ANATOMY is the scientific discipline that investigates the Cardiovascular physiology deals with the heart and

bodys structurefor example, the shape and size of blood vessels.

bones. Physiology often examines systems rather than regions
Developmental anatomy studies the structural changes because a particular function can involve portions of a
that occur between conception and adulthood. system in more than one region. Studies of the human
Embryology, a subspecialty of developmental anatomy, body must encompass both anatomy and physiology
considers changes from conception to the end of the because structures, functions, and processes are
eighth week of development. interwoven.
Cytology examines the structural features of cells Pathology is the medical science dealing with all aspects
Histology examines tissues, which are composed of cells of disease, with an emphasis on the cause and
and the materials surrounding them. development of abnormal conditions, as well as the
Gross anatomy, the study of structures that can be structural and functional changes resulting from
examined without the aid of a microscope, can be disease.
approached from either a systemic or a regional Exercise physiology focuses on the changes in function
perspective. and structure caused by exercise.
Systemic anatomy, the body is studied system by IMAGING TECHNIQUES
system. A system is a group of structures that have one 1. X-ray
or more common functions, such as the cardiovascular, This extremely shortwave electromagnetic radiation
nervous, respiratory, skeletal, or muscular system. moves through the body, exposing a photographic plate to
Regional anatomy, the body is studied area by area. form a radiograph. Bones and radiopaque dyes absorb the
Within each region, such as the head, abdomen, or arm, rays and create underexposed areas that appear white on
all systems are studied simultaneously. the photographic film. A major limitation of radiographs is
that they give only flat, two-dimensional (2-D) images of
Surface anatomy is the study of the external form of the
the body.
body and its relation to deeper structures. For example,
2. UTZ
the sternum (breastbone) and parts of the ribs can be
The second oldest imaging technique was first developed
seen and palpated (felt) on the front of the chest. Health
in the early 1950s as an extension of World War II sonar
professionals use these structures as anatomical
technology. It uses high-frequency sound waves, which are
landmarks to identify regions of the heart and points on
emitted from a transmitter-receiver placed on the skin
the chest where certain heart sounds can best be heard.
over the area to be scanned. The sound waves strike
Anatomical imaging uses radiographs (x-rays),
internal organs and bounce back to the receiver on the
ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and skin. Even though the basic technology is fairly old, the
other technologies to create pictures of internal most important advances in the field occurred only after it
structures. Anatomical imaging has revolutionized became possible to analyze the reflected sound waves by
medical science. Some scientists estimate that the past computer. Once a computer analyzes the pattern of sound
20 years have seen as much progress in clinical waves, the information is transferred to a monitor and
medicine as occurred in all of medicines previous visualized as a sonogram image. Among other medical
history. Anatomical imaging has made a major applications, ultrasound is commonly used to evaluate the
contribution to that progress. Anatomical imaging allows condition of the fetus during pregnancy.
medical personnel to look inside the body with amazing 3. Computed Tomography(CT scan)
accuracy and without the trauma and risk of exploratory Developed in 1972 and originally called computerized
surgery. axial tomographic (CAT) scans, are computer analyzed
In 1895, Wilhelm Roentgen (18451923) became the x-ray images. A low-intensity x-ray tube is rotated through
first medical scientist to use x-rays to see inside the a 360-degree arc around the patient, and the images are
body. The rays were called x-rays because no one knew fed into a computer. The computer then constructs the
what they were. image of a slice through the body at the point where the
Anatomical anomalies are physical characteristics that x-ray beam was focused and rotated. Some computers are
differ from the normal pattern. Anatomical anomalies able to take several scans short distances apart and stack
can vary in severity from relatively harmless to life- the slices to produce a 3-D image of a body part .
