Introduction to Chemical Engineering

CHE-201

INSTRUCTOR: Dr. Nabeel Salim Abo-Ghander

Chapter 3

Processes and Process Variables

 Introduction

What is a process?

A Process is an operation or series of operations in which certain objectives are

achieved.

Examples:
1. Brewing a cup of coffee.
2. Education.
3. Production of chemical products

2
 Introduction

Feed Product

Outlet
Input

Feed Product
Process
Feed Product

Material enters the process Material leaves the process

Role of chemical engineers:

1. Design and operate the process.
2. Maintain the economic competitiveness of the process.
3. Troubleshoot to find problems.
3
 3 . 1 M a s s a n d Vo l u m e

Density of a substance is defined as the ratio of the mass of the substance to its
volume.
Units are:
SI kg/m3
CGS g/cm3
American Eng. lbm/ft3

Specific volume is the volume of a unit mass

1
V

Density is denoted mathematically with the Greek symbol

f T , P
For solid and liquids, density is independent of pressure and changes relatively
small with temperature.
Densities of liquids and solids are assumed to be constant (incompressible)
For Gases, density is a strong function of pressure and temperature.
Effects of temperature and pressure on gaseous systems cant be ignored
4
 3 . 1 M a s s a n d Vo l u m e

Density of a substance can be used as conversion factor to relate the mass and
volume of a quantity of the substance.
The specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a
reference substance ref.

density of a substance
SG
density of a reference ref

Reference substance is water in the liquid form at 4oC:

H2O(l)(4oC) = 1000 kg/m3

= 1.000 g/cm3
= 62.43 lbm/ft3
Note:
20o
SG 0.6
4o
The specific gravity of a substance at 20oC relative to water at 4oC is 0.6.
(Dont multiply and divide)
5
 Example 3.1:

Example 3.1:
1. The density of carbon tetrachloride is 1.595 g/cm3, what is the mass of 20.0 cm3 of CCl4?
2. A liquid has a specific gravity of 0.50. what is its density in g/cm3? What is its
specific volume in cm3/g? what is its density in lbm/ft3? What is the mass of 30.0 cm3
of this liquid? What volume is occupied by 18g?

6
 3.2 Flow Rate

Tank 1

Tank 2

Once they are connected, water will flow at a certain rate (Quantity/ time)

Quantity can be expressed in terms of mass or volume to give:

1. Mass flow rate.
2. Volumetric flow rate.
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 3.2 Physical meaning of flow rates

m kg fluid/s

V m3 fluid/s

Mass flow rate is denoted as m
Volumetric flow rate is denoted as V
Flow rate is defined as the amount of fluid in mass or volume crossing a
perpendicular cross-sectional area in a specific time.
Question:
What does 5 kg/s mean?
What does 10 m3/s mean?
8
 3.2 Physical meaning of flow rates

Mass and volumetric flowrates are related to fluid density through:

m m

V V

Fluid density is used to convert between mass flow rate and volumetric flowrates

Example:

The mass flowrate of n-hexane ( = 0.659 g/cm3) in a pipe is 6.59 g/s. what is the
volumetric flow rate of hexane?

9
 3.2b Flow Rate Measurements

Flowmeter is a device mounted in a process line providing a continuous reading

of the flow rate in the line.
Two commonly used flowmeters are:
1. Rotameter:
Flow Out

Flow In

Rotameters are tapered tube containing a float; larger the flowrate, the higher
the float rises in the tube 10
 3.2b Flow Rate Measurements

2. Orifice meters:

Orifice meter is an obstruction in the flow channel with narrow

opening through which the fluid passes

11
Linear Regression:

The data set given in the below table can be fit into the following
nonlinear model:

y b xy a x

x 0.145 0.130 0.102 0.0915 0.0578 0.0488 0.0289

y 8 10 16 20 50 70 200

Find the constants a and b using:

1. Graphing method (plot all possibility after stating what you are
doing)?
2. Least squared method (Linear regression)?
12
Linear Regression:

Best line:
y ax b

1 n 1 n 2
s x xi s xx xi
n i 1 n i 1
1 n 1 n
sy yi s xy xi yi
n i 1 n i 1

Slope: s xy s x s y
a
s xx s x 2
s xx s y s xy s x
Intercept: b
s xx s x 2

13
Linear Regression:

Best line: y ax

1 n 2 1 n
s xx xi s xy xi yi
n i 1 n i 1
s xy
Slope: a
s xx

14
 x 0.145 0.130 0.102 0.0915 0.0578 0.0488 0.0289
y 8 10 16 20 50 70 200
xy 1.17 1.30 1.64 1.83 2.89 3.42 5.77
x+y 8.15 10.13 16.10 20.09 50.06 70.05 200.03
ln(xy) 0.15 0.26 0.49 0.60 1.06 1.23 1.75
ln(x+y) 2.10 2.32 2.78 3.00 3.91 4.25 5.30

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 Moles and Molecular weight:

Atomic weight of an element is the mass of an atom on a scale assigning carbon 12C a
mass of exactly 12.
Molecular weight is the summation of all atomic weights of elements constituting a
molecule of a compound.

