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6. Tuned collector Oscillators

7. Hartley Oscillators

Chapter Review Questions

1. Define Concept of amplification

2. Define Small signal amplifier using BJT power gain voltage gain.
3. Define AC Load Line.
4. What is Function of Input & Output coupling capacitors & criteria for the value selection.
5. What is Function of emitter bypass capacitor & its value selection.
6. Explain AC equivalent circuit of transistor CE amplifier.
7. Explain Single stage CE amplifier with voltage divider biases its explanation.
8. Explain Frequency response of single stage CE Amplifier,
9. Define Bel, Decibel unit, Bandwith & its significance.
10. What are Effect of coupling & emitter bypass capacitor on bandwidth.
11. What is Cascade Amplifiers (Multistage Amplifier)
12. Explain Need of Multistage Amplifiers, Gain of amplifier.

Chapter-8 Transducers and Measuring Instruments

8.1 TRANSDUCERS

A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy to other form. It converts the
measurand to a usable electrical signal.

In other word it is a device that is capable of converting the physical quantity into a
proportional electrical quantity such as voltage or current.

Pressure Voltage

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF TRANSDUCERS

Transducer contains two parts that are closely related to each other i.e. the sensing
element and transduction element.

The sensing element is called as the sensor. It is device producing measurable response
to change in physical conditions.

The transduction element converts the sensor output to suitable electrical form.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSDUCERS

1. Ruggedness
2. Linearity
3. Repeatability
4. Accuracy
5. High stability and reliability
6. Speed of response
7. Sensitivity
8. Small size
8.2 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS

The transducers can be classified as:

I. Active and passive transducers.

II. Analog and digital transducers.

III. On the basis of transduction principle used.

IV. Primary and secondary transducer

V. Transducers and inverse transducers.

8.3 Discuss working of thermocouple & its application

A thermocouple is a temperature-measuring device consisting of two dissimilar conductors that

contact each other at one or more spots. It produces a voltage when the temperature of one of
the spots differs from the reference temperature at other parts of the circuit. Thermocouples
are a widely used type of temperature sensor for measurement and control, and can also
convert a temperature gradient into electricity.

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The voltage is not generated at the junction of the two metals of the thermocouple but rather
along that portion of the length of the two dissimilar metals that is subjected to a temperature
gradient. Because both lengths of dissimilar metals experience the same temperature gradient,
the end result is a measurement of the difference in temperature between the thermocouple
junction and the reference junction. As long as the junction is at a uniform temperature, it
does not matter how the junction is made (it may be brazed, spot welded, crimped, etc.),
however it is crucial for accuracy that the leads of the thermocouple maintain a well-defined
composition. If there are variations in the composition of the wires in the thermal gradient
region (due to contamination, oxidation, etc.), outside the junction, this can lead to changes in
the measured voltage.

8.4 Explain working of multimeter and comparison between Analog and Digital multimeter

WORKING OF MULTIMETER

To measure voltage (a.c., d.c.), current (ac, dc) and resistance, two types of instruments,
analog and digital meters, are utilized. The measurements of these fundamental electrical
quantities are based on either one of the following:
i) Current sensing. The instruments are mostly of the electromagnetic meter movement type,
such as an analog multimeter.
ii) Voltage sensing. The instruments are mostly electronic in nature, using amplifiers and
semiconductor devices, such as a digital multimeter.
Block Diagram

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ANALOG MULTIMETER

The main part of an analog multimeter is the DArsonval meter movement also known as the
permanent-magnet moving-coil (PMMC) movement. This common type of movement is used
for dc measurements.

When the meter current Im flows in the wire coil in the direction indicated in Figure, a magnetic
field is produced in the coil. This electrically induced magnetic field interacts with the magnetic
field of the horseshoe-type permanent magnet. The result of such an interaction is a force
causing a mechanical torque to be exerted on the coil. Since the coil is wound and
permanently fixed on a rotating cylindrical drum as shown, the torque produced will cause the
rotation of the drum around its pivoted shaft. When the drum rotates, two restraining springs,

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one mounted in the front onto the shaft and the other mounted onto the back part of the
shaft, will exhibit a counter torque opposing the rotation and restraining the motion of the
drum. This spring-produced counter torque depends on the angle of deflection of the drum, ,
or the pointer. At a certain position (or deflection angle), the two torques are in equilibrium.
Each meter movement is characterized by two electrical quantities:

1. Rm: the meter resistance which is due to the wire used to construct the coil.

2. IFS: the meter current, this causes the pointer to deflect all the way up to the full-scale
position on the fixed scale. This value of the meter current is always referred to as the full-
scale current of the meter movement.