threatening. 4. Digital Subtraction Angiography(DSA)
blue baby syndrome, certain blood vessels arising One step beyond CT scanning. A 3-D radiographic image
from an infants heart are not attached in their correct of an organ, such as the brain, is made and stored in a
locations; blood is not effectively pumped to the lungs, computer. Then a radiopaque dye is injected into the
and so the tissues do not receive adequate oxygen. blood, and a second radiographic computer image is
PHYSIOLOGY is the scientific investigation of the made. The first image is subtracted from the second one,
processes or functions of living things. The major goals greatly enhancing the differences revealed by the injected
when studying human physiology are to understand and dye. These dynamic computer images can be used, for
predict the bodys responses to stimuli and to example, to guide a catheter into a carotid artery during
understand how the body maintains conditions within a angioplasty, a procedure by which a tiny balloon
narrow range of values in a constantly changing compresses the material clogging the artery.
environment. 5. MRI
Cell physiology examines the processes occurring in Directs radio waves at a person lying inside a large
cells electromagnetic field. The magnetic field causes the
Systemic Physiology considers the functions of organ protons of various atoms to align. Because of the large
systems. amounts of water in the body, the alignment of hydrogen
Neurophysiology focuses on the nervous system. atom protons is most important in this imaging system.
Radio waves of certain frequencies, which change the
alignment of the hydrogen atoms, then are directed at the contains the cells hereditary information, and
patient. When the radio waves are turned off, the mitochondria are organelles that manufacture (ATP), a
hydrogen atoms realign in accordance with the magnetic molecule cells use for energy. Although cell types differ in
field. The time it takes the hydrogen atoms to realign is their structure and function, they have many
different for various body tissues. These differences can characteristics in common. Knowledge of these
be analyzed by computer to produce very clear sections characteristics, as well as their variations, is essential to
through the body. The technique is also very sensitive in understanding anatomy and physiology.
detecting some forms of cancer far more readily than can 3. Tissue level. A tissue is composed of a group of
a CT scan. similar cells and the materials surrounding them. The
6. Positron Emission Tomography(PET) characteristics of the cells and surrounding materials
Can identify the metabolic states of various tissues. This determine the functions of the tissue. The numerous
technique is particularly useful in analyzing the brain. tissues that make up the body are classified into four basic
When cells are active, they are using energy. The energy types: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous.
they need is supplied by the breakdown of glucose (blood 4. Organ level. An organ is composed of two or more
sugar). If radioactively treated (labeled) glucose is given tissue types that perform one or more common functions.
to a patient, the active cells take up the labeled glucose. The urinary bladder, heart, stomach, and lung are
As the radioactivity in the glucose decays, positively examples of organs.
charged subatomic particles called positrons are emitted. 5. Organ system level. An organ system is a group of
When the positrons collide with electrons, the two organs that together perform a common function or set of
particles annihilate each other and gamma rays are given functions and are therefore viewed as a unit. For example,
off. The gamma rays can be detected, pinpointing the the urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureter, urinary
cells that are metabolically active. bladder, and urethra. The kidneys produce urine, which
the ureters transport to the urinary bladder, where it is
stored until being eliminated from the body through the
Structural and Functional Organization of the urethra. In this text, we consider 11 major organ systems:
Human Body the integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous,
endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory,
digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems.
6. Organism level. An organism is any living thing
considered as a wholewhether composed of one cell,
such as a bacterium, or of trillions of cells, such as a
human. The human organism is a complex of organ
systems, all mutually dependent on one another.
Six Characteristics of Life

1. Organization refers to the specific interrelationships

among the parts of an organism and how those parts
interact to perform specific functions. All organisms are
composed of one or more cells. Cells in turn are composed
of highly specialized organelles, which depend on the
precise organization of large molecules. Disruption of this
organized state can result in loss of functions, or even
death.