Atomic weight of an oxygen atom is 16 Molecular weight of water =

Molecular weight of oxygen = 216 = 32 116+ 21.008 = 18.02
16
 Moles and Molecular weight:

Units of molecular weight are:

M g/ mol
M Kg/kmol
M lbm/ lb-mol

g kg 1000 mol
M
mol 1000 g kg mol

Weight of one mole of a species is equal to M gram

Molecular Weight can be used as a conversion factor to relate the mass of a

species to its number of moles.

One mole of any species contains approximately 6.021023 (Avogadros number)

molecules of that species.
17
Moles and Molecular weight:

Example:

How many of each of the following are contained in 100 g of CO2 (M = 44.01):
1. Mol CO2
2. Ib-moles CO2
3. Mol C
4. Mol O
5. Mol O2
6. g O
7. g O2
8. Molecules of CO2

18
Moles and Molecular weight:

Convert: 100 mol/s to its equivalent in lb-mol/hr?

Calculations applied to quantities can be easily applied

to flowing quantities

19
Moles and Molecular weight:

How can we
characterize a gas
mixture?
B A
B Temperature
B
E G
C
Pressure
B B B
D
C B
F Composition
B

Gas mixture

20
Mass and Mole Fractions and Average Molecular Weight:

Composition of a mixture of substances can be expressed in terms of:

1. Mass fraction :
It is defined for each component in the mixture as the ratio of the mass of a
component to the total mass of the mixture.

mass of A
xA
total mass of mixture

2. Mole fraction:
It is defined for each component in the mixture as the ratio of the mole of a
component to the total mole of the mixture.

mole of A
yA
total mole of mixture

Percent by mass of A is 100 xA, and percent by mole of A is 100 yA

21
Mass and Mole Fractions and Average Molecular Weight:

Units of Mass Fractions:

gA kgA lbm A
g total kg total lbm total

Units of Mole Fractions:

mol A kg - mol A lb - mol A

mol total kg - mol total lb - mol total

As long as the same units are used in the denominator and

numerator, the mole or mass fraction dont change!

22
 Notes on Mass and Mole Fractions:

Please observe the following constraints:

1. Mass and Mole fractions have to be positive

numbers.

2. Mass and mole fractions are fractions,

i.e. numbers are between 0 and 1.

3. In a mixture, their summation should add to 1.0.

23
 Mass and Mole Fractions and Average Molecular Weight:

Example 3.3-2: Conversions Using Mass and Mole Fractions

A solution contains 15% A by mass (xA = 0.15)and 20 mole% B(yB = 0.20)

1. Calculate the mass of A in 175 kg of the solution.
2. Calculate the mass flow rate of A in a stream of solution flowing at a rate
of 53 lbm/h.
3. Calculate the molar flow rate of B in a stream of flowing at a rate of 1000 mol/min
4. Calculate the total solution flow rate that corresponds to a molar flow rate
of 28 kmol B/s.
5. Calculate the mass of the solution that contains 300 lbm of A.

24
Summary of conversion factors in Chapter 3

Relation between
Conversion factors
Quantity 1 Quantity 2
Mass Volume
Density
Mass flowrate Volumetric flowrate
Specific gravity Density Reference density
Molecular weight Mass of a species Moles of a species
Mass flowrate Molar flowrate
Avogadros No. Moles of a species No. of molecules
Mass fraction Mass of species Total mass of mixture
Mole fraction Mole of species Total mole of mixture

25
Conversion Between Mass and Mole Fractions :

Assume basis of
calculation, Calculate the total mass
Mass Fractions of the mixture
i.e. total mass of mixture

Calculate the mass of Convert the mole of each

each component component to mole

Convert the mass of each Calculate the mole of

component to mole each component

Assume basis of
Calculate the total mole
of the mixture Mole Fractions calculation,
i.e. total mole of mixture

26
Conversion Between Mass and Mole Fractions :

Example 3.3-3: Conversion from a composition by mass to molar composition

A mixture of gases has the following composition by mass:

O2 16%
CO 4.0%
CO2 17%
N2 63%
What is the molar composition?
Given that: N = 14.0, C = 12.0, O = 16.

