Machine Tools

Introduction
Machining is a material removal process in which a sharp cutting tool is used to mechanically cut
away material to obtain desired geometry. The machine used for this purpose is known as a Machine
Tool. So, Machine tools are defined as power driven cutting tools or machines which enable the
removal of excess stock of material from the work piece. It holds both Work-piece (i.e. the one which
has to be machined) and the Cutting tool, the one which is used to separate/remove material stock
from the work piece. For Eg: hack saw, chisel etc

Machining operation is done by Relative motions between the tool and the work-piece.
There are two different types of Cutting tools and they are Single and Multipoint cutting tools.
There are two Metal Cutting Process namely i) Orthogonal Cutting in which the cutting edge of tool is
perpendicular to the workpiece axis. ii) Oblique Cutting: The cutting edge is inclined at an acute angle
with normal to the cutting velocity vector.

Classification of machine tools based on the tools used:

I. Machine using single point tools

a) Lathe
b) Boring machine
c) Shaping machine
d) Planning machine
II. Machines using multi-point tools
a) Drilling machine
b) Milling machine
c) Broaching machine
III. Machine using abrasives
a) Grinding machine
b) Surface or micro finishing machine

Lathe
Lathes were developed as early as the 15th century and were known as "bow" lathes. The operator
rotated the workpiece by drawing a bow back and forth, either by hand or with the use of a foot
treadle. Next came Bessons lathe in 1568, which was driven by a cord passing over a pulley above the
machine.

Lathes have allowed man to reshape, machine and manufacture many precision cylindrical
components made of various types of metal, wood, plastics, and other materials. Without the lathe,
man would still be trying to produce cylindrical components.
Some of the features of Lathe:
Lathe is a machine tool employed generally to produce cylindrical objects.
A lathe is a general purpose machine tool. Here the work piece is made to rotate at desired speed
and the cutting tool is moved either manually or mechanically against the rotating job in specific
direction to achieve the desired cutting action.
 By using necessary attachments and accessories, over 200 operations can be performed. Hence it
is also popular as king of machine tools.

Classification of lathe
Lathes are classified on the basis of drive mechanism, process, purpose etc. the main type are:
a) Center lathe (engine lathe)
b) Speed lathe
c) Bench lathe
d) Tool room lathe
e) Production lathes ( capstan and turret lathes)
f) Special purpose lathes
g) Automatic lathe

Construction of a center Lathe (Gear head lathe)

Figure 1: Lathe Machine

Parts of a lathe. (Construction)

1. Bed
The bed is the main component of a lathe. All the major components are mounted on the lathe
bed, like tail stock, headstock, carriage, etc. Tailstock and carriage move over the guide ways
provided on top face of the bed. The bed material should have high compressive strength and high
wear resistance. Cast iron alloyed with nickel chromium forms a good material for bed.

2. Headstock
Headstock is mounted on the left hand side of the lathe bed. The head stock accommodates gear
box, which helps to vary the spindle speed. The gear box also transmits the power to other parts like
feed rod and lead screw. The chuck or face plate is attached to the spindle which provides mechanical
means clutching and rotating the work piece. Head stock is also known as live center

3. Tailstock
The tailstock is mounted on the right hand side of the lathe bed. The function of the tailstock is to
support the work piece, and to accommodate different tools like drill, reaming, boring and tapping,
etc. The tailstock moves on the guide ways over the bed, to accommodate for different length of work
piece. Tailstock is known as dead center.

4. Carriage
The carriage is mounted on the lathe bed, which slides on the guide ways of the bed. The carriage
has various other parts like, cross slide, compound rest, and tool post.

5. Saddle
The saddle is mounted on the bed and slides along the ways. On the saddle the cross slide and tool
post are mounted. The movement of the saddle is parallel along the axis of the lathe which is known
as feed.

6. Cross-slide
The cross slide is mounted on the top of the saddle. This moves the tool at perpendicular to the
work piece or machine axis. The cross slide can be moved either by rotating the cross slide hand
wheel. The perpendicular distance moved by the cross slide is proportional to the amount of metal
removed and it is known as depth of cut.

7. Compound-slide
The compound slide (compound rest) is mounted on the top of the cross slide. The rest part of the
compound slide has graduations in degree. It is used to obtain taper on the work piece.

8. Tool-post
The tool post is mounted on top of the compound slide.The tool post holds the tool rigidly.

9. Apron
The apron is fastened to the saddle and hangs over the front of the bed. Apron is fitted with
mechanism for both manual and powered movement of the saddle and the carriage. Split nut engages
the Apron with lead screw, which is used to cut internal or external threads.

