Introduction to Computer Networks DIT - 080

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORKS

Computer Network
A computer network is an interconnection of two or more computers that are able to exchange
information. The computers may be connected via any data communication link, like copper
wires, optical fibers, communication satellites, or radio links. The computers connected to the
network may be personal computers or large main frames. The computers in a network may be
located in a room, building, city, country, or anywhere in the world.

Importance of Networking
Networking of computers provides a communication link between the users, and provides access
to information. Networking of computers has several uses, described as follows:

Resource Sharing In an organization, resources such as printers, fax machines and

scanners are generally not required by each person at all times. Moreover, for small
organizations it may not be feasible to provide such resources to each individual. Such
resources can be made available to different users of the organization on the network. It
results in availability of the resource to different users regardless of the physical location of
the resource or the user, enhances optimal use of the resource, leads to easy maintenance,
and saves cost too.

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Sharing of Information In addition to the sharing of physical resources, networking

facilitates sharing of information. Information stored on networked computers located at
same or different physical locations, becomes accessible to the computers connected to the
network.

As a Communication Medium Networking helps in sending and receiving of

electronic-mail (e-mail) messages from anywhere in the world. Data in the form of text,
audio, video and pictures can be sent via e-mail. This allows the users to communicate
online in a faster and cost effective manner. Video conferencing is another form of
communication made possible via networking. People in distant locations can hold a
meeting, and they can hear and see each other simultaneously.
For Back-up and Support Networked computers can be used to take back-up of
critical data. In situations where there is a requirement of always-on computer, another
computer on the network can take over in case of failure of one computer.

1 .Classification of computer networks/Network hardware

There is no generally accepted taxonomy into which all computer networks fit, but two
dimensions stand out as important:
1) Transmission technology
2) Scale.

Transmission technology
Broadly speaking, there are two types of transmission technology that are in widespread use:
1) Broadcast links
2) Point-to-Point links

Point-to-point
Point-to-point links connect individual pairs of machines. To go from the source to the
destination on a network made up of point-to-point links, short messages, called packets in
certain contexts, may have to first visit one or more intermediate machines.
Often multiple routes, of different lengths, are possible, so finding good ones is important in
point-to-point networks. Point-to-point transmission with exactly one sender and exactly one
receiver is sometimes called unicasting.

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Broadcast
On a broadcast network, the communication channel is shared by all the machines on the
network; packets sent by any machine are received by all the others. An address field within each
packet specifies the intended recipient.
Upon receiving a packet, a machine checks the address field. If the packet is intended for the
receiving machine, that machine processes the packet; if the packet is intended for some other
machine, it is just ignored. Example broadcast network is wireless network.

Scale
An alternative criterion for classifying networks is by scale. Distance is important as a
classification metric because different technologies are used at different scales.
In Figure 3a.1 we classify multiple processor systems by their rough physical size. At the top
are the personal area networks, networks that are meant for one person. Beyond these come
longer-range networks. These can be divided into local, metropolitan, and wide area networks,
each with increasing scale. Finally, the connection of two or more networks is called an
internetwork. The worldwide Internet is certainly the best-known (but not the only) example of
an internetwork.
1) Personal Area Networks
2) Local Area Networks
3) Metropolitan Area Networks
4) Wide Area Networks

Personal Area Networks

PANs (Personal Area Networks) let devices communicate over the range of a person. A
common example is a wireless network that connects a computer with its peripherals. Almost
every computer has an attached monitor, keyboard, mouse, and printer. Without using wireless,
this connection must be done with cables.
So many new users have a hard time finding the right cables and plugging them into the right
little holes (though they are usually color coded). To help these users, some companies got
together to design a short-range wireless network called Bluetooth to connect these components
without wires. The idea is that if your devices have Bluetooth, then you need no cables. You just
put them down, turn them on, and they work together.
In the simplest form, Bluetooth networks use the master-slave paradigm of Figure 3a.2. The
system unit (the PC) is normally the master, talking to the mouse, keyboard, etc., as slaves. The
master tells the slaves what addresses to use, when they can broadcast, how long they can
transmit, what frequencies they can use, and so on.

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Bluetooth can be used in other settings, too. It is often used to connect a headset to a mobile
phone without cords and it can allow your digital music player to connect to your car merely
being brought within range.
A completely different kind of PAN is formed when an embedded medical device such as a
pacemaker, insulin pump, or hearing aid talks to a user-operated remote control.
PANs can also be built with other technologies that communicate over short ranges, such as
RFID on smartcards and library books.
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Local Area Networks

A LAN is a privately owned network that operates within and nearby a single building like a
home, office or factory. LANs are widely used to connect personal computers and consumer
electronics to let them share resources (e.g., printers) and exchange information. When LANs are
used by companies, they are called enterprise networks.
Wireless LANs are very popular these days, especially in homes, older office buildings,
cafeterias, and other places where it is too much trouble to install cables. In these systems, every
computer has a radio modem and an antenna that it uses to communicate with other computers.

Metropolitan Area Networks

AMAN (Metropolitan Area Network) covers a city. The best-known examples of MANs
are the cable television networks available in many cities. These systems grew from earlier
community antenna systems used in areas with poor over-the-air television reception. In those
early systems, a large antenna was placed on top of a nearby hill and a signal was then piped to
the subscribers houses.

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Wide Area Networks

A WAN (Wide Area Network) spans a large geographical area, often a country or continent.
The WAN in Figure 3a.4 is a network that connects offices in Perth, Melbourne, and Brisbane.
Each of these offices contains computers intended for running user (i.e., application) programs.
We will follow traditional usage and call these machines hosts.

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
A packet is one unit of binary data capable of being routed through a computer network. To
improve communication performance and reliability, each message sent between two network
devices is often subdivided into packets by the underlying hardware and software.

