The Daffodils Wordsworth

UNIT 1
WORDSWORTH : THE DAFFODILS

Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Life of Wordsworth
1.3 Influence of the French Revolution and Rousseau on Wordsworth
1.4 Background of the Poem
1.5 Poem
1.6 Meanings
1.7 Stanza-wise Summary
1.8 Summary
1.9 Critical Appreciation
1.10 Self Assessment Questions
1.11 Answers to SAQs
1.12 Let Us Sum Up
1.13 Review Questions
1.14 Bibliography
1.0 Objectives
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
know about William Wordsworth
understand the romantic period
understand the ideas contained in the poem and
appreciate and interpret the poem
1.1 Introduction
In this unit you are going to study the poem Daffodils written by Wordsworth. You will
also learn about the life of Wordsworth, influence of the French Revolution and Rousseau on
his life.
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1.2 Life of Wordsworth
William Wordsworth was born on 7th of April, 1770 at Cockermouth. His father John
Wordsworth was an attorney to Lord Londsdale and was an influential man of his time. His
mother Anne Cookson was the only daughter of William Cookson, a well to do mercer a
dealer in milk products at Penrith and of Dorothy Crackanthrope, whose ancestors had been
lords of the manor of Newbiggin near Penrith. He was second of the five children of his
parents, the others being Richard, Dorothy, John and Christopher. He was educated at
Hawkshead Grammar School and St. John College, Cambridge from where he did his B.A. in
1791. He went to France in 1791 and stayed there for a period of one year. During this time
he was greatly influenced by the French Revolution which was at its peak at that time in
France. He published his first volume of poems in 1793. In 1795 he got a chance to meet S.T.
Coleridge and soon they became life time friends. Wordsworth along with his sister, Dorothy
and S.T. Coleridge with his wife were neighbours to each other at Alfoxden and Stowey in
Somerset for one year. In 1798, both the poets together published Lyrical Ballads which is
considered to be an epoch-making collection of lyrical romantic poems whose preface along
with the poems appearing in it attracted a lot of public attention. Together at the end of the
same year they went to Germany where Wordsworth started writing The Prelude and com-
pleted Ruth, Lucy Gray, The Lines on Lucy and some other poems. In 1802, he married
Mary Hutchinson of Penrith. After seven years i.e. in 1805 he completed The Prelude which
was published after his death on 23rd April 1850. In 1807 he moved to Rydal Mount, Grasmere
and lived there till his death. In 1843 he became the Poet Laureate after the death of Robert
Southey.
1.3 Influence of the French Revolution and Rousseau on

Wordsworth
Wordsworth after completing his B.A. in 1791 from St. John College, Cambridge
went to France, in the same year. At that time in France, the French Revolution was at its peak.
Wordsworth also felt attracted to it. The aim of the French Revolution was to abolish the
kingship and aristocracy and to give full authority to the common man. Rousseau a well known
French writer and who is also known as the father of Romanticism gave his complete sup-
port to this revolution. He also had a deep influence on Wordsworth. Rousseau once said in an
argument favouring the French Revolution that man is born free but he is chained everywhere.
Time has come now to do away with the kingship and aristocracy. It would be best for the man
to give all the powers to the common man. Wordsworth shared the same point of view with
Rousseau. He supported the purpose of the French Revolution whole-heartedly. He was deeply
attached to the French Revolution. When England prepared herself to fight against Napoleon
he went to Church and prayed there sincerely for the defeat of England, his own motherland.
Though later in his life he changed his opinion about the French Revolution and became a
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republican. He retired as the Poet Laureate of England. But throughout his life, he was unable
to shed away the influence of the French Revolution and Rousseau on his poetry. From Rousseau
and the French Revolution Wordsworth learnt to glorify the life of the common man. He also
learnt to love and respect nature. The relation between nature and man became the main theme
of his poetry. In being the poet of nature, he also became the poet of the common man.
1.4 Background of the Poem

On April 15, 1802 Wordsworth and his sister Dorothy went to their friends, the
Clarksons, at Eusemere. When they were coming back to Grasmere, they saw a large number
of golden daffodils growing on the bank of a lake Ullswater in the Lake district. They both
were astonished by the mesmeric beauty of these daffodils which were fluttering and dancing
with the light breeze. Inspired by this delightful spectacle Wordsworth composed this poem in
1804 and published it in 1807.
1.5 Poem
THE DAFFODILS
I wandered lonely as a cloud
That floats on high oer vales and hills,
When all at once I saw a crowd,
A host, of golden daffodils;
Beside the lake, beneath the trees,
Fluttering and dancing in the breeze.
Continuous as the stars that shine

And twinkle on the milky way,
They stretched in never-ending line
Along the margin of a bay :
Ten thousand saw I at a glance,
Tossing their heads in sprightly dance
The waves beside them danced; but they

out-did the sparkling waves in glee;
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A poet could not but be gay,
In such a jocund company :
I gazed - and gazed - but little thought
What wealth the show to me had brought.
For oft, when on my couch I lie

In vacant or in pensive mood,
They flash upon that inward eye
Which is the bliss of solitude;
And then my heart with pleasure fills,
And dances with the daffodils.
1.6 Meanings
1. Wander (Verb) : To walk slowly around or to a place, often without any particular
sense of purpose or direction.
2. Float (Verb) : To move slowly on water or in the air.
3. Vale (Noun) : Valley
4. Fluttering (Noun) : A quick, light movement.
5. Toss (Verb) : To move ones head this way or that.
6. Sprightly (Adjective) : Full of life and energy.
7. Outdo (Verb) : Surpass.
8. Glee (Noun) : A feeling of happiness.
9. Gay (Adjective) : Happy and full of fun.
10. Jocund (Adjective) : Cheerful
11. Gaze (Verb) : To look steadily at somebody /something for a long time.
12. Pensive (Adjective) : Thinking deeply about something, especially because you are
sad or worried.
13. Bliss (Noun) : Extreme happiness.
14. Solitude (Noun) : The state of being alone, especially when you find this pleasant.
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1.7 Stanza -wise Summary
1. I wandered lonely.................... dancing in the breeze.
The poet is wandering alone from one place to another like a cloud, which flies over
valleys and hills with the flow of wind. Suddenly the poet sees a large number of
golden daffodils. These daffodils are growing close to the lake and under the trees. A
light breeze is blowing making these daffodils dance and flutter with it.
2. Continuous as the star............................ in sprightly dance.
To the poet these daffodils looks like the stars that shine and twinkle in the milky-way.
The daffodils are spreading over a very large area along the margin of a bay. They are
in an excessively huge quantity. All these daffodils are dancing happily with the wind.
3. The waves beside ........................ to me had brought.
The waves in the lake beside these daffodils are also dancing with the wind. But in
comparison to the daffodils the waves are not as beautiful and attractive. Watching
such a beautiful scene the poet feels very happy. The poet continues to look at the
daffodils. The poet prizes the scene greatly for himself.
4. For oft................................. with the daffodils
The poet says that whenever he lies down on his bed either thinking about anything or
not thinking, the images of daffodils flash upon his imagination. It usually happens only
when the poet is all alone. These images of daffodils have a magical effect on the poet.
These images fill the heart of the poet with pleasure. The poet also feels like dancing
with the daffodils.
1.8 Summary
The poet is alone and having nature in mind wandering from one place to another like
a cloud which flies over vales and hills with the wind. All of a sudden he sees a large number of
golden daffodils which are growing on the bank of the lake under the trees. A light breeze is
blowing, making the daffodils flutter and dance with it.
For the poet, the view of these beautiful golden daffodils is similar to the stars shining
and twinkling in the milky-way. As far as the poet can see, he finds only the daffodils growing
along the margin of a bay and they seem to the poet to be in very large numbers. All of these
flowers are tossing their heads in a sprightly dance.
In the nearby lake, the waves are dancing with the wind and sparkling because of the
sun-rays falling on them. But the beauty of the golden daffodils is so attractive and charming
that it easily surpasses the beauty of the dancing and sparkling waves. The poet feels happy
and blessed in such an enchanting and cheerful company. The poet is completely absorbed in
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the beauty of the daffodils and for the moment he has lost touch with his surroundings. He
considers himself fortunate and very happy that he has been the witness to such a wonderful
sight of the daffodils.
Later, whenever the poet is thinking of not being busy, lying on his couch the daffodils
flash upon his imagination. The memory of the daffodils not only fills his heart with pleasure but
also has a refreshing effect on him and he feels like dancing along with the daffodils.

Wordsworth is mainly a nature poet and for him. there is nothing which is superior to
and better than Nature. He breathes through with nature and finds solace and spiritual peace in
it. In his opinion, nature has the solution for all the problems of mankind. It is through nature
that he seeks salvation. The theme of this poem i.e. Daffodils is based on the healing and
refreshing power of nature. How easy it is for nature to lift the spirit and the morale of the man
is also depicted in this poem. The poem is rich in imagery and the description of the daffodils
is delightful. The poet starts the poem with the simile and compares himself with the cloud
wandering lonely, free from duty and responsibility, here and there like the cloud. But as soon
as he sees the beautiful golden daffodils growing along the margin of a bay beneath the trees,
dancing and fluttering with the light breeze, he finds himself captivated by their magical beauty.
The poet is so impressed by their beauty that the near-by lake whose waves are also dancing
and sparkling, thus looking enchanting, also captivate his attention. The poet begins to admire
the mesmeric beauty of the daffodils and is unable to think of anything else. Infact, at that time
he could not think of the great importance of the scene for him but later while lying on his couch
he realizes the very great importance the scene had on him.
The last stanza of the poem is the most important part of the poem and is the essence
of the poem. In this stanza, the poet speaks about the healing and refreshing effect of nature
and also praises solitude. According to him, when one is in the state of solitude, one becomes
retrospective and meditates on all the good and pleasurable moments which one had or which
had happened to him-in his life. These memories have a cheerful and lively effect on him. He
greatly feels happy not only with himself but also with all that happened to him. The poet says
that whenever he lies on his couch having nothing to do or in pensive mood, enjoying the
solitude, the images of the daffodils flash upon his imagination. When this happens, the poet
feels calm, refreshed, motivated and good about himself. This is how nature influences him.
The memories of the daffodils fills his heart with pleasure and joy and he feels like dancing
along with the daffodils. This shows the healing and refreshing effect of nature on the poet.

1. What age is known as the Age of Sensibility ?
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2. Which period is known as the Romantic Period ?
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3. Who are the main poets of the Romantic Period ?
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4. What was the purpose of the romantic poetry ?
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5. What are the main characteristics of the Romantic Period ?
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6. Who wrote the Lyrical Ballads and when was it published ?
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7. When was this poem written ?
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8. When was this poem first published ?
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9. What is the theme of this poem ?
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10. Where were the daffodils growing ?
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11. What are the objects the poet compares with the daffodils?
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12. What is the effect of daffodils on the poet ?
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13. What is the bliss of solitude according to the poet ?
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14. Why does the poet stop on seeing the daffodils ?
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1. The later have eighteenth century (1760-1796) is known as the Age of Sensibility. Dr.
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Johnson called is as such.
2. The period between 1798 and 1832 is known as the Romantic Period.
3. Wordsworth, co;leredge Shelley, Keats and Byron are the mejor poets of the Roman-
tic Period.
4. The main purpose of romantic poetry was to express the poetss personal feelings and
emotions.
5. The main characteristics of the Romantic Period are :
1. Love for humaning
2. Love and regard for Nature
3. Expression of emotions and imagination
4. Love for the far off
5. Revolt against the hari complete Drydon hope.
6. Wordsworth and S.T. Coleridge together wrote the Lyrical Ballads. It was published
in 1798.
7. This poem was written in 1804.
8. This poem was first published in 1807
9. The healing and refreshing effect of Nature is the theme of this poem.
10. The Daffodils were growing beside the lake under the trees.
11. The poet compares the daffodils with the dancing waves and shining and twinkling
stars.
12. The daffodils fill the poets heart with pleasure and he feels happy with them.
13. When the person is in solitude and there is nobody around him. He is all alone. He has
the opportunity to think of nature. In the poem the poet says that when he is either busy
thinking or not thinking about any thing he is reminded of the daffodils. He says that
loneliness becomes lovely if he thinks about daffodils in his loneliness. When he re-
members the daffodils he starts feeling happy, content and perfectly at peace with
himself. This happens because of solitude.
14. The poet stops on seeing the daffodils because never before in his life had he seen such
beautiful golden daffodils and that too in such a very large number. He is completely
attracted towards them.
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1.12 Let Us Sum Up
In this unit you were able to understand;
Wordsworth love for nature,
Natures healing and soothing effect on man.

