etc.) as observed on a readout such as an oscilloscope or capacitance (Figure 3).
data system display.
2. Consideration should be given first to noise sources
affecting the measurement system, isolated from all
external circuits. For this purpose, disconnect any
TECH NOTE

strain gage leads, and terminate the S+/S amplifier

inputs with about the same input impedance that the
amplifier normally senses (typically between 120 and
1000 ohms). If excessive noise exists:
a) Check for ground loops (more than one connection
of the system to ground). Figure 3. Electrostatic shielding.

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Noise Control in Strain Gage Measurements

The two most popular types of cable shields are braided In a fully guarded amplifier system (for example, Micro-
wire and conductive foil. The braided-shield construction Measurements Model 2200 System), the common-mode
provides about 95 percent coverage of the cable, and is voltage of the bridge excitation supply and the signal
characteristically low in resistance. Although commonly input terminals float to the level on the guard shield.
higher in resistance, foil shields give 100 percent cable Connecting the shield to the test structure or source of
coverage, and are also easier to terminate. Following common-mode voltage at the gage installation site can
are commercially available examples of the two types of provide very effective noise reduction since the voltage
shielded cable: between signal conductors and the shield is minimized.

braided: Micro-Measurements Type 430-FST Another often-overlooked source of noise is leakage

(four conductors, twisted) to ground through the strain gage and/or the cabling.
If excessive, this leakage can cause noise transfer from
foil: Micro-Measurements Type 422-DSV the specimen to the gage circuit, since even supposedly
well-grounded specimens may carry some noise. It is not
When long reaches of multiple conductors are run adjacent uncommon to have strain gages installed on nominally
to each other, problems with crosstalk between conductors grounded test objects that, in fact, have noise levels
can be encountered. With runs of 50 feet [15 m] or more, expressible in volts. And, of course, any strain gage
significant levels of noise can be induced into sensitive installation on a conductive specimen forms a classic
conductors through both magnetic and electrostatic capacitor which can couple noise from the specimen to the
coupling. Even though bridge-excitation conductors may gage. In light of these considerations, it is always a good
carry only a millivolt of noise, there can be significant practice to make certain that the specimen is properly
coupling to signal conductors to produce potentially grounded and that leakage between the gage circuit and
troublesome microvolt-level noise in those conductors. the specimen is well within bounds.
The noise transfer can be minimized by employing an
Prior to connecting leadwires to the strain gage, the
instrumentation cable composed of individually shielded
insulation resistance from the gage to the specimen should
pairsone pair for excitation, and one pair for the
be measured with a megohm meter such as the Micro-
signal. This type of construction is embodied in Micro-
Measurements Model 1300 Gage Installation Tester.
Measurements Type 422-DSV cable. When using such
Areading of 10 000 megohms is normally considered a
cable (those having separate shields), both shields should
minimum for satisfactory system operation. Readings
be grounded at the same, usually instrument, end of the
below this level are indicative of a possibly troublesome
cable. Electromagnetic coupling between excitation and
gage installation which can deteriorate with time and
signal pairs can be reduced somewhat by using a cable that
strain. It should also be kept in mind, for gage installations
has its conductor pairs twisted on separate axes. Belden
which will operate at elevated temperatures, that leakage
No. 8730 cable has the conductor pairs separately twisted,
resistance tends to decrease as the temperature increases.
including one pair shielded with foil.
After cable placement and connection at the gage-end of
The shield-to-conductor capacitance can also become
the cable, the following resistance measurements should
signif icant for long runs, since the capacitance is
be made, preferably from the instrument-end of the cable:
proportional to the cable length. Therefore, a significant
conductor-to-ground, shield-to-ground, and conductor-to-
portion of the residual noise can be coupled from even
shield. Because of distributed leakage, these resistances may
a well-grounded shield to the sensitive conductors. To
be somewhat lower than the gage-to-specimen resistance;
minimize this effect, some strain gage instruments (for
but cables with significantly lower resistances should be
example, Micro-Measurements 2300 System) incorporate
investigated, and the excessive leakage eliminated to avoid
a feature called a driven guard. A driven guard (also
potential noise problems.
known as a driven shield) functions by maintaining the
shield at a voltage equal to the average signal, or common-
mode voltage. Since, with this arrangement, the voltage Electromagnetic Noise Reduction
difference between the conductors and shield is essentially
The most effective approach to minimizing magnetically
TECH NOTE

zero, the effective capacitance is decreased, and there is

induced noise is not to attempt magnetic shielding of the
minimal noise transfer. The result is a very quiet shield. It
sensitive conductors; but, instead, to ensure that noise
is important to note that, for proper operation, the driven
voltages are induced equally in both sides of the amplifier
shield is connected at only one end to the driven-guard pin
input (Figure 4). When analyzed, all conventional strain
on the instrument input connector. The driven shield is
gage bridge arrangementsquarter bridge (two- or
ordinarily surrounded by a second shield, which should be
three-leadwire), half bridge, and full bridgereduce to
grounded at one end.

