Summary of Thermodynamic Relations:

R T
Ideal Gas Law:
P= =RT
M mol

dh de cP
Specific Heats:
cP=
dT ) P
and
cv=
dT )
v
Specific Heat Ratio: =
cv

First Law: de=dqdw (Note: work is defined as positive when energy leaves the system)

Enthalpy: h=e+ Pv

R R
Gas Constant:
R=c Pc v cP = cv= These 3 Eq.
1 1

Assume Ideal Gas

Second Law:
Tds=dq+ si Where
si 0 is the entropy generated by irreversibility.

T2 2 T2 P2 P2 2
Entropy: s 2s1=c v ln ( ) ( )
T1
R ln
1
=c p ln
T1
R ln ( ) ( )
P1
=c v ln
P1
c p ln
1 ( ) ( ) Assumes:

Ideal Gas
Constant c p c v

1 V
Speed of Sound: a=( RT ) 2 Mach Number:
M=
a

Assumes: IdealGas

General Equations of Fluid Mechanics (Always Apply):

The equations that describe fluid mechanics are derived from conservation of mass, Newtons 2 nd Law,
and the 1st and 2nd Laws of Thermodynamics. These equations can be written in integral form, using a
control volume to determine some net effect of the flow on a body, or in differential form to find more
detailed information about the flow field. They are applicable to all flows that fit under the continuum
description of fluids.

Integral Form:

Mass: d + ( V n ) dA=0
t CV CS

Newtons 2nd Law: V d + V ( V n ) dA= F
t CV CS
 1
1st Law of Thermo:
t CV CS 2 (
ed + h+ V 2+ gz ( V )
n ) dA=Q
W shaft W
shear W
other

2nd Law of Thermo:


t CV
sd + s (
CS
V n ) dA=
1 Q
CS T A
( )
dA+ Si

It is important to notice all equations have similar form: CV + Flux ThroughCS=Sources

Differential Form:

Mass:
(
V ) + =0
t

2 V x 2 V x 2 V x

Vx
(t
+V x
V x
x
+V y
V x
y )
+V z
Vx
z
=gx
P
x(+ + ) +
x2 y 2 z2
2 2 2

y ( x z )
V V V V V V V
(
z )
y y y P
y y y y
Newtons 2 nd
Law: +V x+V +V y =gz + y + +
t x y y 2 2 2

2 2 2
+ (
z )
V V V V V V V
( )
z z z Pz z z z
+V x+V +V y =g
z z + + 2 2 2
t x y z z x y
General One Dimensional Flow

Mass: m=VA=constant
Assuming:
1. Steady Flow
2.Uniform Flow Across Streamlines
d d dV dA
(m
)= + + =0
dx V A

Momentum:
R x + P1 A 1P2 A 2=m
( V 2V 1 ) Assuming:
3. No Body Forcesxdirection
Rx is the total pressure and shear stress
integrated over top/bottom of control volume.

Energy:
m
Q=
[(
1
2
1
)(
h2 + V 22 h 1+ V 21
2 )] Assuming:
shaft =W
4. W shear =W
other =0
5. Neglect Effects of Gravity

Q 1 1
dm ( )( )
= h2 + V 22 h1+ V 21 =h02h01
2 2

This equation tells us that heat transfer causes streamwise

variation in stagnation enthalpy and temperature.
Adiabatic flow has fixed stagnation enthalpy and
temperature, regardless of if it is isentropic.

1 Q
Entropy: ( s 2s 1 )=
m
CS
( )
T A
dA+ S i S i=Entropy Generation Due Irreversibilities

State: P=RT Assuming: 6. Ideal Gas

Enthalpy: ( h2 h1 )=c p ( T 2T 1) Assuming: 7.Constant Specific Heats

T2 P
Tds: s 2s1=c p ln ( ) ( )
T1
R ln 2
P1

Stagnation and Critical Properties:

To simplify calculations, we will use stagnation and critical state properties to determine solutions to
one dimensional flows. Stagnation properties are also used because they are easier to use measure
than the actual values. Stagnation properties are defined as the properties obtained by bringing the
flow to rest through a process that is reversible, adiabatic (implying isentropic), and without work.
Stagnation properties are conserved in the streamwise direction if the flow is isentropic and steady.
Stagnation enthalpy and temperature are conserved for adiabatic flow regardless of entropy change.
Critical properties are similar to stagnation properties except that the flow is accelerated to Mach 1.
 2 1 1
1 2 a 0 T P 0
Stagnation Properties: 1+
2
M =( )
a
= 0= 0
T P ( ) ( )
=

1 2
h0=h+ V S 0=S
2

2 1 1
+1 a0 T P 0
Critical Properties: 2 a T ( )
= = 0 = 0
P ( ) ( )

=

[ ]
+1
1 2 2 ( 1)
1+ M
A 1 2
=
A M +1
2

A represents the area at which the mass flux is maximized.