1. Elucidate the magical effect nature had on William Wordsworth.
2. Wordsworth was truly a romantic poet. Explain with suitable example.
1.14 Bibliography
1. Francis Austin, The Language of Wordsworth and Coleridge (1989)
2. Basil Willey, The Eighteenth Century Background (1940)
3. Jonathan Wordsworth, Michael C. Jaya, Robert Woof, William Wordsworth and the
Age of English Romanticism, (New Brunswick and London, 1987)
4. Cazamian, Louis, The Romantic Period. A History of English Literature, Part II,
Book V,1947.
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UNIT 2
WORDSWORTH :
(1) THE SOLITARY REAPER
(2) THE WORLD IS TOO MUCH WITH US
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction to the Poems
2.2 The Poem: The Solitary Reaper
2.2.1 Glossary
2.2.2 Stanza-wise Summary
2.2.3 Summary
2.2.4 Critical Appreciation
2.2.5 Self Assessment Questions
2.2.6 Answers to SAQs
2.3 The Poem: The World is Too Much With Us
2.3.1 Glossary
2.3.3 Summary
2.4 Let Us Sum Up
2.6 Bibliography
2.0 Objectives
After going through this unit you will be able to -
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* understand the poems and
* appreciate and interpret the poems.
2.1 Introduction
In this unit you are going to study the poem The Solitary Reaper and The World is
too much with uswritten by Wordsworth.
The Solitary Reaper poem was written between 1803 and 1805 and first published
in 1807. In 1815-1820 it was included among the Poems of Imagination. The World is too
much with us was also published in 1807.
2.2 The Poem : The Solitary Reaper

Behold her, single in the field,
Yon solitary Highland Lass !
Reaping and singing by herself;
Stop here, or gently pass !
Alone she cuts and binds the grain,
And sings a melancholy strain;
O listen ! for the vale profound
Is overflowing with the sound.
No Nightingale did ever chaunt

More welcome notes to weary bands
Of travellers in some shady haunt,
Among Arabian sands;
A voice so thrilling neer was heard
In spring-time from the cuckoo-bird,
Breaking the silence of the seas
Among the farthest Hebrides.
Will no one tell me what she sings ?

Perhaps the plaintive numbers flow
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For old, unhappy, far-off things,
And battles long:
Or is it some more humble lay,
Familiar matter of to-day ?
Some natural sorrow, loss or pain,
That has been, and may be again ?
Whateer the theme, the Maiden sang
As if her song could have no ending.
I saw her singing at her work,
And oer the sickle bending;
And, as I mounted up the hill
The music in my heart I bore,
Long after it was heard no more.
2.2.1 Glossary
1. Behold (Verb) : To look at or see somebody/ something.
2. Solitary (Adjective) : Alone, with no other person or thing around.
3. Highland (Adjective) : Connected with an area of land that has hills or mountains.
4. Lass (Noun) : A girl, a sweet heart
5. Reap (Verb) : To cut and collect a crop.
6. Bind (Verb) : To tie somebody / something with a rope or string
7. Melancholy (Adjective) : Very sad or making you feel sadness.
8. Strain (Noun) : The sound of music being played or sung.
9. Vale (Noun) : Valley.
10. Profound (Adjective) : Very deep
11. Note (Noun) : A single sound of a particular length made by the voice or a musical
instrument.
12. Weary (Adjective) : Very tried
13. Band (Noun) : A group of people
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14. Haunt (Noun) : A place that somebody visits often or where they spend a lot of time.
15. Hebrides : A cluster of islands to the north-west of Scotland, known as the Northern
limits of the world.
16. Plaintive (Adjective) : Sounding sad, especially in a weak complaining way.
17. Number (Noun) : A song.
18. Maiden (Noun) : A young girl or woman who is not married.
19. Sickle (Noun) : A tool with a curved blade and a short handle saythe
20. Mount (Verb) : To go up something.

1. Behold her. ....................... with the sound.
The poet sees a Highland girl in the field. This girl is reaping the crop and singing to
herself. The poet likes this scene. He says to the passers-by either to stop there quietly
or to pass from there without making the least noise. The girl is cutting and binding the
crop alone and also singing a song. This song is of sad nature. But the poet likes it very
much and wants everybody to listen to it. The song is also echoing in the valley.
2. No Nightingale ....................... farthest Hebrides.
The poet thinks that even the nightingale famous for its singing to the tired travellers in
the Arabian desert when they take rest at an Oasis, cannot sing better than this girl.
The singing of the girl is also better and more thrilling than the Cuckoo-bird which sings
in the spring season and then breaks the silence of the seas among the faraway Hebrides.
3. Will no one tell ................................. may be again ?
The poet is unable to understand the language in which the girl is singing. He does not
know the theme of the song and wants somebody to tell him the theme. He thinks that
the song is about old, unhappy incidents or of some battles in the past. The song can
also be about some familiar matter related to the life of the girl. The song may also be
about some natural sorrow, pain or loss which has happened to her.
4. Whateer the theme ..................... heard no more.
The poet does not think too much about the theme of the song. He is enjoying the song
heartily. The poet thinks that there is no end to the girls singing as if she will never stop
singing. He watches her singing and using the sickle to do her work at the same time in
the field. The poet says that he listened to her song without making any kind of move-
ment and noise. When the poet went up the hill he says that, he still remembered the
music of the song which that highland girl sang. The poet also says that he will always
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remember her singing.
2.2.3 Summary
The poet is wandering aimlessly on his way when suddenly sees a highland girl alone in
the field. The girl is reaping the crop and singing a song to herself. The poet likes her singing
very much. He tells the people passing from there not to disturb her in her singing. He wants the
people to stop where they are or to pass from there very quietly. There is nobody with the girl
and she is cutting and binding the grain all alone. The poet observes that the song which she is
singing is full of sorrow and melancholy. The girl is standing in the valley and her song is
resounding through the deep valley.
The poet feels that the girls song is very sweet. He finds her song sweeter than the
song of the nightingale. The poet says that the nightingales song gives relief and happiness to
the travellers in the Arabian deserts when they stayed on Oasis. The poet feels the girls song
is thrilling also. He says that he has never listened to a more thrilling song than this. He even
finds the girls song more thrilling than the song of the cuckoo bird. The cuckoo bird sings her
songs in spring time over the silent seas of the faraway Hebrides.
The problem with the poet is that he is unable to understand the girls song. He does
not know the language in which she is singing. He wants somebody to tell him the meaning of
the song. But there is nobody around to tell him. Therefore, the poet himself begun to guess the
meaning or theme of the song. According to him, the song may be about some old, unhappy
incidents or of battles of the past. It may also be about a matter familiar to the girl. It can also
be about some natural sorrow, loss or pain which has happened to her in the past.
The poet is unable to know the theme of the girls song. But he is not worried about it.
He is still enjoying the song. It seems to the poet that the girl will not stop singing. Her song will
never end. She will continue to sing forever. The poet watches the girl singing and doing her
work. He stands there without making any kind of movement. He also listens to her song
without making any kind of noise. He does not want to disturb the girl. When the poet went up
the hill, he could not hear the girls song. But the poet says that he can still hear the sweetness
and melody of the song in his memory. He is sure that he will never forget it.
2.2.4 Critical appreciation

In this poem Wordsworth has beautifully described the life in a countryside, a girl
cutting the crop while singing. He has used the language of the common man to describe the
country life. The poet sees a highland girl working alone in the field, reaping the crop and
singing a melancholy song to herself. The poet immediately feels attracted towards this beau-
tiful song. Although he is unable to understand the language of the song but even then he is
enjoying the music of the song. The poet loves the girls singing so much that he compares it
with that of a nightingale and a cuckoo bird. Both these birds are well known for their singing
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abilities but the poet thinks that the girl was singing sweeter and better than these two birds. He
does not want to disturb the girl in her singing. He says to the passers - by either to stop there
or to pass away from there without making any kind of disturbance. He himself is listening to
the song silently while standing still. As the poet is not sure of the theme of the song, he imagines
that the song could be about some old, unhappy incidents or about the battles of the past. The
song could also be about some familiar matter related to the girls life, or it could also be
related to some natural sorrow, loss or pain which must have happened to the girl before. This
shows the love of past which is a characteristics feature of the romantic poetry. For the poet to
enjoy the music of the song is more important than knowing the theme of the song. He is not
concerned about the theme. It seems to him that there is no end of the girls singing and she will
continue to sing forever. At the end of the poem, the poet says that he knows he will not get a
chance to listen to this song again. But even then he will remember her singing. It is impossible
for him to forget that singing. He will always remember it.

1. When was this poem first published ?
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2. When was this poem written ?
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3. What is the theme of this poem ?
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4. What are the other things with which the poet compares the solitary girls singing and
why does he do so?
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5. According to the poet what can be the theme of the girls singing ?
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6. The poet says about the possible themes of the girls song. Do these themes suggest
the romantic nature of the girls song.
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Q.7 Why does the poet think that the girls song will have no ending?
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1. This poem was first published in 1807.
2. This poem was written between 1803-1805
3. The theme of this poem is solitude and the bond between man and nature.
4. The singing of the girl is compared with a nightingale and a cuckoo bird which are well
known for their extraordinary singing. He does so to suggest that the girls singing was
sweeter than that of the two birds.
5. According to the poet the song could be about some old, unhappy incidents or about
some battles of the past. It could also be related to some familiar matter common to
the girls life. The song could also be about some natural sorrow, loss or pain which
could have happened to the girl in the past.
6. Yes these themes suggest the romantic nature of the girls song. These themes show
the love of past which is a characteristic feature of the romantic poetry.
7. The poet thinks that the girls song will have no ending because he says that he will
never be able to forget this song. This song will always remain in his mind and heart.
Thus he will enjoy it every time.
2.3 The Poem: The World is Too Much With Us

The world is too much with us; late and soon,
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Getting and spending, we lay waste our powers;
Little we see in Nature that is ours;
We have given our hearts away, a sordid boon !
This sea that bares her bosom to the moon;
The winds that will be howling at all hours,
And are up-gathered now like sleeping flowers;
For this, for everything, we are out of tune;
It moves us not. Great God ! Id rather be
A Pagan suckled in a Creed out worn;
So might I, standing on this pleasant lea,
Have glimpses that would make me less forlorn;
Have sight of Proteus rising from the sea;
Or hear old Triton blow his wreathed horn.
2.3.1 Glossary
1. Sordid (Adjective) : Immoral, Unpleasant.
2. Boon (Noun) : Something that is very helpful and make life blissful.
3. Bare (Verb) : To remove or uncover the cloths from something
4. Bosom (Noun) : Breast
5. Howling (Adjective) : Very violent, with strong winds.
6. Gather (Verb) : To bring things together
7. Out of tune (Idiom) : To have / not have the same interests, feelings etc.
8. Pagan (Noun) : A person whose religious beliefs are contrary to those of Christianity;
an idol worshipper.
9. Creed (noun) : A set of principles or religious beliefs.
10. Outworn (Adjective) : Old fashioned and no longer useful.
11. Lea (Noun) : An open area of land covered in grass.
12. Glimpse (Noun) : A look of somebody / something for a very short time.
13. Proteus (Noun) : Sea god in Greek mythology.
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14. Triton (Noun) : Son of Poseidon and Amphitrite in Greek mythology.
15. Wreathe (Adjective) : Having curves in it
2.3.2 Stanza-wise summary

1. The world is too much ..................................... It moves us not.
In these lines the poet says that man is wasting his powers in earning and spending of
money. He does not love and respect nature anymore. Now a days the only purpose
of his life is to earn and spend money, as much as he can. Man has lost his ability to
enjoy the beauty of nature. The beautiful scenes like moonlight falling on the sea and
the blowing of the wind does not attract him. He has completely forgotten the pleasure
and joy which he had when he used to respect and love nature.
2. Great God .......................... his wreathed horn.
The poet is against this attitude of man. He is very unhappy. He prays to God and says
to him that he would prefer to become Greek Pagan instead of remaining a Christian
after looking at the money-minded attitude of the people of the earth. As a Pagan he
would respect and love nature. He would enjoy the beauty of nature. He would watch
the grass lands, Proteus, the sea god in Greek mythology rising from the sea and
Triton, the son of Poseidon and Amphitrite blowing his horn to calm down the angry
waves of sea. These scenes would immediately fill his heart with joy.
2.3.3 Summary
The poet says that the people of this world have become money minded. Their only
aim of life is to earn money and then to spend it. They care only to earn lots of money and then
to spend it in whatever way they like. In this way they are wasting away there spiritual powers.
They are getting away from nature and are now a days unable to enjoy the beauty of nature.
According to the poet nature should be very important for their lives. The people have become
too money-minded and they do not find beauty and peace in nature. They have given there
hearts to the god of wealth which is not good. According to the poet, people have lost their
capacity to enjoy the beauty of nature. The beautiful scene of moonlight falling on the surface of
the sea does not attract their attention to it. The wind which blows very strongly in the day
making lot of noise but when the night comes it becomes calm and blows lightly. But they do
not find these beautiful scenes pleasurable. For us there is nothing special in these scenes. They
have no interest left in those natural scenes. The beauty of nature does not fill their heart with
pleasure and joy anymore.
The poet is not at all happy with this attitude of people towards nature. He does not
like it. He is very sad. He wants people to respect and love nature. He prays to God that he
would like to become a Greek Pagan. As a Pagan he would worship nature. He will live in
19
nature and will be happier than what he now is. He will also watch the Proteus, the sea god in
Greek mythology, rising from the sea. He will also hear the Triton, the son of Poseidon and
Amphitrite, blowing his horn to calm down the angry sea waves. In this respect the Greek
paganism was better than Christianity that has made people money-minded.