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Noise Control in Strain Gage Measurements

the same basic circuit shown in Figure 4. This is also true lengths of input cable should be eliminated; and under
for systems that employ the rotated or nonsymmetrical no circumstances should the extra length be disposed
bridge circuit. Achievement of noise cancellation by the of by winding into a coil as illustrated in Figure 7a. If
method shown in Figure 4 requires that the amplifier excess cable length cannot be avoided, it should be folded
exhibit good common-mode rejection characteristics. in half and coiled as indicated in Figure 7b so that each
Attention must also be given, however, to the strain gage clockwise current loop is intimately accompanied by a
wiring, and to the effects of nearby power lines. For counterclockwise loop. The same cabling considerations
example, it is evident from Figure 2 that a gradient in apply to both the excitation leads and the signal leads, and
magnetic field intensity exists with respect to distance from to power cables.
the current-carrying power line. The series noise voltages
(V1 and V2) induced in the signal wires will therefore depend
greatly upon their distances from the current-carrying
conductors. Twisting the signal conductors together tends
to make the distances equal, on the average, thereby
inducing equal noise voltages which will cancel each other.
Correspondingly effective, the magnetic field strengths
radiated by power lines can be reduced by twisting the
power conductors.

Figure 5. Gage selection and wiring technique.

Figure 4. Noise cancellation by

amplifier common-mode rejection.

In theory, at least, the more twists per unit conductor

length, the better. Standard twisted-conductor cables,
such as Belden No. 8771, have sufficient twisting for
most applications. However, in environments with high
magnetic field gradients, such as those found close to
motors, generators, and transformers, tighter twisting
may be required. For particularly severe applications,
conventional twisting may be inadequate, and it may be
Figure 6. Cable comparison.
necessary to use a special woven cable as described later.
When attaching leadwires to a strain gage for operation in
a magnetic field, connections should be made directly to
the solder tabs on the gage, rather than through auxiliary
terminals. Micro-Measurements CEA-Series gages, with
copper-coated solder tabs, are particularly suited to
this type of application. As shown in Figure 5, the gage
selection and the wiring arrangements can greatly affect
TECH NOTE

the sensitivity to magnetic pickup. It will be noticed that

the preferred arrangement minimizes the susceptible loop
area between the wires. For the same reason, flat ribbon
cable is very prone to noise pickup, and its use in magnetic
fields should be avoided. When necessary to use this
type of cable, optimal conductor allocation, as shown in Figure 7. Handling excess cable.
Figure 6, can help reduce the pickup. In addition, excess