Pre Knowledge:

AMMETER

The deflection of the pointer in the DArsonval meter movement is proportional to the meter
current I. Therefore, this instrument can be used to measure current. However, the meter
movement by itself is of limited use and capability, since its full-scale current value IFS is
practically too small (at most in the order of milliamperes). If the current allowed to flow in the
movement, Im, exceeds IFS, permanent damage can result, in particular to the restraining
springs.
To be able to measure currents higher in value than IFS of a given meter movement, the
division principle is applied. Figure 4 shows the construction of an ammeter.

A given meter movement can be used to build a multirange ammeter. Each range requires a
different value of the shunt resistance. So a three-range ammeter requires three different
shunt resistors.

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VOLTMETER

To increase the full-scale voltage range of the movement when functioning as a voltmeter, the
meter movement current Im has to be lowered. This can easily be achieved by inserting a large
resistance, called the multiplier resistance, Rmult, in series with the meter movement

Using the same meter movement, a multirange voltmeter can be designed. A three-range
Voltmeter

OHMMETER

If the meter movement current Im is somehow made to be proportional to the value of an

unknown resistance to be measured, the meter's scale can be calibrated to read resistance

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directly. Here, however, a voltage source (e.g., a battery) must be added to the meters circuit
to drive the current necessary for the deflection of the pointer.

COMPARISON BETWEEN ANALOG AND DIGITAL MULTIMETER

1. Analog multimeter use a needle and calibrated scale to indicate values where as digital
multimetres display those values in a digital display.
2. Digital meters are easier to read and adjust to a proper range required for the circuit or
device.
3. Digital voltmeters have 50 times more impedance than analog voltmeter. So digital
meters are more accurate when measuring voltage in high resistance circuit.
4. Digital meters are often capable of measuring smaller current in microamperes and
easier than analog ammeters.
5. Many analog ohmmeter will, when switched to the ohm function, reverse the polarity
of the tested leads where as this problem is not happened in digital ohmmeter.

8.5 Explain Block diagram of CRO, Measurement (Frequency & amplitude)& its use.

CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (CRO)

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Popular instrument to show time, voltage both in D.C. and A.C. Shows Volts / Time.

Display waveforms. Spectrum scope shows volts to Frequency

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Cathode (-ve) is heated, emits electrons, accelerated toward a (+ve) fluorescent

screen. Intensity grid, Focus grid, accelerating anode. (Electron gun)

Horizontal deflection plates.

Vertical deflection plates

Cathode ray tube (CRT) is the heart of the CRO. Electron beam generated by the electron gun
first deflected by the deflection plates, and then directed onto the fluorescent coating of the
CRO screen, which produces a visible light spot on the face plane of the oscilloscope screen.

It consist of two main parts:-

Electron Gun

Deflection System

ELECTRON GUN

Electron gun provides a sharply focused electron beam directed toward the fluorescent-
coated screen. The thermally heated cathode emits electrons in many directions. The
control grid provides an axial direction for the electron beam and controls the number
and speed of electrons in the beam.

THE DEFLECTION SYSTEM

The deflection system consists of two pairs of parallel plates, referred to as the vertical
and horizontal deflection plates. One of the plates in each set is permanently connected
to the ground (zero volt), whereas the other plate of each set is connected to input
signals or triggering signal of the CRO.

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Y-input: It is the main input of CRO, to which the input signal is connected. The waveform of
this input signal is displayed on the screen of CRT.

Vertical attenuator1: It consists of RC voltage divider, which is marked on the CRO front
panel as Volt/div control knob. Thus the gain of CRO can be controlled with Volt/div knob.

Vertical amplifier: It is a set of preamplifier and main vertical amplifier. The input attenuator
sets up the gain of vertical amplifier.

Delay line: The delay line delays the striking of electron beam on the screen. It synchronizes
the arrival of the beam on screen when time base generator signal starts sweeping the beam
horizontally. The propagation delay2 produced is about 0.25msec.

Trigger circuit: It takes the sample of input voltage connected at y-input of CRO and feeds it
to the input of time base generator. So the TBG starts only when input signal is present at y-
input.

Time base generator: It produces a saw tooth wave. The waveform is used to sweep (move)
the electron beam horizontally on the screen. The rate of rise of positive going edge of saw
tooth waveform is controlled by Time/div control knob. Thus, the saw tooth wave controls the
horizontal deflection of electron beam along x-axis.