The title of the sonnet The Word is Too Much With Us gives an idea about the theme
of the sonnet. In this sonnet, Wordsworth tells us about mans love for money which is hardly
useful for his life. The poet says that now a days man gives all importance to money only. All the
other things for him are less important. Even nature which used to be very beautiful for him
does not attract him. But in the past it was not like this. In the past man used to enjoy the
beauty of nature. He used to enjoy very much the scene of moonlight falling on the surface of
the sea. But in the present time he does not enjoy this also. He also used to love the thrilling
sound of the wind in the day time and the light wind blowing at night. But today he does not feel
attracted towards these scenes. These beautiful scenes of nature have no importance left for
man. Now he does not like the beauty of nature. The poet is not happy with this change in man.
According to the poet, man has started worshipping money instead of nature. The poet does
not like it. The poet wants man to love nature more. The poet also wants man to respect
nature. According to the poet, if man loves nature he will become happier and will be closer to
God. His life will also become better. He will feel happier more, peaceful and more satisfied.
But now a days man has forgotten his love for nature. He does not remember the joy he used
to have when he used to love and enjoy nature. But the poet still wants to love and enjoy
nature. So he prays to God that he would prefer to be Pagan to his remaining a Christian. A
Pagan is a person whose religion is not Christian. The poet also says that if he becomes a
Pagan, he will enjoy freely the beauty of nature. This will make him feel happy. The poet also
tells about his love for nature gods in Greek mythology. The poet says he will then be able to
see Proteus who in Greek mythology is a sea god. He will watch him rising from the sea. The
poet will also watch Triton who is the son of Poseidon and Amphitrite in Greek mythology.
Triton had the ability to calm down the angry waves of the sea by blowing his horn. In this way,
the poet will be able to live in nature and will be happier than what he is today in the company
of the money minded people..

Q.1. When was the poem first published ?
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Q.2 What is the theme of this poem ?
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Q.3. According to the poet, why can man not enjoy the beauty of nature anymore?
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Q.4 What is now the aim of mans life?
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Q.5 Why does the poet want to be a Pagan ?
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Q.6 What is that wealth that nature can give to man ?
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1. This poem was first published in 1807.
2. The theme of this poem is mans love for money against his respect and love for nature.
3. According to the poet, man cannot enjoy the beauty of nature anymore because he
gives more importance to money than anything else.
4. To earn and spend money as much as possible has become the aim of mans life.
5. The poet wants to be a pagan because then he can live in nature and enjoy its beauty
freely.
6. Naturemakesmancontent,peaceful.Throughnaturemanlearnstobehappy.
21
2.4 Let Us Sum Up
In this unit you were able to understand wordsworth his creative process. His belief
Poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings and how nature has always influ-
enced and inspired him.

1. Write a critical note on The Solitary Reaper.
2. Critically appreciate Wordsworth love for nature in The World is too much with
us.
2.6 Bibliography
1. Francis Austin, The Language of Wordsworth and Coleridge (1989)
2. Basil Willey, The Eighteenth Century Background (1940)
3. Jonathan Wordsworth, Michael C. Jaya, Robert Woof, William Wordsworth and the
Age of English Romanticism, (New Brunswick and London, 1987)
4. Cazamian, Louis, The Romantic Period. A History of English Literature, Part II,
Book V,1947.
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22
UNIT - 3
COLERIDGE : FROST AT MIDNIGHT
Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 About the Poet
3.3 The Poem: Frost at Midnight
3.4 Paraphrase of the Poem.
3.7 Answers to SAQs
3.7 Let Us Sum Up
3.9 Bibliography
3.0 Objectives
In this unit you will study:-
About one of the famous romantic poets Coleridge
The main characteristics of a romantic poem
The famous poem Frost At Midnight and ,
How to read a poem and appreciate it.
3.1 Introduction
The poem was written in the year 1798 at Stowey and printed with other poem Fear
in Solitude and France: An Ode .The poem is written in a contemplative mood. The writers
thoughts wander back to his own past or are projected forward to the future of his little son,
Hartley Coleridge. The stillness of the night is maintained throughout the poem and nowhere
does any violence of thought disturb the quiet of the night or the harmony of the poets mind.
The poem reflects Wordsworthian influence in the sense that it reveals his belief in Pantheism.
23
3.2 About the Poet
Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834) was born in Ottery St Mary, Devonshire, as
the youngest son of the Vicar of Ottery St Mary. After his fathers death, Coleridge was sent
away to Christs Hospital School in London. He also studied at Jesus College. In Cambridge
Coleridge met the radical, future poet laureate Robert Southey. He moved with Southey to
Bristol to establish a community, but the plan failed. In 1795 he married the sister of Southeys
fiance Sara Fricker, whom he did not really love.
Coleridges collection Poems On Various Subjects was published in 1796, and in
1797 appeared Poems. In the same year he began the publication of a short-lived liberal
political periodical The Watchman. He started a close friendship with Dorothy and William
Wordsworth, one of the most fruitful creative relationships in English literature. The outcome
of this friendship was Lyrical Ballads, which began Romanticism in English Poetry. It opened
with Coleridges Rime of the Ancient Mariner and ended with Wordsworths Tintern Abbey.
These poems set a new style by using everyday language and fresh ways of looking at Nature.
Disenchanted with political developments in France, Coleridge visited Germany in
1798-99 with Dorothy and William Wordsworth, and became interested in the works of
Immanuel Kant. He studied philosophy at Gttingen University and mastered the German
language. At the end of 1799 Coleridge fell in love with Sara Hutchinson, the sister of
Wordsworths future wife, to whom he devoted his work Dejection: An Ode (1802). During
these years Coleridge also began to compile his Notebooks, recording the daily meditations
of his life. In 1809-10 he wrote and edited with Sara Hutchinson the literary and political
magazine The Friend. From 1808 to 1818 he gave several lectures, chiefly in London, and
was considered the greatest of Shakespearean critics. In 1810 Coleridges friendship with
Wordsworth came to a crisis, and the two poets never fully returned to the relationship they
had earlier.
Suffering from neuralgic and rheumatic pains, Coleridge had become addicted to taking
opium. During the following years he lived in London, on the verge of commithing suicide. He
found a permanent shelter in High Gate in the household of Dr. James Gillman, and enjoyed an
almost legendary reputation among the younger Romantics. During this time he rarely left the
house.
In 1816 the unfinished poems Christabel and Kubla Khan were published, and
next year appeared Sibylline Leaves. According to the poet, Kubla Khan was inspired by
a dream vision. His most important production during this period was the Biographia
Literaria(1817). After 1817 Coleridge devoted himself to theological and politico-sociological
works. Coleridge was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of Literature in 1824. He died
Highgate, near London on July 25, 1834.
24
3.3 The Poem : Froast at Midnight
The Frost performs its secret ministry,
Unhelped by any wind. The owlets cry
Came loud, -and hark, again! loud as before.
The inmates of my cottage, all at rest,
Have left me to that solitude, which suits
Abstruser musings: save that at my side
My cradled infant slumbers peacefully.
Tis calm indeed! so calm, that it disturbs
And vexes meditation with its strange
And extreme silentness. Sea, hill, and wood,
With all the numberless goings-on of life,
Inaudible as dreams! the thin blue flame
Lies on my low-burnt fire, and quivers not;
Only that film, which fluttered on the grate,
Still flutters there, the sole unquiet thing.
Methinks its motion in this hush of nature
Gives it dim sympathies with me who live,
Making it a companionable form,
Whose puny flaps and freaks the idling Spirit
By its own moods interprets, every where
Echo or mirror seeking of itself,
And makes a toy of Thought.
But O! how oft,

How oft, at school, with most believing mind,
Presageful, have I gazed upon the bars,
To watch that fluttering stranger! and as oft
25
With unclosed lids, already had I dreamt
Of my sweet birthplace, and the old church-tower,
Whose bells, the poor mans only music, rang
From morn to evening, all the hot Fair-day,
So sweetly, that they stirred and haunted me
With a wild pleasure, falling on mine ear
Most like articulate sounds of things to come!
So gazed I, till the soothing things, I dreamt,
Lulled me to sleep, and sleep prolonged my dreams!
And so I brooded all the following morn,
Awed by the stern preceptors face, mine eye
Fixed with mock study on my swimming book:
Save if the door half opened, and I snatched
A hasty glance, and still my heart leaped up,
For still I hoped to see the strangers face,
Townsman, or aunt, or sister more beloved,
My playmate when we both were clothed alike!
Dear Babe, that sleepest cradled by my side,

Whose gentle breathings, heard in this deep calm,
Fill up the interspersed vacancies
And momentary pauses of the thought!
My babe so beautiful! it thrills my heart
With tender gladness, thus to look at thee,
And think that thou shalt learn far other lore,
And in far other scenes! For I was reared
In the great city, pent mid cloisters dim,
And saw nought lovely but the sky and stars.
26
But thou, my babe! shalt wander like a breeze
By lakes and sandy shores, beneath the crags
Of ancient mountain, and beneath the clouds,
Which image in their bulk both lakes and shores
And mountain crags: so shalt thou see and hear
The lovely shapes and sounds intelligible
Of that eternal language, which thy God
Utters, who from eternity doth teach
Himself in all, and all things in himself.
Great universal Teacher! he shall mould
Thy spirit, and by giving make it ask.
Therefore all seasons shall be sweet to thee,

Whether the summer clothe the general earth
With greenness, or the redbreast sit and sing
Betwixt the tufts of snow on the bare branch
Of mossy apple-tree, while the nigh thatch
Smokes in the sun-thaw; whether the eave-drops fall
Heard only in the trances of the blast,
Or if the secret ministry of frost
Shall hang them up in silent icicles,
Quietly shining to the quiet Moon.
3.4 Explanation and Critical Notes