From this, we can see that as the flow accelerates from subsonic to
supersonic, the channel area must first decrease and then increase, indicating
that a converging-diverging nozzle is needed. The transition occurs at a throat, where the channel area
is minimized and the Mach number is one.

Isentropic Flow of an Ideal Gas: Area Variations

Assume in this section that the flow is only changed by variations in the cross sectional area of the
flow. This implies that there is no heat transfer, friction, or shocks, and that the flow is reversible and
isentropic. The general equations from the previous section reduce to the following, subject to the
additional assumptions listed above.

Mass: m=VA=constant
Momentum:
R x + P1 A 1P2 A 2=m
( V 2V 1 )

1 2
Energy:
h0=h+ V =constant Entropy: s=constant
2

State: P=RT

Enthalpy: ( h2 h1 )=c p ( T 2T 1)

1 T 1
P1
Tds: P2
=
( )( )
2
=
T2
1

For one-dimensional flows, with variations exclusively generated by area changes, all stagnation
properties are conserved. This analysis is applicable to nozzles, and can be used to find the ideal
performance of diffusers. It is important to note that the adverse pressure gradient in a diffuser can
lead to flow separation and shock waves, both of which generate irreversibilities and changes in
entropy. The equations that will be used most are as follows:
 [ ]
+1
1 2 2 ( 1)
2 1 1 1+ M
1 2 a 0 T
1+
2
M = ( )
a
= 0=
T
P
P ( ) =( )
0 0 A
=
A M
1 2
+1
2

1 +1
m 1

A
=P 0
( )
RT0
2
M
(1+
1 2
M ) 2 ( 1)

+1
2
m=VA=constant
m
choked =A t P0
R T0 + 1( ) 2( 1 )

Once the throat has reached sonic conditions, the mass flow rate is maximized and cannot be further
increased by decreasing the back pressure. This is called chocked flow and the mass flow rate is a
function of fluid properties, stagnation properties, and throat area. The isentropic assumption holds
until a shock wave occurs, at which point the entropy increases and stagnation properties cease to be
constant. At this point we must consider shock waves.
Normal Shocks
Shock waves are very steep changes in fluid properties that are approximated as irreversible
discontinuities in the flow. They only occur in supersonic flows because pressure disturbances cannot
propagate upstream to adjust/redirect the flow. The flow must violently adjust to downstream
conditions through shock waves. The second law of thermodynamics requires that the supersonic flow
must decelerate, forcing
M 1> M 2 . This change occurs over such a small distance that effects of area

changes, body and shear forces, and heat transfer can be neglected. The general one-dimensional flow
equations are reduced to the following with these additional assumptions.

m

Assuming: 8 .Constant Area
Mass:
=V =constant
A

P1 A1 P2 A2 =m
( V 2 V 1 )
Momentum: Assuming: 9 . R x =Q=0

P1+ 1 V 21=P 2+ 2 V 22

1
Energy:
h0=h+ V 2=constant
2

Implies that
T 0 =constant

Entropy:
s 2 >s 1

State: P=RT

Enthalpy: ( h2 h1 )=c p ( T 2T 1)
T2 P
Tds: s 2s1=c p ln ( ) ( )
T1
R ln 2
P1

These coupled equations are tedious to solve, so instead they are transformed into functions of the
supersonic mach number, M1. The properties are dependent on just the upstream mach number and
specific heat ratio, which makes it convenient to tabulate data instead of using the equations.
Stagnation enthalpy and stagnation temperature are conserved across the shock (from adiabatic
assumption) while all other stagnation properties change.
 [ ]