27
Conversion Between Mass and Mole Fractions :

Basis: 100 g of the mixture

Given in the question

Conversion

Mass(g)
Component Molecular Moles Mole
Mass fraction mi =
i Weight ni = mi/Mi fraction
ximtotal
O2 0.16 16 32 0.500 0.150

CO 0.04 4 28 0.143 0.044

CO2 0.17 17 44 0.386 0.120

N2 0.63 63 28 2.250 0.690

Total 1.00 100 3.279 1.000

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Conversion Between Mass and Mole Fractions :

Average molecular weight is the ratio of the mass of a sample to the number of
moles of all species in the sample

n
M y1M1 y2 M 2 ........ yn M n yi M i
i 1

1 x1 x2 xn n x
......... i
M M1 M 2 M n i 1M i

Example 3.3-4: Calculation of an Average Molecular Weight

Calculate the average molecular weight of air:

1. From its approximate molar composition of 79% N2, 21% O2.
2. From its approximate composition by mass of 76.7% N2, 23.3 % O2.

29
Concentration
Concentration of a component in a mixture can be defined in two ways:
1. Mass concentration: mass of a component per unit volume.
of the mixture
mass of component
Mass Concentrat ion
volume of mixture

Units: g/cm3 kg/m3 lbm/ft3 kg/in3

2. Molar concentration: moles of a component per unit volume.

of the mixture.
moles of component
Molar Concentrat ion
volume of mixture

Units: mol/cm3 kmol/m3 lb-mol/ft3 kmol/in3

30
 Concentration

Molarity of a solution is a molar concentration but the volume of solution is

expressed in liters.

Concentration can be used as conversion factor to relate the mass (mole) of

a component i to the volume of the sample

Example 3.3-5: Conversion between mass, Molar and volumetric Flowrates

of a solution.
A 0.5-molar a aqueous solution of sulfuric acid flows into a process unit at a rate of
1.25 m3/min. the specific gravity of the solution is 1.03. Calculate:
1. The mass concentration of H2SO4 in kg/m3.
2. The mass flowrate of H2SO4 in kg/s.
3. The mass fraction of H2SO4.
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 Parts per Million and Parts Per Billion

They are used to express concentration of traces, i.e. TOO SMALL CONCENTRATION

ppmi = yi 106
ppbi = yi 109

Mass fractions are used for liquids while mole fraction are used for gases

Example: concentration of SO2 in air is15.0 ppm

It means in every 106 moles of air, there are 15 moles of SO2

32
Mass and mole fractions

Example: Conversion from a composition by mass to molar composition

A mixture of gases has the following composition by mole:

O2 16%
CH4 4.0%
CO2 17%
N2 63%
What is the mass composition?
Given that: N = 14.0, C = 12.0, O = 16, H = 1.0.

33
Mass and mole fractions

Basis: 100 mol of the mixture

Given in the question

Conversion

Component Mole Molecular Mass (g) Mass

Mole fraction
i ni = yintotal Weight mi = niMi fraction

O2 0.16 16 32 512 0.166

CH4 0.04 4 16 64 0.0207

CO2 0.17 17 44 748 0.242

N2 0.63 63 28 1764 0.571

Total 1.00 100 3088 0.9997

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 3.4 Pressure

Pressure is defined as the ratio of the force per unit area on which
the force acts.
F
P
A

Dimension: mass/(lengthtime2)

Units: N/m2 = Pa
dyne/cm2
lbf/in2 = psi

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 3.4 Fluid Pressure

A
F

When the plug is taken off,

Fluid flowing in a pipe Fluid in a container
The fluid flows out, why?

Fluid Pressure is the pressure exerted by fluids on the walls of containers

OR is the minimum force required to be applied on a frictionless plug to
prevent a fluid from emerging.
36
 3.4 Pressure

Hydrostatic Pressure: is the force exerted on the base area

Fluid At rest (not moving)

A(m2)
P0 (N/m2)

Question:
What would be the pressure at fluid density
(kg/m3)
the base of the tank?
h P (N/m2)

g
P Po h
gc

Force on the base is the summation of the force exerted

on the top surface and the weight of the fluid

37
3.4 Pressure

Is the ratio of force

per unit area is the
only way to state
pressure?

38
 3.4 Fluid Pressure

Head Pressure:

Pressure head is defined as the height of a hypothetical column of a fluid which

would exert the same pressure at its base if the pressure at the top is zero.

force g
P fluid Ph
area gc

A(m2)
P0 (N/m2)

h P (N/m2)
fluid density
(kg/m3)

39
Conversion Table:

40
3.4 Pressure

Example 3.4-1: Calculation of pressure as Head of fluid:

Express a pressure of 2.00105 Pa in terms of mm Hg?

Example 3.4-2: Pressure below the surface of a fluid

What is the pressure 30.0 m below the surface of a lake? Atmospheric pressure
(pressure at the surface) is 10.4 mH2O, and density of water is 1000 kg/m3.
Assume that g is 9.807 m/s2?