Ministry- function, to do or accomplish ones work
Presageful- Expectant or anticipation.
Stranger-The word is used for that film. There was a superstition that whoever saw this film at
night would receive a visit from a friend or a relative in the course of the next day.
Whose bells, the poor mans only music all the hot Fair dayThe bells
27
of the church used to ring throughout the day when there was a fair in the village. The
sound of the bells was the only music which the poor villagers could enjoy.
Haunted-echoed in his ears.
Articulate-distinct; full of meaning.
Vexes- troubles, disturbs.
Populous- densely populated
Clothe-cover
Tufts- bunches; clusters of snowflakes
In a great city-London
Cloister dim-The dim and dark walks of school or college.
Nought- nothing; clothe-cover. Tufts-bunches; clusters of snowflakes
Sun thaw-snow melting in the sun; eves- drop-drop of rain water;
Trance- intervals. Blasts- storm. Icicles- frozen drops of water
Falling on mine ears most like articulate sounds of things to comeThe music of the
bells was not without meaning. As it fell in the poets ears, it seemed to give him an intimation
of future events. In other words, the music of church bells used to stir in him a vague sense of
coming events.
But ! how oft .. most like articulate sounds of things to come!
(Lines 24-33)When the poet was still a student at Christs Hospital, he often used to look
at the bars of the grate to catch sight-of that film. He had been given to understand that the
sight of a fluttering film on the grate was an omen indicating the arrival of some friend or relative
in the course of the following day. Therefore he used to be anxious to catch sight of the film
because that would mean that some relative would come to see him at school on the following
day. Whenever he gazed at the fire, he was reminded of his native place from where a relative
could be expected to come. The thought of his native place brought to his mind the village
church, which in its turn, reminded him of the church bells which used to ring all the day long on
the occasion of a fair and the sounds of which were the only music which the poor villagers
could afford to enjoy. The music of the church bells was, indeed, very sweet and thrilling to
him in his childhood and it used to stir in him vague intimations of coming events.
Christs Hospital was the name of a charity school in London. It was also known as
the Bluecoat School because its pupils wore blue coats. This school was founded by Edward
VI. In this school were educated Coleridge, Charles Lamb, and Leight Hunt.
(Lines 35-44)So gazed I, till the soothing things prolonged
my dreams !The poet used to keep gazing at the grate. He would, on these occasions,
28
think of sweet things connected with his native village. The pleasing memories of his village
used to send him to sleep, and in his sleep he would see dreams of his native place. In other
words, the memories of his native place continued to visit his mind during his sleep in the form
of dreams.
And so I brooded all the following morn ..swimming
Bookthroughout the next morning at school, he continued thinking of his native
place and waited for the visitor and guests from there.
Interspersed- in between, intervals
3.5 Complete Paraphrase

Lines 1-7. The frost is performing its function invisibly. No wind is blowing to help the frost.
The loud cry of the owlet is being heard at intervals. All the inmates of my cottage are
asleep. I am quite awake except that my little child is sleeping peacefully in a cradle by
my side. This solitude is favourable to philosophical thinking.
Lines 8-15. There is perfect silence all around. Indeed, this silence is so complete as to disturb
ones thinking. Sea, hill, wood, this village with its all inhabitants and its numerous
activities and occupationsthese are all silent like dreams. The thin blue flame of the
fire, which has burnt itself low, is quite motionless. The only active thing here is that film
which has been quivering on the grate and which is still quivering there.
Lines 16-23. The movement of that film, in the midst of the complete silence all around,
connects with me because I, too, am awake. There is a vague bond between me and
the film because both of us are active or awake. Thus the film is a sort of companion
for me. In this mood of idle thinking I interpret the irregular movements or fluttering of
the film according to my own moods or whims. Thus my mind seeks everywhere a
reflection of itself and. plays with ideas as one plays with a toy.
Lines 24-35. When I was a student I, often used to look at the bars of the grate because I
believed that if I could see the fluttering film there, it would indicate the arrival of some
friend or relative the next morning. Every time at the thought or sight of that film I used
to see in my imagination my sweet native-place with its old church-tower whose bells
rang from morning to evening on the hot fair-day. These church bells provided to the
poor villagers the only music that they could ever hear. As for me, the sweet music of
the church bells aroused a passionate joy in me and seemed to be a prophecy of future
events. Thus, as a boy at schoo1, used to look fixedly at the film and imagine sweet
things till I fell asleep, and in my sleep I saw equally sweet dreams.
Lines 36-43. The next morning, on waking up, my mind would still be occupied with thoughts
of home and some relative who might come to see me. Being afraid of the stern teacher,
I used to keep looking at the book as I sat in the class-room, pretending to read; but
29
my mind used to be elsewhere. The words in the book used to be only dimly visible
to me through my tears. Every time somebody half opened the door of the class-
room, I looked hastily, and wit1 a hopeful heart, for some visitora townsman, an
aunt or a beloved sister, a play-mate of my younger days, when both she and I were
clothed in similar garments.
Lines 44-53. My dear child, sleeping in the cradle by my side! the sound of your gentle
breathing is clearly audible to me in this deep silence, and it fills up the short intervals
between the various thoughts that are coming into my mind. You are a lovely little child
and as I look at you, my heart is filled with deep love and joy. Your education and your
bringing will be of a different kind from mine. I was brought up in the great city of
London in the midst of congested houses and buildings where I could see nothing
beautiful except the sky and stars.
Lines 54-64. But you, my little son, will wander freely like the wind along lakes and sandy
sea-shores, under the immemorial rocks and mountains, and below the clouds which
in their immensity represent or symbolize the vast lakes, oceans and mountains. In this
way you will see the beautiful objects of Nature and hear the meaningful sounds of the
everlasting language of God who from the beginning of the universe has always revealed
himself in all objects of Nature. Nature is the supreme teacher of mankind and will
give the right shape to your character and personality, and you will be so influenced by
Nature as to seek her company still more.-
Lines 65-74. (As a result of your constant contact with Nature) you will love all seasons. You
will love the summer when the earth is all covered with green verdure. And you will
love the winter when the red-breast sits and sings among the snow-flakes on the
leafless branches of an apple-tree all overgrown with moss, while vapours are seen
rising from the roof of a nearby cottage when the snow on it is melting in the heat of
the sun; You all also love the time when rain-drops fall from the eaves and their sound
is heard only in the silent intervals and pauses of the storm, and when, as a result of
frost invisibly forming itself, the water-drops become frozen and are seen shining silently
in the light of the silent moon.
3.6 Critical Summary

The poem is a picture of an evening spent by the poet by his fireside on a frosty night.
The first stanza builds up the atmosphere of the night when complete silence prevails, broken
only by the occasional cries of the owlet. The frost is settling invisibly and there is no breeze.
The poet sits alone by the side of his little son sleeping peacefully in a cradle. As he was sitting
beside the fire, at the low-burnt fire, he sees a fluttering film on the grill. He feels that there is
a bond of sympathy between him and that film. He interprets the movements and fluttering of
the film according to his own changing thoughts and fancies. The poet is here indirectly expressing
the belief that outward objects merely reflect or mirror our own thoughts and moods.
30
The sight of the fluttering film reminds the poet of his school-days and he becomes
reminiscent. He recalls that whenever at school he saw that film on the grate, he superstitiously
believed that a friend or a relative would come to see him from his native place. The thought of
his native village with the bells ringing all the hot fair-day was sweet to him. He also remembers
that, when he sat in the class-room pretending to study his book, he was all the time expecting
some dear relative or friend to arrive. There is an element of autobiographical sense which
gives us a glimpse into the school-life of Coleridge at Christs Hospital where he had been a
student.
In the next passage the poet addresses his son, Hartley Coleridge. He makes a plan
about his babys future. While he was himself brought up in the suffocating atmosphere of
London, he would put this baby into close contact with Nature. The baby will wander like a
breeze in natural surroundings and will see the lovely objects, as well as hear the sweet sounds,
of Nature. The boy will grow up under the benevolent and educative influence of Nature. He
will learn a lot in the company of Nature. His believes that God reveals himself through Nature
and thus God will mould the character of the baby through the medium of Nature. These lines
contain the belief that is called pantheism, namely the belief that the Divine Spirit pervades all
objects of Nature and that God reveals himself through Nature. These lines were written under
the influence of Wordsworth.
The poem ends with striking pictures of summer and winter. The child will grow to love
all seasonswhether summer covers the whole earth with green grass and green plants, or the
redbreast sits on an apple-tree singing its wintry song in the midst of snow-flakes, or the drops
of water falling from the roofs of cottages freeze into icicles shining quietly in the light of the
quiet moon.
3.7 Humphry House on Frost at Midnight

The Unity and Design of the poem Frost at Midnight is one of the finest short poems
in the language. I think it is much loved; it is certainly much praised: but even so I doubt
whether it is adequately appreciated as the perfectly achieved work of art which it is. It has
suffered even more than other poems from piecemeal handling; it is so exceedingly quotable
for extraneous reasons. Either for biographical purposes- to illustrate Coleridges boyhood at
Christs Hospital, where he saw nought lovely but the sky and stars ; or to illustrate his life in
the little cottage on the street Nether Stowey, where it was written ; or to illustrate Hartleys life
because of the prophecies about him contained in it : or else for expository purposesto
show the development of Coleridges attitude to Nature or his skill in describing its details
the poem has been lovingly dissected, and for many readers lost.
What makes Frost at Midnight an achieved artistic whole is the design and the
organization in the movement of the thought.
The centre is the Ego, the 1the seeing, remembering, projecting mind - man
31
sitting in a cottage-room at night. From the room the mind moves out, by stages, first to the
physical context of weather and sound, then to the village, then to the worldall the numberless
goings-on of life. Next with a swift contracting transition, unexplained, in the middle of a line
(1.13) it comes again to the fire. The movement of the film on the grate suggests the very kind
of movement which the mind itself is here makingthe idling spirit by its own moods interprets.
But the film, the fluttering stranger sets the mind oft again outside, now backwards in
time, through memory. And in the schoolboy reminiscence the same process happens again
that has already happened in the cottage. From Christs Hospital the boys mind goes back
and outwards to Ottery; then forwards and outwards to.: the possible visitor who might come
to take him out from school. Just as the poem as a whole is anchored to the original cottage
room with the low burnt firea phrase which comes centrally in the first paragraphso the
Christs Hospital paragraph is anchored in the central phrase which produces the image of the
schoolboy
Awed by the stern preceptors face, mine eye
Fixed mock study on my swimming book.
From the memory of school the mind next comes back to the cottage room, by
comparison between the two childhoods the London schoolboy (Coleridge) seeing nought
lovely but the sky and stars and Hartley (the poets son) to see everything that Nature has to
give.
This leads into the short passage of six lines on the Theistic Metaphysics (Pantheism)
of Nature. More is not necessary for this includes and justifies the whole poem. God is
Himself in all, and all things in himself.
The quiet transition to the last passage is one of the most beautifully effective things in
the whole poem. It returns to the opening context of seasons, and sounds through the imagining
of Hartleys future, and comes round fully at the end to the secret mimicry of frost and the
quietness of the winter night with which it began.
Not only do the movements of the mind give the poem its design and unity, but the
poem as a whole leaves us with a quite extraordinary sense of minds very being in suspense,
above time and space; the mind with all its power of affection and memory, and its power of
reading Nature as the language of God.
The predominant emotion is the deep, tender affection for the child.
Not only is the ending one of the finest pieces of short descriptive writing in the language,
intricate yet at the same time sparsely clear, compressing so much of the moods of various
weathers; but it is also perfectly rounds the movement of the mind which has been the poems
theme.
32
1. How did the poet Coleridge find the atmosphere of the poem Frost at Midnight in
consonance to his mood?
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2. What does the fluttering of the film on the grate remind the poet of ?
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3. Why does the poet want to up bring up his son in the company of nature? What is the
name his son ?
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4. Write a critical appreciation of the poem, Frost at Midnight.
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5. Discuss Frost at Midnight as an autobiographical poem.
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3.9 Answers to SAQs

1. The contemplative mood of the poet throughout is in perfect harmony with the
surroundings in which the poet is sitting. The complete silence of the atmosphere is in
consonance to his contemplative mood. He interprets the movements and fluttering of
33
the film according to his own changing thoughts and fancies. The poet is here indirectly
expressing the belief that outward objects merely reflect or mirror our own thoughts
and moods.
2. The fluttering of the grate foretells the arrival of certain visitors.
3. The poet wants to bring up his son in the company of nature because of its educative
and moral influence. He will learn a lot in the company of Nature. His believes that
God reveals himself through Nature and thus God will mould the character of the baby
through the medium of Nature. The boy will grow up under the benevolent and educative
influence of Nature.
4. The poem Frost at Midnight was written in the year 1798 at Stowey and printed with
other poem Fear in Solitude and France: An ode. The poem is written in a contemplative
mood. The writers thoughts wander back to his own past or are projected forward
to the future of his little son, Hartley Coleridge. The stillness of the night is maintained
throughout the poem and nowhere does any violence of thought disturb the quiet of the
night or the harmony of the poets mind.
3.10 Let Us Sum Up

In this unit we have studied:
about one of the pioneer poets of the Romantic Age;
the main characteristics of a Romantic poem; and
the critical appreciation of the prescribed poem.