+1 2 1
M1
2 2
M 21 +
1 1 2
M 22 = 1+ M1
2 P02 2
M 211 =
1 P01 1

[ 2
+1
2
M1
1
+1 ] 1

T2
=
[ 1+
1 2
2 ][
M 1 M 21
1
2
2
] P2 2
= M 21
1 2 V 1
= =
+1 2
2
M1
T1
[( +1
2
M1 )]
P1 +1 +1 1 V 2
1+
1 2
2
M1
Oblique Shocks
Oblique shocks occur at some angle to the flow which causes the flow to deflect some angle . The
analysis of oblique shocks can be transformed into a normal shock problem by using a control volume
that moves with a velocity
V t . This can be accomplished by decomposing the flow velocity into

normal and tangential components. With this decomposition normal shock analysis can be applied to
the normal component of oblique shocks, while the tangential component remains unchanged. The
general equations of one dimensional flow reduce to the following with the assumptions that the shock
occurs of such a small distance that heat transfer, area changes, and body and shear forces can be
neglected.

m

Assuming: 8 .Constant Area
Mass:
=V n=constant
A

P1 A1 P2 A2 =m
( V 2 nV 1n )
Momentum: Assuming: 9 . R x =Q=0

P1+ 1 V 21 n=P2 + 2 V 22 n

V 1 t=V 2 t

Shock wave does not influence tangential

velocity component.

1
Energy:
h0=h+ V 2=constant
2

Implies that
T 0 =constant

Entropy:
s 2 >s 1

State: P=RT

Enthalpy: ( h2 h1 )=c p ( T 2T 1)
T2 P
Tds: s 2s1=c p ln ( ) ( )
T1
R ln 2
P1

These are the same equations used in the analysis of normal shocks with the addition that
V 1 t=V 2 t .

Just as we did with normal shocks, the equations are transformed into explicit equations of mach
number and the results are tabulated to avoid terrible equations.

2
M 21 n +
V 1n V 2n 1
M 1n = =M 1 sin ( ) M 2 n= =M 2 sin ( ) M 2 n2 =
a1 a2 2
M 21 n1
1
 [ ]

+1 2 1
M1
2
1+
1 2
M1n
T2
=
[ 1+
1 2
2 ][
M 1 n M 21 n
1
2 ] P2 2
= M 21 n
1
P02 2 T1 2
P1 +1 +1
P01
= 1 ( +12 M )
1n

[ 2
+1
M 21 n
1
+1 ] 1

+1 2
M 1n
2 V 1 n 2
= =
1 V 2 n 1 2
1+ M 1n
2

2 cot ( ) ( M 21 sin2 1 ) 1 1
tan = 2
M ( +cos 2 ) +2
1
Mach Cone: =sin M ( )
Isentropic Expansion/Compression Waves
When a supersonic flow is gradually redirected, it adjusts through a series of isentropic compression or
expansion waves. The compression waves converge, adding up to cause an oblique shock wave.
Expansion waves diverge, and cannot cause a shock wave. It is important to realize that both
compression and expansion waves are forms of Mach waves which are assumed to be isentropic. In
addition, the flow across expansion/compression waves are assumed to be adiabatic and reversible
which implies that the stagnation properties are conserved and fluid properties change smoothly with
position.

Mach cone:
=sin1 ( M1 )
Mass: V sin = ( + d ) (V + dV ) sin ( d ) Assuming: 1. Steady Flow

Momentum: V cos ( )=( V +dV ) cos ( d ) Assuming: 2. Negligible Body Forces

1
dV
Momentum: d=( M 2 1 ) 2 (Small Angle Approximation)
V

1 2 1 2
Energy:
h+ V =( h+ dh ) + ( V +dV )
2 2

Energy:
dh=c P dT =VdV (First Order Approximation) Assuming:
3. Adiabatic Flow
4. No Work
5. Negligible Gravity Effects
6. Ideal Gas

1
2 2
2 ( M 1 ) dM
d=
2+ M 2 ( 1 ) M
To find the total deflection, integrate the above expression. Notice that M is a function of so that
relation needs to be known. One way to solve this is to use the Prandtl-Meyers expansion function
given below and there are tables to avoid the terribleness.

) ]tan [( M 1 ) ] =
1

( ) tan [(
1 1
+1 1 2
= 2 1
{ M 1 } 2 1 2 2
2 1
1 +1

In addition to the Prandtl-Meyers function, the flow across expansion waves is steady and isentropic so
stagnation properties are conserved.