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Unlike the case for electrostatic noise, a simple, grounded points, can display antenna behavior. By experimentally
conductive shield does not function as a barrier to magnetic grounding the shield at numerous points along its length,
noise. Magnetic shields operate on a different principle, the optimum grounding scheme can be determined.
and serve to bend or shunt the magnetic field around the
Although the leadwires are ordinarily the dominant
conductor rather than eliminate it. Magnetic shields are
medium for noise induction in a strain gage circuit, noise
made from high-permeability materials such as iron and
pickup can also occur in the gage itself. When needed, a
other ferro-magnetic metals. At the relatively low 50/60Hz
simple electrostatic shield can be fabricated by forming
power line frequencies often encountered in magnetic
an aluminum-foil box over the gage and the unshielded
noise problems, shield thicknesses (using common iron for
leadwire terminations. If the gaged specimen is small and
example) on the order of 0.1 in [2.5mm] are needed before
electrically conductive, aluminum tape with conductive
significant noise reduction is achieved. Heavy-walled iron
adhesive should be used to connect the cable shield, the
conduit can also be used to provide some reduction in
gage shield, and the specimen together. Conductive epoxy
magnetic noise pickup. However, there are special high-
compounds can also be used for this purpose.
permeability alloys (mu-metal, for instance) that have been
developed specifically for magnetic shielding purposes. On the other hand, when gages are installed on machinery
These are effective in much thinner shields than with iron. or other large, conductive test objects, care must be
When faced with the apparent necessity for magnetic exercised to prevent the occurrence of ground current
shielding, attention should always be given to reducing loops in the shield. In such cases, the foil should be
the noise at its source. As an example, transformers can electrically insulated from the machine. But the machine
readily be designed to minimize the leakage flux. should be grounded with a heavy-gauge copper wire (at
least 14 gauge or heavier depending upon application)
Severe Noise Environments connected to the single-point ground near the instrument.
Care must also be taken to make certain that the shield
The preceding two sections have treated the standard does not form a short circuit to the gage wiring. If the
methods of noise reduction applicable to the majority cable has two shields, then, ideally at least, a double-foil
of instrumentation problems. This section describes shield should be used over the strain gage. The two shields
techniques that may become necessary when very high should be connected together only at the instrument end
noise levels are anticipated or experienced. of the cable.
A word about ground connections is in order. It is important
Electrostatic Fields
to remember that all conductors are characterized by
Generally, when shielding against audio-frequency resistance, inductance, and shunt capacitance. As a result,
electrostatic noise (below 20 kHz), it is not good practice attention should always be given to the quality of the
to ground the shield at more than one point. The reason for ground connections. To be effective, a connection to
this is that the ground points may be at different voltage ground should be made with heavy-gauge copper wire,
levels, causing current to flow through the shield. Current and should be as short as practicable. If the nearest earth
flow in such ground loops can induce noise in the signal- ground is too remote, a 6-ft [2-m] copper rod can be driven
carrying conductors through the same phenomenon that into the earth to establish a local ground.
occurs in a transformer.
Electromagnetic Fields
However, for long cables in severe noise environments, the
shield impedance from one end to the other can become As with electrostatic noise pickup, the leadwires commonly
significant, particularly with high-frequency noise sources. represent the principal source of magnetic noise induction
When this occurs, the noise charges captured by the shield in strain gage circuits. In intense electromagnetic fields
no longer find a low-resistance drain to ground, and the with steep gradients (near motors, generators, and similar
result is a noisy shield. Improved shield performance equipment), ordinary wire-twisting techniques may prove
under such circumstances can often be obtained by inadequate. An end view of a conventionally twisted
grounding the shield at both ends, and/or at intermediate pair can reveal the reason for pickup. As indicated in
TECH NOTE

pointspreferably at points near any localized sources Figure 4, even if the induced noise were precisely equal
of electrostatic noise. Multiple-point ground connections in both wires, the amplifier noise output would be zero
may also be necessary when radio-frequency interference only if the amplifier had infinite common-mode rejection
(RFI) problems are encountered. At these frequencies characteristicsan impossibility. In order to minimize
the shield, or segments of the shield between grounded common-mode noise voltages, a special, woven, four-
wire cable has been designed that, as seen from the wire
Allegheny Ludlum Steel Co.

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Noise Control in Strain Gage Measurements