1. Discuss Frost at Midnight as an autobiographical poem.
2. What qualities of Coleridges poetry are to be found in Frost at Midnight?
3.12 Bibliography
1. Humphry House: Coleridge (The Clark Lectures, 1951-1952)
2. J.R.de.J.Jackson (Ed.) Coleridge: The Critical Heritage
3. Legouis and Cazamian: A History of English Literature
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34
UNIT - 4
COLERIDGE: DEJECTION: AN ODE
Structure
4.0. Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 About the Poet
4.3 The Poem: Dejection: An Ode
4.4 Paraphrase of the Poem.
4.7 Answers to SAQs
4.8 Let Us Sum Up
4.10 Bibliography
4.0 Objectives
In this Unit you will study:-
about one of the famous romantic poets, Coleridge;
the main characteristics of a romantic poem;
the interpretation and appreciation of the poem; and
various figures of speech used in the poem.
4.1 Introduction
In the winter of 1801-02, the two causes of Coleridges unhappiness, opium and
domestic discord, worked havoc with him and brought him to despair. The wings of poesy
were broken, as he realized. Meanwhile, Wordsworth was in high poetic activity, health forward-
looking and happy. On April 4, 1802 when William and Dorothy were on a visit to Keswick,
and could judge for themselves of Coleridges misery, he composed, in part at least, the poem
Dejection, which is a confession of his own failure, and one of the saddest of all human
utterances. But it is a glorious thing, too ; its attitude is that of a stricken runner who sinks in the
race but who lifts up his head and cheers the friend who strides onwards and his generosity is
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itself a triumph. On October 4, 1802, the poem was printed in the Morning Post. It is an ode
in form only; in contents it is a conversation. It is not an address to Dejection, but to William
Wordsworth. As printed in the newspaper, it purports to be directed to someone named
Edmund in Coleridges editions of his collected works this name is changed Lo Lady; but in
the three extant early manuscripts the word is sometimes William and sometimes Wordsworth.
In this sublime and heart-rending poem, Coleridge gives expression to an experience of double
consciousness. His sense perceptions are vivid and in part agreeable; his inner state is faint,
blurred, and unhappy. He sees, but cannot feel. The power of feeling has been paralyzed by
chemically-induced excitement of his brain. The seeing power, less dependent upon bodily
health, stands aloof, individual, critical and very mournful. By seeing he means perceiving
and judging; by feeling he means that which impels action. He suffers, but the pain is dull, and
he wishes it were keen, for so he should awake from lethargy and recover unity at least. But
nothing from outside can restore him. The sources of souls life are within. Even from the depth
of his humiliation and self- loathing, he ventures to rebuke his friend for thinking it can be
otherwise; William, with his belief in the divinity of Nature, his confidence that all knowledge
comes from sensation, his semi-atheism, as Coleridge had called this philosophy
O William! we receive but what we give,
And in our life alone does Nature live.
In every other respect, Coleridge venerates him and humbles himself before him.
Wordsworth, pure at heart, that is to say, still a child of Nature, and free, has not lost the
birthright of joy, which is the life-breath of poetry. But oh! groans Coleridge,1 have lost my gift
of song, for each affliction:
4.2 About the Poet

Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834), English lyrical poet, critic, and philosopher,
whose Lyrical Ballads,(1798) written with William -Wordsworth, started the English Romantic
Movement.
Samuel Taylor Coleridge was born in Ottery St Mary, Devonshire, as the youngest
son of the Vicar of Ottery St Mary. After his fathers death Coleridge was sent away to
Christs Hospital School in London. He also studied at Jesus College. In Cambridge Coleridge
met the radical, future poet laureate Robert Southey. He moved with Southey to Bristol to
establish a community, but the plan failed. In 1795 he married the sister of Southeys fiance
Sara Fricker, whom he did not really love.
Coleridges collection Poems On Various Subjects was published in 1796, and in
1797 appeared Poems. In the same year he began the publication of a short-lived liberal
political periodical The Watchman. He started a close friendship with Dorothy and William
Wordsworth, one of the most fruitful creative relationships in English literature. From it resulted
Lyrical Ballads, which opened with Coleridges Rime of the Ancient Mariner and ended
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with Wordsworths Tintern Abbey. These poems set a new style by using everyday language
and fresh ways of looking at nature.
The brothers Josiah and Thomas Wedgewood granted Coleridge an annuity of 150
pounds, thus enabling him to pursue his literary career. Disenchanted with political developments
in France, Coleridge visited Germany in 1798-99 with Dorothy and William Wordsworth, and
became interested in the works of Immanuel Kant. He studied philosophy at Gttingen University
and mastered the German language. At the end of 1799 Coleridge fell in love with Sara
Hutchinson, the sister of Wordsworths future wife, to whom he devoted his work Dejection:
An Ode (1802). During these years Coleridge also began to compile his Notebooks, recording
the daily meditations of his life. In 1809-10 he wrote and edited with Sara Hutchinson the
literary and political magazine The Friend. From 1808 to 1818 he gave several lectures,
chiefly in London, and was considered the greatest of Shakespearean critics. In 1810
Coleridges friendship with Wordsworth came to a crisis, and the two poets never fully returned
to the relationship they had earlier.
Suffering from neuralgic and rheumatic pains, Coleridge had become addicted to taking
opium. During the following years he lived in London, on the verge of committingsuicide. He
found a permanent shelter in Highgate in the household of Dr. James Gillman, and enjoyed an
almost legendary reputation among the younger Romantics. During this time he rarely left the
house.
In 1816 the unfinished poems Christabel and Kubla Khan were published, and
next year appeared Sibylline Leaves. According to the poet, Kubla Khan was inspired by
a dream vision. His most important production during this period was the Biographia
Literaria(1817). After 1817 Coleridge devoted himself to theological and politico-sociological
works. Coleridge was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of Literature in 1824. He died in
Highgate, near London on July 25, 1834.
4.3 The Poem: DEJECTION: AN ODE

I
Well! If the Bard was weather-wise, who made
The grand old ballad of Sir Patrick Spence,
This night, so tranquil now, will not go hence
Unroused by winds, that ply a busier trade
Than those which mould yon cloud in lazy flakes,
Or the dull sobbing draft, that moans and rakes
Upon the strings of this Aeolian lute,
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Which better far were mute.
For lo! the New-moon winter-bright!
And overspread with phantom light,
(With swimming phantom light oerspread
But rimmed and circled by a silver thread)
I see the old Moon in her lap, foretelling
The coming-on of rain and squally blast.
And oh! that even now the gust were swelling,
And the slant night-shower driving loud and fast!
Those sounds which oft have raised me, whilst they awed,
And sent my soul abroad,
Might now perhaps their wonted impulse give,
Might startle this dull pain, and make it move and live!
II
A grief without a pang, void, dark, and drear,

A stifled, drowsy, unimpassioned grief,
Which finds no natural outlet, no relief,
In word, or sigh, or tear -
O Lady! in this wan and heartless mood,
To other thoughts by yonder throstle wooed,
All this long eve, so balmy and serene,
Have I been gazing on the western sky,
And its peculiar tint of yellow green:
And still I gaze -and with how blank an eye!
And those thin clouds above, in flakes and bars,
That give away their motion to the stars;
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Those stars, that glide behind them or between,
Now sparkling, now bedimmed, but always seen:
Yon crescent Moon, as fixed as if it grew
In its own cloudless, starless lake of blue;
I see them all so excellently fair,
I see, not feel, how beautiful they are!
III
My genial spirits fail;
And what can these avail
To lift the smothering weight from off my breast?
It were a vain endeavour,
Though I should gaze forever
On that green light that lingers in the west:
I may not hope from outward forms to win
The passion and the life, whose fountains are within.
IV
O Lady! we receive but what we give,
And in our life alone does Nature live:
Ours is her wedding-garment, ours her shroud!
And would we aught behold, of higher worth,
Than that inanimate cold world allowed
To the poor loveless ever-anxious crowd,
Ah! from the soul itself must issue forth
A light, a glory, a fair luminous cloud
Enveloping the Earth -
And from the soul itself must there be sent
A sweet and potent voice, of its own birth,
Of all sweet sounds the life and element!
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V
O pure of heart! thou needst not ask of me
What this strong music in the soul may be!
What, and wherein it doth exist,
This light, this glory, this fair luminous mist,
This beautiful and beauty-making power.
Joy, virtuous Lady! Joy that neer was given,
Save to the pure, and in their purest hour,
Life, and Lifes effluence, cloud at once and shower,
Joy, Lady! is the spirit and the power,
Which wedding Nature to us gives in dower,
A new Earth and new Heaven,
Undreamt of by the sensual and the proud -
Joy is the sweet voice, Joy the luminous cloud -
We in ourselves rejoice!
And thence flows all that charms or ear or sight,
All melodies the echoes of that voice,
All colours a suffusion from that light.
VI
There was a time when, though my path was rough,
This joy within me dallied with distress,
And all misfortunes were but as the stuff
Whence Fancy made me dreams of happiness:
For hope grew round me, like the twining vine,
And fruits, and foliage, not my own, seemed mine.
But now afflictions bow me down to earth:
Nor care I that they rob me of my mirth;
But oh! each visitation
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Suspends what Nature gave me at my birth,
My shaping spirit of Imagination.
For not to think of what I needs must feel,
But to be still and patient, all I can;
And haply by abstruse research to steal
From my own nature all the natural man -
This was my sole resource, my only plan:
Till that which suits a part infects the whole,
And now is almost grown the habit of my soul.
VII
Hence, viper thoughts, that coil around my mind,
Realitys dark dream!
I turn from you, and listen to the wind,
Which long has raved unnoticed. What a scream
Of agony by torture lengthened out
That lute sent forth! Thou Wind, that ravst without,
Bare crag, or mountain-tairn, or blasted tree,
Or pine-grove whither woodman never clomb,
Or lonely house, long held the witches home,
Methinks were fitter instruments for thee,
Mad Lutanist! who in this month of showers,
Of dark-brown gardens, and of peeping flowers,
Makst Devils yule, with worse than wintry song,
The blossoms, buds, and timorous leaves among.
Thou actor, perfect in all tragic sounds!
Thou mighty poet, een to frenzy bold!
What tellst thou now about?
Tis of the rushing of an host in rout,
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With groans, of trampled men, with smarting wounds -
At once they groan with pain, and shudder with the cold!
But hush! there is a pause of deepest silence!
And all that noise, as of a rushing crowd,
With groans, and tremulous shudderings -all is over -
It tells another tale, with sounds less deep and loud!
A tale of less affright,
And tempered with delight,
As Otways self had framed the tender lay -
Tis of a little child
Upon a lonesome wild,
Not far from home, but she hath lost her way:
And now moans low in bitter grief and fear,
And now screams loud, and hopes to make her mother hear.
VIII
Tis midnight, but small thoughts have I of sleep:
Full seldom may my friend such vigils keep!
Visit her, gentle Sleep! with wings of healing,
And may this storm be but a mountain-birth,
May all the stars hang bright above her dwelling,
Silent as though they watched the sleeping Earth!
With light heart may she rise,
Gay fancy, cheerful eyes,
Joy lift her spirit, joy attune her voice;
To her may all things live, from pole to pole,
Their life the eddying of her living soul!
O simple spirit, guided from above,
Dear Lady! friend devoutest of my choice,
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Thus mayst thou ever, evermore rejoice.
Suspends what Nature gave me at my birth,

My shaping spirit of Imagination.
His own race prematurely ended, he passes the torch to the survivor
Dear William, friend devoutest of my choice,
Thus mayst thou ever-more rejoice!
4.4 Paraphrase of the Poem