A switch known as INT/EXT is also connected after the output of TBG. When the switch is in
INT position, the output of TBG is connected to H-plates through horizontal amplifier. When it
is in EXT position, internal saw tooth is cut-off and some external signal can be connected to
horizontal plates.

Horizontal amplifier: It amplifies the saw tooth waveform coming from TBG. It contains
phase inverter circuit also. Due to this circuit, two outputs are produced. One output produces
positive going saw tooth and other output produces negative going saw tooth. The first output
is connected to right side H-plate and the second output is connected to left side H-plate. So
the electron beam moves properly from left to right of the screen.

Blanking circuit: It is necessary to eliminate the retrace, which would produce when the spot
on screen moves from right to left. This retrace can produce confusion with the original wave.

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So when the electron beam reaches right end of screen, the negative blanking voltage is
produced by TBG. It is fed to control grid of CRT, to stop the electron beam completely.

HV/LV power supply: The high voltage section is used to power the electrodes of CRT and
the low voltage section is used to power the electronic circuits of the CRO.

Applications of CRO
Some important applications of CRO are :
1. Observation of waveforms
2. Voltage measurement
3. Frequency measurement
4. Measurements using Lisajous pattern
5. Identification of Components(New type CRO)
Chapter review questions

1. Define transducer.
2. Classify different type of transducers.
3. Discuss working of thermocouple & its application
4. Explain working ofmultimeter with neat block diagram
5. comparison between Analog and Digital multimeter
6. Explain Block diagram of CRO,Measurement(Frequency & amplitude)& its use.
7. What is CRO
8. What are different sections of CRO

Chapter-9 Communication System

Basics of Communication Systems

Communication is the transfer of information from one point in space and time to another point.
The block diagram of a communication system is shown in Figure 19.

Chann Y-gain
el 2

Time
base

Figure 19 A block diagram of a communication systems

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Transmitter - couples the message onto the channel using high frequency signals

Receiver - restores the signal to its original form

Channel - the medium used for transmission of signals and Channels can be of two types:
i) wired channels or ii) wireless channels.

Modulation - the process of shifting the frequency spectrum of a message signal to a

frequency range in which more efficient transmission can be achieved

Demodulation - the process of shifting the frequency spectrum back to the original baseband
frequency range and reconstructing the original form, if necessary

Baseband - refers to the lower portion of the over-all electromagnetic spectrum

Spectrum of Communication Systems

Frequency Designation Transmission Propagation Applications

Media Modes
Infrared Optical fibers Laser beam Wideband Data
1 THz 430 THz Multimedia ATM
Super High Frequency Waveguides Line-of-Sight Satellite Microwave
(SHF) 3 GHz 30 GHz (LOS) Radio Radar Navigational
Ultra High Fcy (UHF) Waveguides/ Co-axial LOS Radio UHF ,TV ,Mobile
300 MHz 3000 MHz cable
Very High Fcy (VHF) Co-axial cable LOS Radio Mobile ,VHF ,TV, FM
30 MHz 300 MHz
High Fcy (HF) Co-axial cable Sky wave Radio CB Amateur Radio
3 MHz 30 MHz Civil Defense
Medium Fcy (MF) Co-axial cable Ground wave AM
300 kHz 3000 kHz Radio
Low Fcy (LF) Wire pairs Ground wave Aeronautical ,
30 kHz 300 kHz Radio ransoceanic Radio
Very Low Fcy (VLF) Wire pairs Ground wave Telephone
3 kHz 30 kHz Radio Telegraph
Audio Fcy (AF) Wire pairs
20 Hz 20 kHz

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9.1 Define Modulation & its need.

The process of changing some characteristic (e.g. amplitude, frequency or phase) of a carrier
Wave in accordance with the intensity of the signal is known as modulation. The resultant
wave is called modulated wave or radio wave and contains the audio signal. Therefore,
modulation permits the transmission to occur at high frequency while it simultaneously allows
the carrying of the audio signal. It is also the process of manipulating the frequency or the
amplitude of a carrier wave in response to an incoming voice, video or data signal

Why Modulation needed?

Modulation is required to match the signal to the transmission medium. Some of the
major reasons why modulation is required are:

Practical antenna length.