2. Metabolism refers to all of the chemical reactions
taking place in an organism. It includes an organisms
ability to break down food molecules, which the organism
uses as a source of energy and raw materials to
synthesize its own molecules. Energy is also used when
one part of a molecule moves relative to another part,
changing the shape of the molecule. Changes in molecular
shape can lead to changes in cellular shape, which can
produce movement of the organism. Metabolism is
The body can be studied at six levels of organization: the necessary for vital functions, such as responsiveness,
chemical, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, and whole growth, development, and reproduction.
organism levels. 3. Responsiveness is an organisms ability to sense
1. Chemical level. The chemical level involves changes in its external or internal environment and adjust
interactions between atoms, which are tiny building blocks to those changes. Responses include such actions as
of matter. Atoms combine to form molecules, such as moving toward food or water and moving away from
water, sugar, fats, and proteins. The function of a danger or poor environmental conditions. Organisms can
molecule is intimately related to its structure. For also make adjustments that maintain their internal
example, collagen molecules are ropelike protein fibers environment
that give skin structural strength and flexibility. With old 4. Growth refers to an increase in the size or number of
age, the structure of collagen changes, and the skin cells, which produces an overall enlargement of all or part
becomes fragile and more easily torn. of an organism. For example, a muscle enlarged by
2. Cell level. Cells are the basic structural and functional exercise is composed of larger muscle cells than those of
units of plants and animals. Molecules combine to form an untrained muscle, and the skin of an adult has more
organelles, which are the small structures that make up cells than the skin of an infant. An increase in the
cells. For example, the nucleus is an organelle that materials surrounding cells can also contribute to growth.
5. Development includes the changes an organism by Galen persisted for more than 1300 years until a
undergoes through time, beginning with fertilization and Flemish anatomist, Andreas Vesalius (15141564), who is
ending at death. The greatest developmental changes considered the first modern anatomist, carefully examined
occur before birth, but many changes continue after birth, human cadavers and began to correct the textbooks. This
and some go on throughout life. Development usually example should serve as a word of caution: Some current
involves growth, but it also involves differentiation and knowledge in molecular biology and physiology has not
morphogenesis. Differentiation is change in cell been confirmed in humans.
structure and function from generalized to specialized, Organ systems of the body
and morphogenesis is change in the shape of tissues, Integumentary System
organs, and the entire organism. For example, following Provides protection, regulates temperature, prevents
fertilization, generalized cells specialize to become water loss, and helps produce vitamin D. Consists of skin,
specific cell types, such as skin, bone, muscle, or nerve hair, nails, and sweat glands.
cells. These differentiated cells form the tissues and Skeletal System
organs. Provides protection and support, allows body movements,
6. Reproduction is the formation of new cells or new produces blood cells, and stores minerals and fat. Consists
organisms. Without reproduction of cells, growth and of bones, associated cartilages, ligaments, and joints.
development are not possible. Without reproduction of Muscular System
organisms, species become extinct. Produces body movements, maintains posture, and
produces body heat. Consists of muscles attached to the
skeleton by tendons.
Lymphatic System
Removes foreign substances from the blood and lymph,
combats disease, maintains tissue fluid balance, and
absorbs fats from the digestive tract. Consists of the
lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and other lymphatic
organs.
Respiratory System
Exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood
and air and regulates blood pH. Consists of the lungs and
respiratory passages.
Digestive System
Performs the mechanical and chemical processes of
digestion, absorption of nutrients, and elimination of
wastes. Consists of the mouth, esophagus, stomach,
intestines, and accessory organs.
Nervous System
A major regulatory system that detects sensations and
controls movements, physiological processes, and
intellectual functions. Consists of the brain, spinal cord,
nerves, and sensory receptors.
Endocrine System
A major regulatory system that influences metabolism,
Biomedical Research growth, reproduction, and many other functions. Consists
Humans share many characteristics with other organisms. of glands, such as the pituitary, that secrete hormones.