41
3.4 Atmospheric Pressure, Absolute Pressure
and Gauge Pressure

Atmospheric pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by air at the point of

measurement (sea level).
At sea level:
Patm = 1.0 atm = 760 mmHg.
All devices measuring pressure give reading corresponding to gauge pressure:

Pabsolute Pgauge Patm

Units used to measure the pressure:

psig gauge pressure in psi (lbf/in2)
psia absolute pressure in psi (lbf/in2)
Zero pressure reading indicates vacuum while negative gauge pressure readings
indicated amount of vacuum.

42
3.4c Fluid Pressure Measurement

Measuring devices can be classified into:

1. Elastic-Element Method: (Bourdon tube), bellows, diaphragms.

2. Liquid-column methods: Manometers

3. Electrical methods: strain gauges, piezoresistive transducers.

43
3.4c Fluid Pressure Measurement

Three types of Manometers:

1. Open-end Manometers
2. Differential Manometers
3. Sealed-end Manometers

44
 3.4c Fluid Pressure Measurement

Derivation of Manometer Equation:

It is based on a simple principle stating that any two points at the same height
in continuous fluid must have the same fluid pressure.

45
 3.4c Fluid Pressure Measurement

Example 3.4-4 Pressure Measurement with Manometers

1. A differential manometer is used to measure the drop in pressure between

two points in a process line containing water. The specific gravity of the
manometer fluid is 1.05. the measured levels in each arm is shown below.
Calculate the pressure drop between points 1 and 2 in dynes/cm2.

46
3.4c Fluid Pressure Measurement

Example 3.4-4 Pressure Measurement with Manometers

2. The pressure of gas being pulled through a line by a vacuum pump is measured
with an open-end mercury manometer. A reading of -2 in is obtained. What is
the gas gauge pressure in inches of mercury? What is the absolute pressure if
Patm = 30 in Hg

47
3.3 Problem

The specific gravity of gasoline is approximately 0.70.

a. Determine the mass (kg) of 50 liters of gasoline.
b. The mass flowrate of gasoline existing a refinery tank is 1150 kg/min.
estimate the volumetric flow rate in liters/s.
c. Estimate the average mass flow rate (lbm/min) delivered by a gasoline
pump at a rate of 10 gal per 2 min.
d. Gasoline and kerosene (specific gravity = 0.82) are blended to obtain a
mixture with a specific gravity of 0.78. calculate the volumetric ratio
(volume of gasoline/volume of kerosene) of the two compounds in the
mixture, assuming Vblend = Vgasoline + Vkerosene.

48
3.4c Fluid Pressure Measurement

49
3.5 Temperature

Temperature is a measure for the kinetic energy gained by the molecules

It is measured indirectly by measuring some properties of the substance
whose value depends on temperature in a known manner.

How can we measure

temperature?

50
 3.5 Temperature

Measuring Devices:

Thermocouples Resistance thermometers

(Voltage at the junctions of dissimilar metals) (electrical resistance of a conductor)

Pyrometers
(Spectra of emitted light)
51
 3.5 Temperature

Temperature scales:

They are defined arbitrary to indicate certain physical properties, such as freezing and boiling,
occurring at certain temperature and pressure.

0oC 100oC
degree 1/100

1. Celsius (or Centigrade) scale:

Tf= 0oC Tb= 100oC absolute zero is -273.15oC
2. Fehrenheit scale:
Tf= 32oF Tb= 212oF absolute zero is -459.67oC
3. Kelvin scale:
Absolute zero in Celsius scale is set as scale zero
4. Rankine scale:
Absolute zero in Fehrenheit scale is set as scale zero

52
 3.5 Temperature

Temperature scales:

T K T o C 273.15

T o R T o F 459.67

T o R 1.8T K

T o F 1.8T o C 32

They are linear equations, i.e. having the form y = ax + b

Example 3.5-1

Can you derive the equation converting temperature in degree Celsius to degree
Fehrenheit?

53
3.5 Temperature

Very Important Note:

A degree is both a temperature and a temperature difference.

1 .8 o F 1 .8 o R 1o F 1o C
1o C 1K 1o R 1K

There conversion factors are only used to convert temperature intervals,

not temperature.
54
3.5 Temperature

Examples 3.5-2: Temperature Conversion

1. Consider the interval from 20oF to 80oF

a. Calculate the equivalent temperature in oC and the interval temperature
between them.
b. Calculate directly the interval in oC between the temperatures.

Convert T = 85oF to oR, oC, K

55
3.5 Temperature

Examples 3.5-3: Temperature Conversion and Dimensional Homogeneity

The heat capacity ammonia, defined as the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of the a unit mass of ammonia by precisely 1oC at a constant pressure, is,
over a limited temperature range, given by the expression:

Btu
C p o

0.487 2.29 10 4 T o F
lbm F

Derive the expression for Cp in J/(goC) in terms of T(oC) ?

56
57