Classification: Nature of Science

Classification system
In the 18th century, Carl Linnaeus published a system for classifying living
things, which has been developed into the modern classification system.
People have always given names to things that they see, including plants
and animals, but Linnaeus was the first scientist to develop a hierarchal
naming structure that conveyed information both about what
the species was (its name) and also its closest relatives. The ability of the
Linnean system to convey complex relationships to scientists throughout the
world is why it has been so widely adopted.
Despite existing for hundreds of years, the science of classification is far
from dead. Classification of many species, old and new, continues to be
hotly disputed as scientists find new information or interpret facts in new
ways. Arguments are fierce and species do change names, but only after a
wealth of information has been gathered to support such a big step. One of
the new reasons why species are being re-evaluated is because
of DNA analysis. Basic genetic analysis information can change our ideas of
how closely two species are related and so their classification can change,
but how does the whole system work?
NATURE OF SCIENCE
Improved technologies have altered our understanding of the world. In
astronomy, the invention of the telescope enabled astronomers to observe
outer space and see what they hadnt been able to see before, and biologists
use the microscope to observe the unseen world. Now, DNA technology has
allowed scientists to re-examine the relationships between organisms to
refine the classification system.
Kingdom
When Linnaeus first described his system, he named only two kingdoms
animals and plants. Today, scientists think there are at least five kingdoms
animals, plants, fungi, protists (very simple organisms) and monera
(bacteria). Some scientists now support the idea of a sixth kingdom
viruses but this is being contested and argued around the world.
Phylum
Below the kingdom is the phylum (plural phyla). Within the animal kingdom,
major phyla include chordata (animals with a backbone), arthropoda
(includes insects) and mollusca (molluscs such as snails). Phyla have also
been developed and reorganised since the original work by Linnaeus as
scientists discover more species, more categories and subcategories are put
in place.
Class
Each phylum is then divided into classes. Classes within the chordata
phylum include mammalia (mammals), reptilia (reptiles) and osteichthyes
(fish), among others.
Order
The class will then be subdivided into an order. Within the class mammalia,
examples of an order include cetacea (including whales and dolphins),
carnivora (carnivores), primates (monkeys, apes and humans) and
chiroptera (bats).
Family
From the order, the organism will be classified into a family. Within the
order of primates, families include hominidae (great apes and humans),
cercopithecidae (old world monkeys such as baboons) and hylobatidae
(gibbons and lesser apes).
Genus and species
Finally, the classification will come to the genus (plural genera) and species.
These are the names that are most commonly used to describe an organism.
One outstanding feature of the Linnean classification system is that two
names are generally sufficient to differentiate from one organism to the
next. An example within the primate family is the genus Homo for all human
species (for example, Homo sapiens) or Pongo for the genus of orangutan
(for example, Pongo abelii for the Sumatran orangutan or Pongo
pygmaeus for the Bornean orangutan).
Constant evolution
While this system of classification has existed for over 300 years, it is
constantly evolving. Classification in the 1700s was based entirely on
the morphological characteristics (what something looks like) of the
organism. Those that looked most alike were put closest together in each
category. This can be depicted as a tree, with the diverging branches
showing how different the species become as you move out from the
kingdoms (trunk).
Now, a radical shift in the grouping of organisms is occurring with the
development of DNA technologies. Sequencing of the genetic code of an
organism reveals a great deal of information about its similarity with and
relationship to other organisms, and this classification often goes against
the traditional morphological classification. Scientists are debating which
species are most closely related and why.
Currently in New Zealand, there are projects to sequence kiwi and tuatara
DNA that may revolutionise the way we think about these species and their
closest living relatives.However, DNA technology is still expensive and time-
consuming, so the first step in any classification continues to rely on a
comparison of morphological features, similar to the process that Linnaeus
undertook in the 1700s.
History of Classification
Early classification systems probably grouped organisms as to whether
they were beneficial or harmful. Another ancient classification system
recognized 5 animal groups - domestic animals, wild animals, creeping
animals, flying animals, and sea animals.
ARISTOTLE
*4th century BC (384 to322 BC)

*Greek philosopher
*divided organisms into 2 groups - plants and animals
*divided animals into blood and bloodless
*also divided animals into 3 groups according to how they moved -
walking, flying, or swimming (land, air, or water)
*his system was used into the 1600's
DISCUSSION QUESTION - Using Aristotle's 3-group system (based on

movement), name 2 animals that would fit each of the 3 groups.
DISCUSSION QUESTION - Discuss whether Aristotle's 3 group system

had any built-in problems. Explain any problems that you detect with his
system.
CAROLUS LINNAEUS
18th century
Swedish scientist
classified plants and animals according to similarities in form

divided living things into one of two "kingdoms" -
o plant and animal kingdoms
o divided each of the kingdoms into smaller groups called

"genera" (plural of "genus")
o divided each genera into smaller groups called "species"
designed a system of naming organisms called binomial ("two

names") nomenclature ("system of naming") which gave each
organism 2 names -genus (plural = genera) and species (plural =
species) names. The genus and species names would be similar to
your first and last names. Genus is always capitalized
while species is never capitalized. To be written correctly, the
scientific name must be either underlined or written in italics.
his classification system is still used today; however, we use a 5

kingdom system (instead of 2 kingdom system.)
Based on Carolus Linnaeus binomial nomenclature system, each

organism is given a 2-part scientific name. An organism may have more
than one common name, but will only have one scientific name.
For example - mountain lion, cougar and puma are all common names
for the same animal. The name you decide to use probably depends on
where you live. However, its scientific name is Felis concolor.
Another example is the small, terrestrial crustacean which rolls up into

a ball when disturbed. It is commonly known as an isopod, a pillbug, a
sowbug, a roly-poly or a sow's ear. However. its scientific name
is Armadillium vulgare.
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Classification system

Genus and species

*4th century BC (384 to322 BC)

DISCUSSION QUESTION - Using Aristotle's 3-group system (based on

DISCUSSION QUESTION - Discuss whether Aristotle's 3 group system

classified plants and animals according to similarities in form

o plant and animal kingdoms

o divided each of the kingdoms into smaller groups called

o divided each genera into smaller groups called "species"

designed a system of naming organisms called binomial ("two

his classification system is still used today; however, we use a 5

Based on Carolus Linnaeus binomial nomenclature system, each

Another example is the small, terrestrial crustacean which rolls up into

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