Ex- Audio frequencies range from 20 Hz to 20 kHz, therefore, if they are transmitted
directly into space, the length of the transmitting antenna required would be extremely
large. For instance, to radiate a frequency of 20 kHz directly into space, we would need
an antenna length of 3 10 power 8/20 10 power 3 = 15,000 metres. This is too long
antenna to be constructed practically. If a carrier wave say of 1000 kHz is used to carry
the signal, we need an antenna length of 300 metres only and this size can be easily
constructed.
Operating range. The energy of a wave depends upon its frequency. The greater
the frequency of the wave, the greater the energy possessed by it. As the audio
signal frequencies are small, therefore, these cannot be transmitted over large
distances if radiated directly into space. Thus modulate a high frequency carrier wave
with audio signal and permit the transmission to occur at this high frequency (i.e.
carrier frequency).
Wireless communication. One desirable feature of radio transmission is that it
should be carried without wires i.e. radiated into space. At audio frequencies,
radiation is not practicable because the efficiency of radiation is poor. However,
efficient radiation of electrical energy is possible at high frequencies > 20 kHz.
Modulation for ease of radiation
Modulation for frequency assignment and multiplexing
Modulation to reduce noise and interference

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9.2 Types of Modulation

There are three basic types of modulation, namely ;
(i) Amplitude modulation (ii) Frequency modulation (iii) Phase modulation

(i)Amplitude Modulation
When the amplitude of high frequency carrier wave is changed in accordance with the
intensity of the signal, it is called amplitude modulation. In amplitude modulation, only the
amplitude of the carrier wave is changed in accordance with the intensity of the signal and the
frequency of the modulated wave remains the same i.e. carrier frequency. Amplitude
modulation (AM) is a modulation technique used in electronic communication, most
commonly for transmitting information via a radio carrier wave and in portable two way
radios, VHF aircraft radio and in computer modems ."AM" is often used to refer to
medium wave AM radio broadcasting.

1.5

0
0 1000

My
-1.5

Figure1.2 An AM signal with modulating and carrier signals shown

(ii)Frequency Modulation (FM)

When the frequency of carrier wave is changed in accordance with the intensity of the signal, it
is called frequency modulation (FM). In frequency modulation, only the frequency of the
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carrier wave is changed in accordance with the signal and the amplitude of the modulated
wave remains the same i.e. carrier wave amplitude. The frequency variations of carrier wave
depend upon the instantaneous amplitude of the signal(Compare with amplitude
modulation, in which the amplitude of the carrier wave varies, while the frequency remains
constant.) It is used in radio, telemetry, radar, seismic prospecting, and monitoring
newborns for seizures via EEG. FM is widely used for broadcasting music and speech, two-
way radio systems, magnetic tape-recording systems and some video-transmission systems.
Frequency modulation is known as phase modulation when the carrier phase modulation is
the time integral of the FM signal

(iii) Phase modulation (PM) is a modulation pattern that encodes information as variations
in the instantaneous phase of a carrier wave. Phase modulation is a form of
modulation that can be used for radio signals used for a variety of radio communications
applications. As will be seen later, phase modulation, and frequency modulation are
closely linked together and it is often used in many transmitters and receivers used for a
variety of radio communications applications from two way radio communications links,
mobile radio communications and even maritime mobile radio communications. Unlike
frequency modulation (FM), phase modulation is not widely used for transmitting
radio waves. It is used for signal and waveform generation in digital synthesizers.

9.4 Demodulation
The process of recovering the audio signal from the modulated wave is known as
modulation or detection. At the broadcasting station, modulation is done to transmit the audio
signal over larger distances to a receiver. When the modulated wave is picked up by the radio

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receiver, it is necessary to recover the audio signal from it. This process is accomplished in
the radio receiver and is called demodulation. A demodulator is an electronic circuit (or
computer program in a software defined radio) that is used to recover the information content
from the modulated carrier wave. Demodulation is the act of extracting the original
information-bearing signal from a modulated carrier wave. A demodulator is an electronic
circuit (or computer program in a software-defined radio) that is used to recover the
information content from the modulated carrier wave.
The comparison of FM and AM is given in the table below
FM AM
The amplitude of carrier remains constant The amplitude of carrier changes with
with modulation Modulation
The carrier frequency changes according to The carrier frequency remains constant with
the strength of the modulating signal. modulation.

The carrier frequency changes with modulation. The carrier amplitude changes according to
the strength of the modulating signal
The value of modulation index (mf) can be The value of modulation factor (m) cannot
more than 1. be more than 1 for distortionless AM
signal.

Chapter Review Questions

1. Define communication system

2. Define Transmission & Reception.
3. Define Modulation & its need.
4. Define Signal, Carrier Wave & Modulated Wave
5. Name different types of Modulation.(AM,FM & PM)
6. Discuss Amplitude Modulation & draw its wave form
7. Discuss Frequency Modulation & draw its wave form.

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