10. Feed rod

Feed rod is a long shaft extending from the feed box. The power is transmitted from a set of gears
from headstock. The feed rod is used to move the carriage or cross slide for turning, boring and facing
operations.

11. Lead screw

The lead screw is a long threaded shaft connected to the headstock. The lead screw is used only
when thread cutting operation is to be carried out on the work piece. For normal turning operations
the lead screw is disengaged.
Principle of lathe Operation:

Figure 2: Working principle of Lathe

The principle of Working on a lathe is illustrated in above figure.

Generally a circular job is between the live center and the dead center. The head stock spindle
provides the power to rotate the job with a chuck or catch plate. A single point tool is held on the tool
post with the cutting edge at the level of the spindle axis and close to the job at its circumference.
Cutting action is obtained by tool movement perpendicular to the axis of rotation (depth of cut) and
simultaneously moving it parallel to the axis of rotation (feed) along the job. For a set depth of cut,
the carriage is moved from right to the left, the tool is feed from the job and the carriage is moved
back to the initial position. Depth of cut is set and the feed is given as explained.

Lathe Operations
1. Facing
2. Straight Turning
3. Knurling
4. Taper turning
5. Thread cutting

Facing

Figure 2: Facing operation

Facing is the process of removing metal from the end of a work piece to produce a flat surface.
The work piece rotates about its axis and the facing tool is fed perpendicular to the axis of lathe.
 Turning

Figure 3: Turning operation

Turning is the removal of metal from the outer diameter of a rotating cylindrical work piece.
Turning is used to reduce the diameter of the work piece, usually to a specified dimension. Here the
cutting tool is fed against the revolving work piece and is then moved parallel to the lathe axis so as to
produce a cylindrical surface.

Knurling-

Figure 4: Knurling operation

Knurling is the process of embossing a required shaped pattern on the surface of the work piece.
This diagram shows the knurling tool pressed against a piece of circular work piece. The lathe is set,
so that the chuck revolves at a low speed. The knurling tool is pressed against the rotating work piece
and pressure is slowly increased until the tool produces a pattern on the work piece. Sometimes more
than one pass may be required to get a deep cut. Depending on the knurling tool selected, a variety of
knurled patterns can be produced.
 Taper turning

A taper may be defined as a uniform increase or decrease in diameter of work piece measured
along its length. Taper surface is generated on a cylindrical work piece. The amount of taper in a work
piece is usually specified by the difference in diameters of the taper to its length.

Figure 5: Taper

Where,

D- Large diameter of taper in mm.

d- Small diameter of taper in mm.
l- Length of tapered part in mm.
- Angle of taper or half taper angle.
The taper turning is done on a lathe by different methods and the selection of method depends
on length of taper to be generated on the work piece.

The different methods of taper turning are

a) Taper turning by form tool method
b) Taper turning by swiveling the compound rest.
c) Taper turning by offsetting the tail stock
d) Taper-turning by taper turning attachment.
Taper Turning by Swiveling Compound Rest

Figure 7: Taper Turning by Swiveling Compound Rest

 Here the compound rest has rotating base graduated in degrees, which can be rotated to any angle
(according to the taper angle). The tool is advanced by rotating the compound rest and hand wheel so
that the tool moves according to set taper angle. This method produces taper length larger than form
tool method.

Formula which is used to calculate taper angle is Tan = ( D - d) / 2L

Where

= Half taper angle

D= Large diameter
d= Small diameter
L= Length of taper

Thread cutting-

Thread cutting or threading is an operation for cutting screw threads on metallic parts. Fig shows
a thread cutting operation.

Figure 8: Thread cutting

SPECIFICATION OF LATHE:
The size of the lathe is specified by one or more of the following criteria.
 Figure 9: Lathe Specifications

Distance between centers: It is the maximum length of the job that can be held between the
centers, i.e., between live center and the dead center.
Swing diameter: it is the maximum diameter of the work piece that can revolve without
touching the guide ways.
Height of centers: It is the height measured from the bed to the lathe center axis.
Length of bed: It indicates the approximate floor space occupied by the lathe.
Range of Spindle speeds.

Drilling machines
Drilling is an operation of producing cylindrical holes in solid metal/nonmetals by means of a
revolving tool called drill bit or twist drill. The machines employed for drilling holes are called
drilling machines. Drilling machine is the one of the essential machine tool used in fabrication,
production shop and tool rooms, for machining/producing holes. The machine consists of a spindle
which provides rotary motion to the drilling tool (twist). The spindle may also produce motion to table
on which the work rests.