For example, studying single-celled bacteria provides Cardiovascular System
much information about human cells. However, some Transports nutrients, waste products, gases, and
biomedical research cannot be accomplished using single- hormones throughout the body; plays a role in the
celled organisms or isolated cells. Sometimes other immune response and the regulation of body temperature.
mammals must be studied, as evidenced by the great Consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood.
progress in open heart surgery and kidney transplantation
made possible by perfecting surgical techniques on other
mammals before attempting them on humans. Strict laws
govern the use of animals in biomedical research; these Urinary System
laws are designed to ensure minimal suffering on the part Removes waste products from the blood and regulates
of the animal and to discourage unnecessary blood pH, ion balance, and water balance. Consists of the
experimentation. Although much can be learned from kidneys, urinary bladder, and ducts that carry urine.
studying other organisms, the ultimate answers to Female Reproductive System
questions about humans can be obtained only from Produces oocytes and is the site of fertilization and fetal
humans because other organisms differ from humans in development; produces milk for the newborn; produces
significant ways. A failure to appreciate the differences hormones that influence sexual function and behaviors.
between humans and other animals led to many Consists of the ovaries, vagina, uterus, mammary glands,
misconceptions by early scientists. One of the first great and associated structures.
anatomists was a Greek physician, Claudius Galen (ca. Male Reproductive System
130201). Galen described a large number of anatomical Produces and transfers sperm cells to the female and
structures supposedly present in humans but observed produces hormones that influence sexual functions and
only in other animals. For example, he described the liver behaviors. Consists of the testes, accessory structures,
as having five lobes. This is true for rats, but not for ducts, and penis.
humans, who have four-lobed livers. The errors introduced
Homeostasis The organ systems help keep the bodys internal
environment
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a variable around an ideal relatively constant. For example, the digestive,
normal value, or
respiratory,
set point. The value of the variable fluctuates around the set
point to establish cardiovascular, and urinary systems work together,
a normal range of values. so that each
Homeostasis (hm--stsis) is the existence and cell in the body receives adequate oxygen and
maintenance of nutrients and waste
a relatively constant environment within the body. A products do not accumulate to a toxic level. If body
small amount fluids deviate from homeostasis, body cells do not
of fluid surrounds each body cell. For cells to function normally and can
function normally, the even die. Disease disrupts homeostasis and
volume, temperature, and chemical content of this sometimes results in
fluidconditions death. Modern medicine attempts to understand
known as variables because their values can disturbances
changemust remain in homeostasis and works to reestablish a normal
within a narrow range. Body temperature is a range of values.
variable that can Negative Feedback
increase in a hot environment or decrease in a cold Most systems of the body are regulated by
one. negative-feedback
Homeostatic mechanisms, such as sweating or mechanisms, which maintain homeostasis. Negative
shivering, means that
normally maintain body temperature near an ideal any deviation from the set point is made smaller or
normal value, is resisted;
or set point (figure 1.4). Note that these therefore, in a negative-feedback mechanism, the
mechanisms are not able response to the
to maintain body temperature precisely at the set original stimulus results in deviation from the set
point. Instead, point, becoming
body temperature increases and decreases slightly smaller. An example of important negative-feedback
around the mechanisms
set point to produce a normal range of values. As in the body are those maintaining normal blood
long as body pressure. Normal
temperature remains within this normal range, blood pressure is critical to our health because blood
homeostasis is pressure helps
maintained. Keep in mind that the fluctuations are move blood from the heart to tissues. The blood
minimal, however. transports essential
Note in figure 1.4 that the normal body temperature materials to and from the tissues. Because a
range disruption of normal
is no more than 1 degree Fahrenheit above or below blood pressure could result in a disease state,
normal. Our maintaining homeostasis
average body temperature is 98.6 degrees through negative feedback is a critical activity. Most
Fahrenheit. Just as your negativefeedback
homes thermostat does not keep the air mechanisms have three components: (1) a
temperature exactly at receptor, which
75 degrees Fahrenheit at all times, your bodys monitors the value of a variable; (2) a control
temperature does center, which receives
not stay perfectly stable.