Stanza 1 (Lines 1-20)
Well! If the poet, who wrote the grand old ballad of Sir Patrick Spence, was correct
in his forecast of weather, this night, which is so calm at this time, will not pass without being
disturbed by winds which are more active than those which have broken up that cloud into
slow-moving fragments or than the dull, melancholy breeze which is producing mournful sounds
and which gently touches the strings of this lute on which the god of wind is playing and which
should have been silent. For behold! the new moon is wintry bright. It is covered by a pale
ghostly light which seems to be floating over it. But the moon has an edge of a silvery color all
around it. I see the old moon in the lap of the new, and it foretells the coming of rain and a
storm which will blow furiously. And, oh ! already is the wind developing into a storm and rain
has started falling in a slanting direction. The rain drops are falling rapidly and are producing a
loud sound. The sounds of the rain and the storm have often raised my spirits in the past,
though at the same time they created a terrifying impression on me and sent my mind wandering
out of doors.. It is possible that these sounds might produce in me their customary thrill. They
might awaken this pain which benumbs me and might lend some movement to it.
Mine is a grief which does not cause any piercing sensation. It is empty, thick, and dull.
It is a suppressed, sleepy kind of grief that causes no excitement and that finds no natural outlet
or relief in words, or sighs or tears. 0 Lady ! I have been gazing on the western sky and its
peculiar hue of yellow green throughout this evening which was so peaceful and sweet, and I
have been in a cheerless and spiritless mood. The song of the throstle singing over there has
been inducing in me thoughts of other things. And I am still gazing (at the sky), and I am doing
so perfectly with vacant eyes. I am gazing at those thin clouds which appear in fragments and
which, here and there, look like parallel lines. Although it is the clouds that are moving, it
appears as stars behind them are in motion. The stars appear to be floating behind clouds and
sometimes between the clouds. When stars are not screened by the clouds, they look bright;
43
when the clouds cover them, their light becomes dim, but they continue to be visible even then.
The thin semi circular over there seems to be fixed, as if it has its roots in that portion of the
blue sky where there are neither clouds nor stars. I see all these objects of Nature looking so
beautiful and lovely.
Stanza 3
The poet says that he has lost all happiness and joys of life and his spirits are now
dropping. The beautiful objects of nature can not even make him forget the sorrows of his life.
Even if the poet was to keep gazing for ever at the beautiful green light that seems to stay on in
the western sky, it would be a futile effort because he would not draw any comfort from it. The
heart itself is the real source of excitement and animation. When the inner source of excitement
and animation has dried up, he cannot expect to experience these feelings by gazing at the
beauty of the external objects.
Stanza 4
O Lady! We get from Nature what we have transferred to it from our own hearts.
Nature seems to be full of life, because our heart is full of joy and happiness. It is our own
mood that is reflected in the nature. Nature cannot make us sad or happy. It is lifeless and
cold. The human being themselves has to send whatever they want to receive from nature.
Stanza 5
O pure hearted lady, you need not ask me what is the nature of this powerful and
sweet voice in the soul is purest moments of life.. It is the essence of life and issues forth from
the vitality of human being. Only the purest-hearted people are the recipients of this unique, gift
of Nature, namely joy. This joy enables them to see a new earth and a new heaven which the
vulgar and the proud persons cannot even dream. Of. Joy is .the source of that sweet Voice;
joy is .the source of that bright light It is because of the joy in our own hearts that We feel
happy. All the sweet sounds that delight the ear and all the beautiful sights which delight, the
eyes flow from that joy in our hearts. All music is an echo of that sweet voice (the source of
which is the joy in our hearts), and all beautiful paintings are a. reflection of that light (which
flows from the joy in our own hearts).
Stanza 6
There was a time when, though there were difficulties in my way, the joy in. my heart
enabled me to make light of my suffering. In those days, even my misfortunes served merely as
material, for my fancy to weave visions of delight. That was the time when hope grew around
me like a climbing plant around a tree. The pleasure even of hopes which did not belong to me
seemed in those days to be my own (just as the leaves, and fruits of a plant growing around a
tree seem to belong to the tree itself). But now the sorrows of life have crushed me and
brought me from the upper regions down to the earth. Nor do I feel sorry that these misfortunes
deprive me of my joy. But what grieves me is that each fit of depression renders my inborn gift
44
of the creative power of imagination inoperative. All that I can do now is to remain silent and
patient under the stress of my incapacity to give poetic expression to my , deepest feelings.
The gift of poetic imagination with which I was endowed by Nature is .being suppressed by
my Philosophical and metaphysical tendencies. The gift of poetic imagination was my only
treasure in life, the only quality on which my, life was based But my metaphysical tendencies
which were only a part of my mental make-up have weakened and crushed my real nature
which was poetically constituted. Now metaphysical thinking has taken almost complete
possession of my soul and become a habit of the land.
0 poisonous thoughts which have enveloped my mind and which are like a fearful
dream reality! I dismiss you. I turn my attention from you and listen to the wind which has
been raging without my having taken any notice of it. The sound produced by the wind striking
the strings of the lute is like the prolonged scream of a human being who is being tortured and
who cries in. his agony. You wind, who are blowing furiously outside, it would be, much better
if you, instead of playing upon the. lute, were to blow against bare rock, a mountain lake,
alighting-struck tree, a high .pine grove where no woodman has ever set foot, or a lonely
house which has long been believe&tc be haunted by evil sprits. Youre a reckless musician
playing upon the lute. The sounds that you are producing are worse than those which are
heard during the bleak months of winter. It seems as if you are celebrating a devils Christmas
among the blossoms, buds, and tremulous leaves in this rainy season when the gardens look
dark-brown and the flower peep from behind the leaves. You are an actor, able to reproduce
fully all Sounds of pain and suffering. You are like a powerful poet. You can blow with great
fury, thus emulating a frenzied poet. What sounds are you producing now? You are producing
sounds similar to those produced by the panicky retreat of a defeated army, with cries of pain
of trampled men with painful wounds, groaning in pain and at the same time shuddering with
cold.
But now there is a pause. There is a brief interval of the deepest possible silence. All
that noise, similar to the sounds of a retreating army, with the groans, trembling and shuddering
of trampled soldiers, has ended: Now the wind produces different sounds, sounds which are
less deep and less loud, and which express less of fear and something of delight. These sounds
are like the pathetic poem written by Thomas Otway about a lost girl roaming about on a
lonely stretch of territory, not far from home. The wind produces sometimes sounds of bitter
grief and fear and sometimes it screams aloud like that lost girl who hoped that her mother
would hear her cries and come to her rescue.
It is mid-night, but I have almost no thought of sleeping. May my friend have such
experiences of sleeplessness only rarely! May soothing sleep descend upon her and make
her forget her worries! May this storm be only a kind of mountain-birth!
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May all the stars shine brightly above her house and continue shining in silence as if
they were watching the sleeping earth! May she get up from bed with a care-free heart! May
she feel happy and bright and may her eyes express a cheerful mood! May her spirits be raised
by joy and may her voice be sweetened with happiness! May all living creatures from one end
of the world to the other dedicate their existence to her! May their existence become a vital
force to add to the energy of her spirit 0 dear and simple-hearted Lady! May you be guided
by heaven! You are the most faithful friend of my choice. May you feel happy for ever and
ever!

The poet sees the old moon in the lap of the new and this, according to an old belief,
foretells the coming, of rain and a furious storm. In a few moments the wind actually develop
into a storm and rain starts falling with a loud sound, The sounds of rain and storm have often
in the past raised the poets spirits, though at the same time they filled him with awe. He
welcomes the rain and the storm now because it is possible that their sounds might awaken his
dull pain and make it move and live.
The poet then describes the kind of grief that has been weighing upon his heart. It is a
dark, dear, drowsy and unimpassioned grief. Although the poet has been gazing at the western
sky and its peculiar hue of yellow green throughout the peaceful and balmy evening, he has
been in a cheerless and spiritless mood. He has watched the beauty of the clouds and the stars
but he has not been able to feel that beauty because of the grief that has taken a firm hold on
his mind. The poet laments of all happiness and joy in his life. His spirits are drooping. All the
beautiful objects of Nature are unable to remove the weight of this grief from-his heart. Indeed,
it is not from external objects that happiness can flow to a mans heart. The heart itself is the
real source of animation and excitement. When this inner source of animation and excitement,
had dried up, a man cannot expect to experience these feelings by gazing at the beauty of
external objects.
Addressing his wife Sara, the poet says that we get from Nature what we give to
Nature. Nature seems to be full of life because we ourselves endow it with life. In our life alone
does Nature live? If we find Nature to be in a joyful or festive mood, it is because we are
ourselves in that mood. If we find Nature in a mood of mourning, it is because we are ourselves
in that mood. The objects of Nature themselves are cold and lifeless. If we want to see anything
noble or sublime in Nature, our own souls must send forth a light, a lustre, or a radiance to
envelop the objects of Nature. Our own souls must send forth a sweet and potent voice which
will endow the sounds of Nature with sweetness and power. This light or this glory which our
souls can send forth is not only beautiful in itself but it enables us to create beautiful things also.
The Source of this light or glory is joy in the heart. This joy is given by Nature to pure-hearted
persons only. All the sweet sounds that delight the ear, and all the beautiful sights that delight
the eyes, flow from the joy in our hearts. All music is an echo of that sweet voice, the source of
46
which is the joy in our hearts, and all beautiful paintings are the reflection of the light which
flows from the joy in our hearts.
The poet then recalls the time in his past life when, though there were difficulties in his
way, the joy in his heart enabled him to make light of his distress. In those days even his
misfortunes served as material for his fancy to weave Visions of delight. That was the time of
hopefulness. But now the sorrows of life have crushed him. But it is not the loss of his joy that
makes him sad. What grieves him is the decline and the weakening of his inborn gift of the
creative power of imagination. His mind is now chiefly occupied with metaphysical speculation
which tends to suppress his poetic imagination. Metaphysical thinking has taken almost complete
possession of his soul and is crushing his poetical powers.
The poet then dismisses the depressing thoughts that have been haunting his mind, and
turns his attention to the storm that has been raging outside. Hearing the sound produced by
the wind blowing against the strings of the lute, he feels that it is like the prolonged scream of
a human being who is being tortured and who cries in his agony. He thinks that it would have
been much better if the wind, instead of playing upon the lute, were to blow against a bare
rock, a mountain lake, a lightning-struck tree, a high Pine-grove, or a lonely house haunted by
evil spirits. It seems - to him that the wind is celebrating a devils Christmas. He addresses the
wind as an actor and as a mighty poet who can reproduce kinds of tragic sounds. The sounds
that the wind is producing are compared by the poet to those produced by the panicky
retreat a defeated army and to the cries of pain uttered by trampled men groaning in their pain
and shuddering with cold. Then there is a pause, a brief interval at deep silence. This pause is
followed again by sounds which are this time less deep and less loud than before. These
sounds are compared by the poet to the pathetic poem written by Thomas Otway about a lost
child some-times crying in bitter grief and fear and sometimes screaming aloud in the hope that
its mother would come to its rescue.
It is midnight, says the poet, but there seems to be little possibility of his falling asleep.
He would not like his beloved wife to have such an experience of sleeplessness. He would like
her to enjoy a sound sleep and to forget her worries. He ends the poem with a prayer for her
happiness, and joy.