2 1 1
1 2 a 0 T P
1+
2
M =
a T ( )
= 0= 0
P ( ) ( )
= 0

 1
h0=h+ V 2 S 0=S
2
Efficiencies
All the efficiencies given in this section are for a single propellant stream.

Thrust Power Tu
p= =
Production of Propelent KE 1
Propulsion: [ ( 1+f ) ue 2u2 ]
m
2 a

( ue u ) u 2u /u e
p= = 1. f 0
1 2 2 1+u/ue Assuming:
[ u u ]
2 e
2. P e =P a

1
a [ ( 1+ f ) u e2u 2 ] ( 1+ f ) u 2 u2
m
Thermal: th =
Production of Propelent KE 2
= =
[ e ]
Consumption of Fuel Energy m f QR 2 f QR

For turboprops and turboshafts the consumed fuel is used to power a shaft instead of accelerate the
flow of air. The propulsion efficiency is modified for these engines.

Propeller Shaft Power Ps

Thermal: th = =
Consumption of Fuel Energy m f QR

Thrust Power of Propeller T pr u

Propeller: pr= =
Propeller Shaft Power Ps

An alternate definition of propulsion efficiency is sometimes used because the propeller thrust is
difficult to find. This alternate equation uses an equivalent shaft power and the total thrust propeller.

Total Thrust Power Tu

pr= =
Propeller: Equivilent Shaft Power P es

Thrust Power Tu
o = = p th =
Overall: Consumption of Fuel Energy m
f QR

u /ue
o =2 th ( 1+u/ue ) Assuming:
1. f 0
2. P e =P a

This equation for the overall efficiency can be converted for a double propellant stream by using an

equivalent
ue and
fe .

m
aH ( 1+f ) u eH + m
aC ueC
Equivalent Exit Velocity: u e =
m
aH ( 1+ f ) + m
aC

f
f e=
Equivalent Fuel-Air Ratio: 1+ m
aC / m
aH
 ( u e u ) u aC ( u e u ) u
m
o =
f eQR (
= 1+
m
aH ) f QR Assuming:
1. f 0
2. P e =P a

Calculating the heat of reaction from the heat of formation:

QR = ( n i Qfi ) products ( n j Qfj )reactants

ni is the number of moles of fuel used in combustion and is found by applying conservation of
atoms to the chemical equation.
Thrust and Range
The thrust equation is derived using integral form of conservation of mass and momentum over the
control volume below. This analysis assumes that the flow is steady, uniform across surfaces 1 and 2,
and that the top and bottom of the control volume are streamlines, so no mass flux.

mf
Fuel Air Ratio: f= (This is the ratio of the fuel to the air that passes through the
m
aH

combustor and mixes with fuel)

Thrust (One Stream): a [ (1+ f ) ue u ] + ( Pe P a ) A

T =m (Note: Pressure terms usually
cancel)
Thrust (Two Stream): aH [ ( 1+ f ) u eH u ]+ m
T =m aC ( ueC u ) + ( P eP a ) A

m
aH is the mass flow rate of air passing through

the jet engine. It is mixed with the fuel and burned

and either accelerated through a nozzle or used to
power a propeller. If it is a one stream engine, like a
ramjet,
m
aH =m
a .

m
aC is the mass flow rate of air passing through

a propeller but not the engine/combustor. If it is a one stream

engine then
m
aC =0 .

The take-off thrust is found by applying the thrust equation to a stationary jet engine. This implies that
u=0 , and Pe =Pa . It is also valid to assume that f 0 with introducing only small error.

2 th Q R m
f
Take Off Thrust (One Stream): T =m
a u e=
ue

The first equation tells that take-off thrust is dependent on the mass flow rate of air and the exit
velocity. The second equation tells us that for a given consumption of energy, that is fixing
th ,
QR , and
m
f , thrust is inversely dependent on the exit velocity. This means that to take off it

better to use the provided energy to move a greater volume of air, rather than focusing on
accelerating the air to the greatest exit velocity.

Another important parameter is the range that the airplane can fly. This is approximated by neglecting
the climb and descent to cruise conditions, and assuming that all aircraft and engine characteristics
(except mass) remain constant with time.