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LAN TOPOLOGIES
Local area network topologies can be described using either a physical or a logical perspective.
A physical topology describes the geometric arrangement of components that make up the LAN.
The topology is not a map of the network. Its a theoretical construct that graphically conveys the
shape and structure of the LAN.
A logical topology describes the possible connections between pairs of networked end-points that
can communicate.
We however discuss here physical topologies.
The LAN physical topologies can be further classified as:

1. Bus topology

A bus topology is a type of network setup where each computer and network device is
connected to a single cable or backbone.

2. Ring topology

Alternatively referred to as a ring network, the ring topology is a computer network

configuration where each network computer and device is connected to each other
forming a large circle (or similar shape). Each packet is sent around the ring until it reaches

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its final destination. Today, the ring topology is seldom used. Below is a visual example of
a simple computer setup on a network using a ring topology.

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3. Star topology

Alternatively referred to as a star network, a star topology is one of the most common
network setups where each of the devices and computers on a network connect to a
central hub. A major disadvantage of this network topology is that if the central hub fails,
all computers connected to that hub would be disconnected
WIRELESS LANS (WLANS)

WLANS are a closely grouped system of devices that communicate through radio waves instead
of wires. They are basically an alternative to a wired LAN. WLANS transmits and receives data
over the air. They minimize the need for wired connections.

Advantages of WLANS
Installation is fast and easy
No cables are needed
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No frustration with wiring

Go where wires cannot go

HOW WLANS WORK

Use electromagnetic airwaves to communicate information
Data imposed on radio carrier (radio wave)
RF electromagnetic wave can easily pass through ordinary wall, it needs to implement with
heavy concrete or metal screening.

WHEN DO U NEED WLANS

When you truly need mobility
When you plan to move or remodel soon
When set up a portable buildings for temporary use
When you dont have time to configure and maintain a wiring scheme
When running cable is too expensive

THREATS TO WLANS

Rogue Access Points/Ad-hoc Networks

One method that is often used by attackers targeting wireless LANS is to setup a rogue
access point that is within the range of the existing wireless LAN. The idea is to fool
some of the legitimate devices into associating to this access point over the legitimate
access points.

Denial of Service attack

It is one of the simplest network attacks to perpetrate because it only requires limiting
access to services. This can be done by simply sending a large amount of traffic at a
specific target. Of course, the amount of traffic required to affect a target device can be
much higher than the capabilities of a single machine.
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Passive Capturing

Passive capturing is performed by simply getting within range of a target wireless LAN and then
listening and capturing data. This information can be used for a number of things including
attempting to break existing security settings and analyzing non-secured traffic. It is almost
impossible to really prevent this type of attack because of the nature of a wireless network; what
can be done is to implement high security standards using complex parameters.

Evil Twin APs

Fraudulent APs can easily advertise the same network name (SSID) as a legitimate hotspot or
business WLAN, causing nearby Wi-Fi clients to connect to them. Evil Twins are not new, but
easier-to-use hacker tools have increased your risk of running into one. Tools like Karmetasploit
can now listen to nearby clients, discover SSIDs theyre willing to connect to, and automatically
start advertising those SSIDs. Once clients connect, the client traffic is routed through the Evil
Twin, will execute attacks.

Access Point: An access point is a device , that allows wireless devices to connect to a network.

OSI MODEL

The need for standards

Over the past couple of decades many of the networks that were built used different hardware
and software implementations, as a result they were incompatible and it became difficult for
networks using different specifications to communicate with each other.
To address the problem of networks being incompatible and unable to communicate with each
other, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) researched various network
schemes.
The ISO recognized there was a need to create a NETWORK MODEL that would help
vendors create interoperable network implementations.

1.2 International Organization for Standardization

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is an International standards
organization responsible for a wide range of standards, including many that are relevant to
networking.

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In 1984 in order to aid network interconnection without necessarily requiring complete

redesign, the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model was approved as an
international standard for communications architecture.

1.3 Standardization within the OSI Framework

The principal motivation for the development of the OSI model was to provide a framework
for standardization. Within the model, one or more protocol standards can be developed at each
layer. The model defines in general terms the functions to be performed at that layer and
facilitates the standards-making process in two ways:
Because the functions of each layer are well defined, standards can be developed independently
and simultaneously for each layer. This speeds up the standards-making process.
Because the boundaries between layers are well defined, changes in standards in one layer need
not affect already existing software in another layer. This makes it easier to introduce new
standards.

Advantages of using the layered model include, but are not limited to, the following:

It divides the network communication process into smaller and simpler components, thus
aiding component development, design and troubleshooting.
It allows multiple-vendor development through standardization of network components.
It encourages Industry standardization by defining what functions occur at each layer of the
model.

It allows various types of network hardware and software to communicate.

Layers in the OSI Model

Physical Layer
The physical stuff connecting computers together(cables, switches, routers, modems e.t.c).This
layer specifies how data is processed into bits and physically transferred over a medium, such as
cables.
Data Link Layer
This layer is where your NIC (Network Interface Card)are. Provides the line of how data ,
packaged into frames is communicated through hardware to be transported across a medium
Network Layer
This layer s where all the routers operate- determine the best route for data. Best most reliable
and fastest rate.
Transport Layer
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This layer makes sure packets are delivered reliably and in the right order.

Session Layer
Responsible for starting, ending and maintaining a data conversation.

Presentation layer
This is the layer that the OS resides on. For e.g., when you type anything on your computer, your
computer doesnt understand that, it understands ASCII-
The OS converts the letters and numbers to formats the computer can understand .

Application Layer
This enables the user to access the network. It does this by providing user interfaces and support
for services such as electronic mail e.t.c.

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