1. What does the appearance of the new moon in the lap of old moon signify?
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2. Why is the poet in a mood of dejection?
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3. To whom does the poet address the second stanza of the poem?
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4. What is the conviction of the poet in the poem about Nature?
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5. Write a critical appreciation of the poem.
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4.7 Answers to SAQs

1. The appearances of the new moon in the lap of old moon signify the coming of rain
and a furious storm. In a few moments the winds actually develop into a storm and rain
starts falling with a loud sound.
2. The poet is in a dejected mood because he fears that he has lost his creative faculty.
3 The poet addresses his wife Sara in the second stanza of the poem.
4. The poet says that nature is inanimate and it reflects our mood only. If we are in a
cheerful mood, we will find nature also in harmony with our mood. If we are sad and
dejected then the whole nature also appears gloomy to us.
5. Critical Appreciation of the poem- The Poem Ode to Dejection, is a confession of
the poet Coleridges failure, and one of the saddest of all human utterances.The poem
is written in the year 1802, in a way it is considered to be a swan song .In the poem
Coleridge laments the loss of his creative imagination and also mourns his moral and
spiritual loss. It is a deeply personal and autobiographical poem which depicts the
poets mental state at the time. It records a fundamental change in his life and is a
lament on the decline of his creative imagination.
The Quality of the Poets Grief- Coleridge at this time felt that his inborn gift of
imagination was decaying and that his interest was shifting to philosophy. In other
words, he found that he was becoming more and more of a philosopher or thinker and
less and less of a poet. This change greatly distressed him. He was grief-stricken at the
thought that his interest in abstruse research was crushing his poetic talent. The poem
is an expression of that grief-
A grief without a pang, void, dark, and
A stifled, drowsy. unimpassioned grief,
Which finds no natural outlet, no relief,
In word, or sigh, or tear
Seldom has grief found such tragic expression as in this poem which has been called
the poets dirge of infinite pathos over the grave of creative imagination. The poem
proceeds with an ever- deepening sadness, each stanza charged with heavy gloom.
49
Sadder lines than these were never perhaps written by any poet in description of his
own feelings. It is much sadder and more tragic than Shelleys Stanzas Written in a
Near Naples.
Attitude to Nature- A very important point about this poem is that Coleridge here
contradicts his own previous view of Nature, thus challenging Wordsworths Nature-
creed also. In The Eolian Harp and Frost at Midnight, Coleridge had expressed a
belief in pantheismthe view that Nature is a living whole, that a Divine Spirit passes
through all objects of Nature, that man can establish a spiritual intercourse with Nature,
and that Nature exercises an ennobling and educative influence upon man. But in this
poem, Coleridge completely denies this belief. Here he asserts that Nature has no life
of her ownthat it is we who attribute life to her
0 Lady! We receive but what we give
And in our life alone does Nature live
Ours is her wedding garment, ours her shroud.
No longer can Coleridge gain from Nature the- joy used to give him because he has no
joy in his heart to meet half-way. He has discovered that Nature can give no joy to
these who have no joy already in their hearts.
Joy, Lady ! is the spirit and the power
Which wedding Nature to us gives in dower
Imagery- The ode contains some very vivid and concrete imagery. The poet sees the
new-moon winter bright with the old moon in her lap ; the swelling storm with night-
shower falling loud and fast ; the stars gliding behind or between the stars
I see the old Moon in her lap, foretelling
The coming-on of rain and squally blast.
And oh! that even now the gusts were swelling,
And the slant night-shower driving loud and fast!
More vigorous and forceful are the lines where the sounds of the storm are compared
first to the rushing of a defeated army, with groans of trampled and wounded men and
then to the alternate moaning and screaming of a frightened child who has lost its way
home:
What tellst thou now about?
Tis of the rushing of an host in rout,
With groans of trampled men, with smarting
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At once they groan with pain, and shudder cold
Here in these lines also he has used beautiful imagery-
Tis of a little child
Upon a lonesome wild,
Not far from home, but she hath lost her way;
And now moans low in bitter grief and fear,
And now screams loud, and hopes to make her mother hear.
Nor are these the only pictures in the poem. We have also the images of the storm
raging over a rock or a tree, a pine-grove or a haunted house, and of its celebrating
the Devils Christmas in the month of showers, of dark-brown gardens, and of peeping
flowers.
Note of Tenderness- The poet ends on a note of tenderness for his wife. He prays
to sleep to visit his beloved. May she rise with light heart, gay fancy, cheerful eyes!
These are the only lines which to some extent lighten the heavy gloom of the whole
poem.
Interesting points of comparison and contrast at once occur to us between this ode
and Wordsworths Ode on the Intimations of Immortality. As in Wordsworths
poem, we have here the poets reference to his past joy and a description of his
present mood of grief. There was a time when even misfortunes an aspect of happiness,
but now had afflictions bow me down to earth. These lines also remind us of similar
lines in Shelleys Ode to the West Wind-
If even I were as in my boyhood, and could be
The comrade of thy wanderings over Heaven
I fall upon the thorns of life! I bleed
In Wordsworths ode, grief finds relief and ends in joy ; in Coleridges poem grief finds
no relief and ends in dejection. It is morning in Wordsworths Ode, midnight in
Coleridges. In the former and it is May and the sun shines warm ; in the latter it is the
month of showers.
4.8 Let Us Sum Up

In this unit we have studied
about one of the pioneer poets of the Romantic Age
the main characteristics of romantic poem, and
51
the critical appreciation of the poem prescribed.

1. Trace the autobiographical elements in Dejection : an Ode.
2. What attitude to Nature does Coleridge express in The de to Dejection. Give reasons
for your answer.
4.10 Bibliography
1. Humphry House: Coleridge (The Clark Lectures, 1951-1952)
2. J.R.de.J.Jackson (Ed.) Coleridge: The Critical Heritage
3. Legouis and Cazamian: A History of English Literature
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52
UNIT-5
LORD BYRON: ALL FOR LOVE,
ON THE CASTLE OF CHILLON,
THERE BE NONE OF BEAUTYS DAUGHTERS
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 About The Age
5.3 About The Author
5.4 The Poem: All For Love
5.4.1 Glossary
5.4.2 Explanation
5.4.4 Answers SAQs
5.5 The Poem: On The Castle of Chillon
5.5.1 Glossary
5.5.2 Explanation
5.5.4 Answers SAQs
5.6 The Poem: There be None of Beautys Daughters
5.6.1 Glossary
5.6.2 Explanation
5.6.4 Answers SAQs
5.7 Let Us Sum Up
5.9 Bibliography
53
5.0 Objectives
After going through this unit, you will be able to understand
the Age of Byron
aspects of Byrons Poetry
and the meanings of Words used in the Poems.
5.1 Introduction
In this unit you are going to study three poems written by Byron. These are All For
Love , On The Castle of Chillon and There be None of Beautys Daughter. This will enable
you understand the style of Byron. This unit will also make you familiar with the age of Byron.
The poems will be explained to you; this will enable you to understand them fully. Questions
will be given and we are sure you can find their answers in the text provided to you.
5.2 About the Age

George Gordon Byron (called Lord Byron), John Keats and Percy Byshe Shelley
belong to the second generation of Romantic Poets. Their works exhibit passion and revolu-
tionary zeal. These three writers offer many points of close resemblance. Hence they are often
studied together. Byron was born on the eve of the French Revolution and Shelley and Keats
were born shortly after that. The situation in England was one of unrest. Agricultural England
was giving way to Industrial England. Revolutionary ideas generated by the French Revolution
were passionately accepted by some and denounced by others. Political unrest was prevalent
in the whole of Europe. Despite that utilitarian philosophy progressed. This philosophy was
popularized by Jeremy Bentham who believed in the concept of the greatest happiness of the
greatest number. Liberalism was advocated. The middle class began to have a realistic out-
look. Literature reflected the intensity of the period and the works of these writers were in a
sense representative of the times.
The Lake Poets (William Wordsworth, S.T. Collridge and Robert Southey) were
called the first generation of Romantic Poets. If they set the trend of poetry writing in England,
the second generation of poets carried it further. Keats, Shelley and Byron freed poetry from
all its restraints. They formed a group by themselves. The intensity of their art was understood
by the elite. Byron crossed the boundaries of his country and conquered Europe with his fiery
imagination. Keats and Shelley also won name and fame in the continent.
The period after the French Revolution is called the post Revolutionary era. Byrons
was the most articulate voice of this era. He expressed the spirit of the age along with Keats
and Shelley The other well known writer was Sir Walter Scott. Scott was an immensely
learned man: he had translated works of Goethe and some German ballads. Scottish history
often finds place in his works. His characters are often shaped by the environment they are in.
54
Byron was very much influenced by Scotts works. Both Byron and Shelley (1792-1822) had
a low view of public applause and they had a distaste for the British Establishment. John Keats
(1795-1921) was much influenced by poets both living and dead.
This period also saw the birth of some famous essayists. One such essayist was Wil-
liam Hazlitt (1780-1830) who along with Coleridge is one of the famous literary critics of this
age. Hazlitt won fame also as a critic of Shakespeare and Elizabethan Drama. Hazlitts friend
Elia Charles Lamb (1775-1834) was also an essayist of great repute. Lamb enjoyed Eliza-
bethan and Jacobean drama. His essays (written under the name of Elia) reveal a Londoners
pleasure with the streets and institutions of London and the attachment to a countryside situ-
ated at a distance from the town. Another famous writer of this age was Thomas De Quineey
(1785-1859) whose most celebrated work was The Confessions of an English Opium
Eater.
The Romantics Wordsworth, Coleridge, Southey, Keats, Shelley and Byron defy defi-
nition. Their poetry has imaginative spontaneity, and elements of wonder. They reacted against
classical standards of balance, order, restraint, proportion and objectivity. The polished wit of
the Augustans appeared to the Romantics as shallow and artificial. The Romantics heightened
in their works the dignity and simplicity of rural life. Emotions like joy, dejection, rapture,
horror were heighlighted by the Romantics.

George Gorden, Lord Byron was born in 1788 in London. He became the sixth
Baron of Rochdale in 1798. He went to Trinity College, Cambridge in 1805 and left it in 1807.
His first collection of poems Hovr of Idleness was published in 1807. This work was bitterly
criticized by Henry Poter, Baron Brougham (1778-1868) and this provoked Byron into writ-
ing English Bards and Scotch Reviewers in 1809. In 1809 Byron took his seat in the House
of Lords and between 1809 and 1811 he visited Portugal, Spain, Malta, Greece and the
Levant, he wrote a number of poems and a couple of dramas.
Byrons first successful literary production was Childe Harold published in two can-
tos in 1812. In 1813 The Bride of Abydos and The Giaour were published. In 1814 he
wrote two other literary pieces The Corsair and Lara. In 1815 Hebrew Melodies ap-
peared. In 1816 Byron and his wife were separated and Byron went to Geneva where he
stayed with Shelley.
Byrons works Parisina, Childe Harold Cantos III and IV and The Prisoner of
Chillon were published in 1816. In 1817 he wrote Manfred and the Lament of Tasso after
seeing Tassos call in Rome. Between 1818 and 1819 Byron wrote Don Juan Cantos I,II and
III. In 1820 The Prophecy of Dante was written and in 1821 the Vision of Judgement was
published. It is interesting to note that Byron had a revolutionary zeal within him. He formed
the Byron Brigade at Missolonghi and gave large sums of money to the Greeks in their war
for independence. In 1824 Byron died at Missolongh.
55
Byron had a number of affairs with women. Therefore his poetry was condemned on
moral grounds. Byron was unique among Romantic poets in that he respected the neoclassi-
cal poets and sought to some degree, to emulate them. Most Romantic poets sought to over-
turn the old conventions and create new poetry based on creativity and individualism. Byron
used diverse verse structrures, but he, like Pope and Dryden, wrote satires about society and
other poets.
5.4 The Poem : All For Love

O TALK not1 to me a name great2 in story;
The days of our youth3 are the days of our glory,
And the myrtle4 and ivy5 of sweet two-and-twenty 6
Are worth all your laurels 7 though ever so plenty.
What are garlands and crowns to the brow that is wrinkled ?8
Tis 9 but as a dead flower with May-dew 10 besprinkled:11
Then away with all such from the head that is hoary 12
What care for the wreaths 13 that can only give glory ?
O Fame14 ! -if I eer 15 took delight in thy 16 praises,
Twas less for the sake of they high-sounding phrases,
Than to see the bright eyes of the dear one discover
She thought that I was not unworthy 17 to love her,
There chiefly 18 I sought 19 thee,20 there only I found thee;
Her glance was the best of the rays that surround 21 thee;
When it sparkled 22 oer 23 aught 24 that was bright in my story,
I knew it was love, and I felt it was glory.25
5.4.1 Glossary
1. Do not tell me
2. famous
3. being young early poet of life
4. kinds of plant
5. climbing evergree plant with shining leaves
56
6. at the age of twentytwo
7. praises leaves as symbol of victory or poetic merit
8. a slight line or fold in something, especially fabric or the skin of the face
9. It is
10. dew drops in the month of May
11. sprinkle all over with small drops or amounts of a substance
12. having grey or white hair (an old person)
13. flowers, leaves woven together into ring for weaving or head
14. Personifies Fame (as if Fame is a living being)
15. ever
16. your
17. not worthy (but here the use of double nagetive means that he was fit to love her,
worthy to love her)
18. mainly
19. looked for
20. you
21. all round or on all sides
22. glowed
23. over
24. anything
25. beauty
5.4.2 Explanation
Lord Byron addresses this poem to beauty and love. The best days of a persons life
are the days of his youth. A young man does not wish to hear of names famous in stories. The
young man feels proud and happy to be young. He feels that laurels, garlands and crowns that
are given to famous people are like dead flowers on which dew drops have fallen. He does not
attach importance to these things, these crowns which can only give fame, but which fail to
understand the joy and love that is there in the hearts of the youth.
The poet has personified fame and has directly addressed fame. Young men take
delight in becoming famous not because of being praised in high sounding words. Young men
57
take delight in becoming famous so that they may see the glows in their belovedss eyes. On
becoming famous a young man gains credibility (be comes worthy) in the eyes of the beloved.
That is the reason why a young man longs to gain fame(wants to become famous). The bright
eyes of the beloved will discover that he is worthy to love her.
Fame is sought mainly in the eyes of the beloved. When her eyes sparkled with love, it
was worth being famous. On seeing the joy and glow in her eyes, the young man realises that
it was worth everything. He realises what is it to be in love and to be surrounded in the beauty
of love.