Range: S=0 ( Qg )( DL ) ln ( mm )
R 1

2
The efficiency can be modified for a single or double propellant stream, see efficiency page.

m
f f
Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption: TSFC= =
T T /m a

Ramjet
The ramjet is the simplest engine to analyze because it has the
fewest parts and none of them move. The incoming air is
decelerated in the diffuser from (a) to (2), where it is
injected with fuel (2) and burned in the combustor
between (3) and (4). Between (4) and (6), the air is
accelerated through a nozzle. At design conditions the
exhaust jet is at ambient pressure, but the ramjet may
operate outside design conditions, so in general
P6 Pa . The performance of ramjets is dependent in the maximum temperature

( 3000 K ), which occurs at (4). Physically, there are two limiting factors on the maximum
temperature: melting of the combustion chamber walls and dissociation of fluid particles. To help
shield the walls of the combustion chamber, a cool thin layer of fluid passes through the combustor
unburned. The maximum temperature places an upper limit on the Mach number, because the more
the fluid is decelerated in the diffuser the more the temperature is increased. The temperature of high
Mach number flows will eventually reach the maximum temperature, and the energy gained from
burning fuel will go into dissociation, instead of increasing the thermal energy of the fluid. The ramjet
diffuser is a fixed shape, so flight outside of design conditions will lead to large shockwaves and
decrease efficiency. The ramjet only operates if there is a pressure gradient across the diffuser, so
ramjets cannot generate takeoff thrust. Finally, all equations below require that the diffuser
decelerated the flow to a small Mach number
M 2 M 3 M 4 1 .

Stagnation pressure ratios are measured performances of the given part, and are used to account for
irreversibilities. These are all functions of the upstream Mach number.
P02 P04 P 06 P06
Diffuser: rd rc rn ro =r r r
P0 a Combustor: P 02 Nozzle: P 04 Overall: P0 a d c n

The ramjet is a single stream jet engine, so a [ ( 1+ f ) ue u ] + ( Pe P a ) A

m . To use this equation,

expressions for
ue , f , and m
a are needed. The equations assume no temperature dependent
fluid variation, which is fair if average values are used.
 1 2
1 1+ M6
P 06 Pa
( P6 P 0 a )
=
1+
2
1 2
M

2

[( ] [( ]
1 1
1 2 P06 P a P
2
1
1+
2
M
P6 P 0 a )( ) 2
1 = M =
6
2
1
1+
1 2
2
M rd r c rn a
P6 )( )
1

1 1 1 1 1
1 2 1 2
u6=M 6 ( R T 6 ) 2 =M 6 ( R T 06) 2 1+ ( 2
M6 )2
(
=M 6 ( R T 04 ) 2 1+
2
M6 )2
Assuming: adiabatic nozzle

From conservation of energy across the combustor (Assuming: Adiabatic except for fuel burning )

T 04 T 04

( 1+f ) h04 =h02 +f b Q R f=

( ) ( )(
T0a )
1
=
Ta
1+
1 2
2
M
b Q R T b Q R T
( )( ) ( )( )
c pT 0a
04
T0a c p Ta
04
Ta

The ideal ramjet uses all the same equations, except that all efficiencies
and pressure ratios are equal to unity. This means that the diffuser and
nozzle are adiabatic and that the pressure across the combustor is
constant. The ideal ramjet does not consider shock waves, friction,
dissociation in combustor, or temperature variation of fluid
properties.
Turbojet

Assume M<<1 between (2) and (6), implying that static

properties are the same as stagnation properties.
Neglect afterburner.

P02 1
T 02
=1+
1 2
M d =
T 02 s
h02 sh a T a
=
1
=
Pa ( )

1
Diffuser: Ta 2 ; h 02ha T 02 1 2
1 M
Ta 2

P 02 1 2
rd =
Pa (
= d
2
M +1 ) 1

1
P 03

m
a ( h03h 02) =w
c =m
a c P ( T 03 T 02 )
h h
c = 03 s 02 =
( ) P 02

1
Compressor: h03h02 T 03
1
T 02
1
P 03
T 03
=1+
( )
P 02

1

T 02 c

T 04 T 03 T 02

b f QR T a T 02 T a
Burner: ( 1+f ) h04 h03= b f QR ( 1+f ) T 04T 03= f=
cP b f QR T 04

cP T a Ta

P04
r b=
P03

Turbine:
w t=wc
T 03T 02=T 04T 05
T 05
=1
( T 03
T 02
T
1 02
Ta) =1
(( ) )(
P03
P02