end, eliminates the spiral inductive loops (Figure 8). For flows in opposite directions through the two grids, the noise
maximum cancellation of electromagnetic fields, pairs induced in the assembly tends to be self-cancelling. This
of wires (composed of one wire from each plane) are arrangement is particularly effective against magnetic field
connected in parallel. Referring to the figure, wires 1 and 2 gradients and their components parallel to the test surface.
are paralleled to form one conductor; and wires 3 and 4 to The dual-element gage is intended to function as one arm
form the other. So connected, this type of cable is largely of a Wheatstone bridge circuit; and the bridge is usually
insensitive to magnetic field gradients, both parallel and completed with another gage of the same type, or with a
perpendicular to the cable length. The cable is known fixed precision resistor. Standard practices are followed
as Inter-8 Weave, and is available from: Magnetic Shield when installing the gages; but the Micro-Measurements
Corp., 740 N. Thomas Drive, Bensensville, Illinois 60106. M-Bond 600/610 adhesive system is recommended for
bonding, since this will result in the thinnest glueline,
and placement of the grids as close as possible to the
specimen surface. Available from Micro-Measurements
are two types of dual-element, noninductive stacked
gageslinear H06A-AC1-125-700 and a three-gage rosette
H06A-AD3-125-700. See our Precision Strain Gages Data
Book for details.
In addition to the strain gage size and pattern, the selection
of the gage grid alloy should be given careful consideration.
If the grid alloy is magnetic, it will be subject to extraneous
physical forces in a magnetic field; and, if magnetoresistive,
will undergo spurious resistance changes. Similarly, if
the alloy is magnetostrictive, the grid will try to change
Figure 8. Woven cable to reduce severe electromagnetic
length in the magnetic field. Isoelastic alloy, for example,
radiation and pickup.
should not be used in magnetic fields, since it is both
strongly magnetoresistive and magnetostrictive. Stemming
Even though the strain gage is much less frequently the from their comparative freedom from magnetic effects,
significant medium for magnetic noise induction than constantan and Karma-type alloys are usually selected
the leadwires, different gage patterns have differing for such applications. Constantan, however, at cryogenic
sensitivities to noise pickup. For instance, if the gage has temperatures and in high magnetic fields (7-70 Tesla)
both solder tabs at one end, the net noise pickup is less than becomes severely magnetoresistive. The Karma-type alloy
for a gage with one tab at each end. As shown in Figure 5, is ordinarily preferred for cryogenic service because of its
the difference in noise sensitivity results from the relative generally superior performance in magnetic fields at very
size of the inductive loop area in each case. It is also worth low temperatures.
noting that smaller gages, with more closely spaced grid
When necessary, strain gages can also be shielded from
lines, are intrinsically quieter than large gages.
electromagnetic fields to some degree with a magnetic
shielding material such as mu-metal. Two or more layers
of the shielding material may be required to effect a
noticeable improvement. Of course, even this will be
ineffective if the source of the magnetic field is beneath the
strain gage. When high-frequency fields are encountered,
be sure that the material is suitable (high permeability) at
the anticipated frequency.

Suggested Additional Reading

TECH NOTE

Coffee, M.B., Common-mode Rejection Techniques for

In severe magnetic fields, especially those with steep Low-Level Data Acquisition. Instrumentation Technology
gradients in field intensity, additional measures may be 24, No. 7: 45-49 (1977).
required. For this purpose, Micro-Measurements has
Ficchi, R.F., Practical Design for Electromagnetic Com
developed a special gage configuration, the H-Series,
patibility. New York: Hayden Book Company, 1971.
consisting of two identical grids, with one stacked directly
above, and insulated from, the other. By connecting the Freynik, H.S., et. al., Nickel-Chromium Strain Gages for
upper and lower gage elements in series so that the current Cryogenic Stress Analysis of Super-Conducting Structures

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Noise Control in Strain Gage Measurements

in High Magnetic Fields. Proceedings of the Seventh Sitter, R.P., RFI What It Is and How to Control It, Part
Symposium on Engineering Problems of Fusion Research, II: Reduction of Interference. Instrumentation Technology
October, 1977. 25, No. 10: 59-65 (1978).
Hayt, W.H., Jr., Engineering Electromagnetics. New York: *Stein, Peter K., Spurious Signals Generated in Strain
McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1967. Gages, Thermocouples and Leads. Lf/MSE Publication
No. 69, April 1977.
Klipec, B.E., How to Avoid Noise Pickup on Wire and
Cable. Instruments & Control Systems 50, No. 12: 27-30 *Stein, Peter K., The Response of Transducers to Their
(1977). Environment, The Problem of Signal and Noise. Lf/MSE
Publication No. 17, October 1969.
Krigman, Alan, Sound and Fury: The Persistent Problem
of Electrical Noise. In-Tech 32, No. 1: 9-20 (1985). Strain Gages Operate in 50 000-Gauss Magnetic Fields For
(Extensive bibliography). Fusion Research. Epsilonics (published by Measurements
Group, Inc.) II, No. 3: 4 (1982).
McDer mott, Jim, EMI Sh ielding and Protective
Components. EDN 24, No. 16: 165-176 (1979). W h it e, D.R. J., Electrom ag netic Interference a nd
Compatibility, Vol. 3, Germantown, Maryland: Don White
Morrison, Ralph, Grounding and Shielding Techniques in
Consultants, 1973.
Instrumentation, 2nd Ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., 1977.
Severinsen, J., Gaskets that Block EMI. Machine Design *Available from: Stein Engineering Services, 5602 E.
47, No. 19: 74-77 (1975). Monte Rosa, Phoenix, Arizona 85018.

TECH NOTE

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