Principle of operation
The hole is generated by the rotating drill bit, which exerts large force on the work piece clamped
rigidly on the machine table. The figure below illustrates a cross section of a hole being cut by a
common twist drill.
 Figure10: Principle of drilling operation

Types / classification of Drilling Machines

1. Portable drilling machine

2. Bench Drilling Machine (Sensitive drilling machine)
3. Upright drilling machine
4. Radial drilling machine
5. Gang drilling machine
6. Multiple spindle drilling machine
7. Automatic drilling machine
8. Deep-hole drilling machine.

Bench drilling Machine (Sensitive drilling machine):

Bench drilling Machine & Radial drilling Machine

These are belt driven, general purpose, and small machine capable of drilling only small diameter
holes. These are also called sensitive drilling machine because they require skilled operator who needs
a sense of feeling of manual feed. The spindle speed will be around 20,000rpm.

Operation:
 The hole location on the job/ work piece is made with a center punch. It is then made deeper using
a combined drill and counter sink. It helps to guide the drill smoothly without any walk off the punch
mark. The drill is fixed in the chuck using the key. The work piece is clamped on to the work table
over a wooden piece with suitable fixture which can be raised and clamped at the required height, so
that the drill can penetrate the job. The drill is slowly fed on to the center mark. With a sense of
feeling suitable pressure is applied on the job for the right feed. As the drill starts to penetrate, the
pressure should be reduced gradually on the down feed. Feeling the cutting action, the operation
should be completed. The drill is withdrawn carefully by rotating the hand wheel in the reverse
direction.

Radial drilling machine

Figure 12: Radial drilling Machine

It is a heavy duty precision machine. Designed for universal movements of the arm with a tool
head over a stationary work piece. Its arm will be automatically clamped on the vertical column when
the elevating mechanism is stopped.

Operation:
After locating the hole positions, the work piece is mounted on the work table using suitable
fixtures. Suitable drill and coolant are selected. The drill is fitted into the spindle. The tool head (drill)
is brought over the work piece by swinging and moving the arm in the necessary up, down, left or
right direction. The necessary feed and speed are calculated and set on the drill head drive
mechanism. The machine is started and drilling may then be performed as usual.

Drilling machine operations

1) Drilling
2) Reaming
3) Boring
4) Counter boring
5) Counter sinking
6) Tapping
Drilling:

Figure 13: drilling operation

It is the operation of producing cylindrical holes in solid objects by means of a revolving tool
called drill bit. Initially the center of the hole is marked by two cross lines, and a center punch is used
to highlight the center. The hole is generated by the sharp edges of the rotating drill bit that is forced
to move against the rigidly clamped work piece. The chips get curled and escapes through the helical
grooves (flutes) provided in the drill bit. A drilled hole will have the rough size of the required hole
and needs further sizing and finishing operations.

Reaming:

Figure 14: Reaming operation

It is a finishing operation of a predrilled hole using a reamer (tool) which has multi-longitudinal
straight flutes. A reamer will have diameter equivalent to that of the hole diameter to be finished. The
reaming speed is almost half that of the drilling speed. The material is removed in small amounts, and
hence the surface of the drilled hole is finished with high accuracy. The amount of material to be
removed should not exceed 0.125mm. It should be used only to remove small amounts of material.
This ensures a long life for the reamer and also a superior finish to the hole.
 Boring:

Figure 15: Boring operation

Boring is a hole enlarging operation performed on a previously drilled hole using a boring tool.
Boring is also performed to finish a drilled hole, to machine rough surfaces of cast holes and to
correct the hole center and roundness of a hole. This operation is performed at a very slow speed. This
operation is performed when a drill bit of the required dimension is not available. In such case, a hole
is first drilled to the nearest dimension, and then a single point cutting tool is fastened and adjusted to
a boring bar to enlarge the size of the existing hole to the required dimension. In addition to enlarging
a previously drilled hole, boring operation corrects the hole location and out-of-roundness, if any, as
the tool can be adjusted to remove more metal from one side of the hole than the other.