1 1+
1 2
2
M )
T 04 T 04 T 04
c
Ta Ta

T 05 1

h h T 04
1
P05 1 1
T 05
T 04
P 03
P 02 ( ( ) )(
1 1+
1 2
2
M )
t = 04 05 =
h04h 05 s
1
P05 1
P04

( )
( )
P 04

=1
t
=1
t c
T 04
Ta
Neglect Afterburner so
T 6 =T 5 and
P6=P5 Nozzle:
1 2
u
h h h 06 h7 2 e
n= 06 07 = =
h 06h07 s T 1
c P T 06 ( 1 07 s
T 06 ) ( ( ) )
c P T 06 1
P7
P 06

1
1 2
2 ( ( ) )
P
ue =c P n T 06 1 7
P 06

=n
R T T
T a 05 04 1
1 T 04 T a
1

[
P06 P05 P04 P 03 P02 P a 1

]
(
P 05 P04 P03 P 02 P a P 7 )

[[ ]
1 2 R T T 1
ue = n T a 05 04 1

](
2 1 T 04 T a T 05
1 1
T 04 1 2
1
t
d
2 )
M + 1 ( r c P rc )

T 05
=1
(( )P03
P02

1 1+
)( 1 2
2
M )
T 04 T 04
c
Ta

f=
T 04
Ta (
1+
( Prc ) 1
c

1+
1 2
2
M )( )
b f Q R T 04

cP T a Ta
Chemical Rockets
The unique characteristic of rockets that distinguishes them from other aircraft is that they must carry
all the propellant within the structure of the vehicle. This means that there is a large variation of mass
during flight. Rockets generate thrust by imparting momentum to the propellant as it is expelled from
the nozzle. Chemical rockets can have either liquid or solid propellant. Liquid propellant rockets must
have separate containers for the oxidant and fuel, and a fuel injection system to mix and burn the two
in the combustion chamber. Solid propellant rockets have the fuel and oxidant combined in a solid
form. Both forms have the same analysis. These rockets can be modeled as a combustion chamber
and CD nozzle. In the analysis assume that the propellant in the combustion chamber is at rest and is
an ideal heater, and the nozzle is isentropic.

Ae
T =mu
e + ( P eP a ) A e =mu
eq ueq u e + ( P e P a )
Static Thrust: m

Impulse: I= Tdt=M P ueq ( If ueq =constant )

I ueq
Specific Impulse: I SP= = For chemical rockets specific impulse should be maximized.
M P ge ge

1 /2 1 /2

( [ ( ) ]) ( [ ( ) ] )
1 1 1 +1 1/ 2
2
ue =M e ( R T e ) =
2 R T 0
1
P
1 e
P0
P
= 2 Q R 1 e
P0

choked = At P0
m
[ 2
R T 0 +1 ( ) ]
( 1 )

For a given maximum temperature

T0 , it is best to decrease the molecular mass of the propellant.

Thrust Coefficient:
1
Pe
1/ 2
( )

{ [ ( ) ]} (
1 +1 1/ 2
P0
22 P Pe P a Ae A e 1 2
( [ ] )
+1
T
=
2
( )
A t P 0 ( 1 ) +1
1
1 e
P0

+
)
P0 P 0 A t A t
=
2 +1
1
1 1 /2

[ P
( )
1 e
P0

]
+1 1 /2 +1 1 /2

Characteristic Velocity:
P A
C = 0 t=

m

R T 0 +1
2 ( [ ] ) ( 1
=
1

2
QR
+1
2 [ ] ) 1

1 d ( ATP )
{ [ ( ) ]}
1
T 2 2 2 +1
P
) ( )
2 t 0
1 a
Maximum Thrust: = 1 Found by
At P 0 1 +1 P0 Pe
Max
d ( )
P0
1
Pa
+1 1/ 2 ( )
P0

Optimum Area Ratio:

Ae
At ) =
1 2
( [ ] )
2 +1
1
1 1 /2
Optimum

[ P
1 a
P0 ( )
]
Performance is maximized when propellant is expanded to
Pe =Pa

To find the area/pressure ratio where a standing shock wave is located at nozzle exit
 +1
Ae 1
=
[ (
2
At M e +1
1+
1 2
2
Me )] 2( 1 )

2 M 2e +1
P a P a Pe +1
= =
P 0 P e P0 1 2 1
(
1+
2 )
Me