Counter boring

Figure 16: counter boring

It is an operation to enlarge one end of the predrilled hole concentrically to the required depth,
using a counter bore tool, to form a square shoulder. A counter bore tool has two or more teeth, and
straight or helical flutes that provide the passage for escape of chips and also inlet for passing coolant.
The pilot of the tool helps to maintain concentricity with the original hole. Used to drive in the socket
head screws, bolts, pins etc. It is replaceable depending on the required size.
 Counter sinking:

Figure 17: counter sinking operation

It is the operation of producing a conical shaped hole in a previously drilled cylindrical hole. The
tool used for this operation is called as a counter sink. Counter sinking is also used for locating a
center on the work piece and for deburring operation ( Deburring- work pieces that are machined by
certain processes consists of ragged edges or protrusions called burrs. The process by which burrs are
removed is known as deburring). The tool used for the operation is called counter sink and are made
in angles of 60 for centering, 82 for counter sinking flat headed screws, 90 for deburring, and 120

for chamfering operations.

Tapping:

Figure 18: Tapping operation

Tapping is the process of cutting internal threads with a thread cutting tool called a Tap. Taps are
fluted threaded tool and are available in standard sizes. Hence, to generate a specific size thread in the
work piece, a hole with diameter smaller than the size of the tap is first drilled using a twist drill and
then using a standard size tap; threads are cut in the same way as drilling. While tapping, the spindle
has to rotate at slow speeds compared to drilling. Generally done on a drilling m/c when identical
threading is required on large number of parts.
 Spot facing:

Figure 19: Spot facing

Spot facing is a finishing operation to produce a flat round surface around a hole to provide a seat
for a bolt head, nut or washer as shown in the fig.

Specification of drilling machine:

Drill Capacity- It is the depth of the hole that can be drilled Ex; 20 mm
Diameter of column
Length of arm
Number of spindle speeds Ex: 8 (Gear drive)
Range of spindle speeds. Ex: 80-1800rpm
Power required. Ex: 1hp for spindle drive motor and 0.5hp for elevating motor.

Definitions of Twist Drill Terms

Axis: The imaginary straight line, which forms the longitudinal center of the drill.

Back Taper: A slight decrease in diameter from point to back in the body of the drill.

Body: The portion of the drill extending from the shank or neck to the outer corners of the cutting
lips.

Body Diameter Clearance: That portion of the land that has been cut away so that it will not rub
against the wall of the hole.

Chisel Edge: The edge at the ends of the web that connects the cutting lips.

Chisel Edge Angle: The angle included between the chisel edge and the cutting lip as viewed from the
end of the drill.

Clearance Diameter: The diameter over the cutaway portion of the drill lands.

Drill Diameter: The diameter over the margins of the drill measured at the point.

Flutes: Helical or straight grooves cut or formed in the body of the drill to provide cutting lips, to
permit removal of chips, and to allow cutting fluid to reach the cutting lips.
Helix Angle: The angle made by the leading edge of the land with a plane containing the axis of the
drill.

Figure showing the parts of a drill bit

Drill tool nomenclature.

Land: The peripheral portion of the drill body between adjacent flutes.

Land Width: The distance between the leading edge and the heel of the land measured at

a right angle to the leading edge.

LipsTwo-Flute Drill: The cutting edges extending from the chisel edge to the periphery.

LipsThree or Four-Flute Drill (Core Drill): The cutting edges extending from the bottom of the
chamfer to the periphery.

Lip Relief: The axial relief on the drill point.

Lip Relief Angle: The axial relief angle at the outer corner of the lip. It is measured by projection into
a plane tangent to the periphery at the outer corner of the lip. (Lip relief angle is usually measured
across the margin of the twist drill.)

Margin: The cylindrical portion of the land, which is not cut away to provide clearance.

Neck: The section of reduced diameter between the body and the shank of a drill.

Overall Length: The length from the extreme end of the shank to the outer corners of the cutting lips.
It does not include the conical shank end often used on straight shank drills, nor does it include the
conical cutting point used on both straight and taper shank drills.

Point: The cutting end of a drill made up of the ends of the lands, the web, and the lips. In form, it
resembles a cone, but departs from a true cone to furnish clearance behind the cutting lips.
Point Angle: The angle included between the lips projected upon a plane parallel to the drill axis and
parallel to the cutting lips.

Shank: The part of the drill by which it is held and driven.

Tang: The flattened end of a taper shank, intended to fit into a driving slot in the socket.

Tang Drive: Two opposite parallel driving flats on the end of a straight shank.

Web: The central portion of the body that joins the end of the lands. The end of the web forms the
chisel edge on a two-flute drill.

Web Thickness: The thickness of the web at the point unless another specific location is indicated.

Web Thinning: The operation of reducing the web thickness at the point to reduce drilling thrust.