1. Why does the poet not wish to hear the names of people famous in stories ?
.............................................................................................................................
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.............................................................................................................................
2. With what does he compare garlands and crowns ?
.............................................................................................................................
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3. Why does he want to become famous ?
.............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
4. Why is the poet happy ?
.............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................

1. The poet does not wish to hear the names of people famous in stories because he
thinks that the best part of a persons life is his youth. He wishes to hear about the
activities of young people.
2. He compares garlands and crowns to dead flowers on which dew drops have settled.
3. He wants to become famous because then his beloved will think that he is worthy to be
58
loved.
4. The poet is happy when he sees the glow of love in the eyes of the beloved.
5.5 The Poem : On The Castle of Chillon

Eternal spirit1 of the chainless 2 mind !
Brightest in dungeons,3 Liberty, thou4 art-
For there thy5 habitations6 is the heart-
The heart which love of Thee7 alone can bind,
And when thy sons to fetters 8 are consignd 9

To fetters, and the damp 10 vaults 11 dayless 12 gloom,13
Their country conquers 14 with their martyrdom15,
And Freedoms fame 16 finds wings on every wind.
Chillon17 ! thy prison is a holy place18
And thy sad floor19 an altar,20 for t21 was trod22,
Until his23 very steps have left a trace24
Worn25 as if thy cold pavement26 were a sod,27

By Bonnivard 28! May none those marks efface.29
For they appeal from tyranny30 to God.
5.5.1 Glossary
1. Spirit that lives forever (here the reference is to liberty/freedom)
2. Mind that cannot be bound or chained
3. underground cell for prisoners.
4. You (old English: a form of addressing someone)
5. Your (old English)
6. dwelling, place where one stays
7. you (old english)
8. chains
59
9. hand over, commit
10. wet
11. cellar, a large room especially an underground one to keep prisoners in
12. where daylight does not enter
13. dark, not cheery
14. wins
15. death
16. name
17. Chillon-name of a castle (Chateau) in Switzerland. Prisoners who were supporters of
Liberty were kept here in the damp vaults. These vaults or cellars or dungeons were at
a semi-sub-lake level: that is why these cellars were always damp/wet.
18. a place of worship: prisoners fighting for liberty died here.
19. unhappy ground because freedom fighters died here.
20. a flat table like block to make offerings to god.
21. it was
22. past participle of tread; walked upon in a specified way.
23. Bonnivard
24. mark
25. exhausted, damaged, weakened, wasted in strength due to being chained
26. wet ground
27. surface of the ground, with the grass growing on it.
28. A great man who fought for the freedom of his country. In the castle of Chillon, Bonnivard
was chained to a pillar for six years in the 1530s. The place he was chained was a
semi-sub-lake level dungeon. In 1816 Lord Byron came to the Castle of Chillon and
saw the place where Bonnivard was imprisoned.
29. wipe out
30. Cruelty, unreasonable behaviour
5.5.2 Explanation
In this poem Byron personifies Liberty. Liberty will live forever and people will die or
60
give up their lives fighting for liberty. Liberty cannot be chained; liberty resides in the hearts and
minds of freedom fighters. Liberty shines brightly even in the dungeons, the dungeons where
prisoners fighting for liberty were kept. No tyrannical chains can bind the hearts of prisoners;
their heart can only be chained by liberty.
Oh liberty when your sons are bound by chains and locked in damp, dark, gloomy
vaults, their country wins battles in their names and with their sacrifices. Lord Byron wishes to
emphasize that the sacrifices of these martyrs are much appreciated by their countrymen. Even
the wind helps to spread the names of the martyrs who gave up their lives fighting for freedom.
Byron personifies Chillon: the prison where prisoners were kept is indeed a holy place.
People will come from far and near to worship the very floor on which prisoners ceaselesely
walked. Bonnivard, the great freedom fighter, walked on these floors for six years. He become
feeble and weak because he was chained to a pillar for six years. He walked on these wet
floors and his very steps seemed to have left a mark on the floors. The floors have become
holy due to the sacrifies of prisoners like Bonnivard. Lord Byron, the poet hopes that no one
wipes out the marks of these prisoners. for these marks will remind the viewer (who goes to
visit the castle) and the reader (one who will read this poem) of the cruel and unreasonable
imprisonment of these men. God alone was a witness to their sufferings.

1. Where is Chillon situated ?
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2. Name the Eternal Spirit.
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3. Who was Bonnivard ?
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4. For how many years was Bonnivard imprisoned ?
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5. Why is Chillon called a holy place?
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1. Chillon is situated in Switzerland. Here there is a big castle and prisoners were kept in
this castle.
2. Liberty.
3. Bonnivard was a freedom fighter. He was chained and kept in the dungeon of the
castle of Chillon for six years in the 1530s.
4. Bonnivard was imprisoned for six years in the 1530s in the castle of Chillon.
5. Chillon is called a holy place because a number of men died here fighting for the
cause of liberty and freedom. Since these men became martyrs,this is a holy place.
5.6 The Poem : There be None of Beautys Daughters

There be none of Beautys1 daughters
With a magic2 like thee3;
And like music on the waters
Is thy4 sweet voice to me:
When as if its sound were causing
The charmed oceans5 pausing,6
The waves lie still and gleaming,
And the lulld winds7 seem dreaming:8
And the midnight moon is weaving
Her bright chain oer the deep,9
Whose breast is gently heaving10
As an infants asleep:
62
So that spirit bows before thee
To listen and adore thee;
With a full but soft emotion,
Like the swell of Summers ocean11
5.6.1 Glossary
1. Beauty, an abstract noun, has been personified. Beauty is supposed to be a mother
who has a number of daughters.
2. Magic-Charm
3. Thee-You(None of beautys daughters have the charm that you have. Here you
refers to Augusta Leigh, Byrons step-sister)
4. Thy-Your
5. Charmed Ocean-As if the ocean has been bewitched, hypnotised
6. gleaming-shining
7. lulld winds- as if the winds have been put to sleep by the music of your voice
8. weaving-make fabric out of inter lacing threads also, to move from side to side
9. deep-ocean
10. heaving-rising gently
11. Summers Ocean-ice melts during summer and the beauty of the ocean is normally
noticed.
5.6.2 Explanation
Lord George Gordon Byron came from a noble family, but his childhood days were
not happy. He went to Trinity College Cambridge. He published his first collection of poems in
1808. Byrons relationship with his half-sister (step sister) Augusta Leigh, gave rise to scandal
and gossip.It is said that this poem was written by Byron in honour of Augustas beauty.
Byron feels that Beautys daughters do not have the charm of Augusta. Augusta is very
beautiful and Beautys daughters do not have the charm that Augusta has. Augustas beauty
has powers of attracting people to her. Her voice is extremely musical. When water flows, one
notices that water creates its own music. Augustas voice is as soothing as the music of the
waters. The very oceans seem bewitched by the sound of music. (Here there is a double
meaning. Augustas voice is extremely musical and one is taken in or hypnotised by her voice.
The music of the waters has its own charm, and one can get carried away by it. But in any case
the music of Augustas voice and the sound of music of the waters both are very enticing) The
63
very waves of the ocean are calmed down by the musical quality of Augustas voice. Even the
minds are lulled to sleep on hearing this music. The winds are put to sleep, and in their sleep,
the winds seen to be dreaming.
Since the waves of the ocean are gently moving, it seems that the moonlight falling on
the waves is also moving. The light of the moon seems to be weaving a bright chain round the
ocean. The moon light seems to have encircled the ocean. As the waves keep rising and falling,
it appears that the ocean is breathing. The oceans gentle breathing can be compared with the
breathing of an infant (a baby) who is fast asleep.
The spirit of the poet and also the spirit of the world bows before the beauty of Au-
gusta. The spirit adores you, worships you and loves to listen to the music of your voice. The
heart (of the poet /admirer) is full of emotions which are extremely tender and soft. Just as the
oceans during the summer months swell due to ice melting, similarly does the heart of the poet
swell with soft emotions for his beloved. These emotions are extremely soft and tender. (Note:the
poet thinks that his beloved is the most beautiful lady in the world and no one can be compared
to her beauty.)

1. Is the ocean bewitched ? (under some magical spell ?)
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2. What is the wind doing ?
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3. What is the moon doing ?
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4. With whom has the poet compared the oceans sleep ?
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1. The ocean appears to be under some magical spell (bewitched) on hearing the musical
voice of the poets beloved. The musical sound seems to make the ocean pause. The
beloveds voice has this hypnotic effect.
2. Even the wind, on hearing the musical voice of the beloved, is lulled sleep. The wind
then begins to dream.
3. The moon seems to be weaving a chain round the ocean. The moons light seems to
fall in such a way that one gets the impression that the moon is making or forming a
chain round the ocean.
4. The oceans sleep has been compared with that of a baby. Just as a baby breathes
gently when it is fast asleep, similarly, is the ocean breathing gently while sleeping. (The
ocean has been personified, as if it is a living being.
5.7 Let Us Sum Up

In this unit you have read three poems written by Lord Byron. One poem is about
love, about the joy in a young mans heart when he sees the glow of love in his beloveds eyes.
The second poem is about the love for liberty and freedom. Men will willingly die for liberty.
They will give up their lives so that their country may gain freedom.In the third poem he eulo-
gizes the beauty of his half sister Augusta Leigh.These poems give you an idea of Byrons style.
Byron was a great supporter of liberty. The poems have been explained for you. Word mean-
ing have also been given. After going through this unit, you have become familiar with the age
of Byron and finer aspects of Byrons poetry.

1. Discuss the Poem On the Castle of Chillon as representative of Byrons genius.
2. Give an account of Byrons view of liberty and freedom as revealed in his poems.
3. Write a short appreciative note on There be none of Beautys Daughters.
5.9 Bibliography
1. A.Rutterford. Byron: A Critical Study. Edinburgh, 1961.
2. Boris Ford (ed.) From Blake to Byron. Penguin,1982.
3. M.K.Joseph. Byron the Poet. London,1964.
4. http://www.literature classic.com
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UNIT 6
P.B. SHELLEY : (I) OZYMANDIAS
(II) TO A SKYLARK
Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 About the Poet
6.2.1 Shelley : His Life and Personality
6.2.2 Literary Background
6.2.3 The Principal Poetic Works of Shelley
6.3. Reading the Poems (Texts)
6.3.1 Ozymandias
6.3.2 To A Skylark
6.3.3 Notes and Explanations
6.3.3 (a) Ozymandias
6.3.3 (b) To A Skylark
6.3.4 (b) To A Skylark
6.5 Answers to SAQs
6.6 Let Us Sum Up
6.8 Bibliography
6.0 Objectives
In this unit we intend to acquaint you with the Romantic traits of English poetry asso-
ciated with Shelley by presenting to you a detailed analysis of the poems Ozymandias and
66
To a Skylark. Our purpose is also to give you clues so that you may be able to distinguish
between the earlier (adopted by Wordsworth and Coleridge) and the later (adopted by Shelley
and Keats) romantic traits.
6.1 Introduction
a Ozymandias illustrates the vanity of human greatness and the failure of all attempts
to immortalize human grandeur. Ozymandias was a great Egyptian king, a life-statue of whom
was made to immortalize him. But now the statue lies broken and disfigured, and all around it
is a barren desert.
The Ode to a Skylark is one of the most famous poems in the English language.
Shelley in this ode idealises the singing of the skylark. In the singing of the skylark, Shelley finds
an ecstasy and rapture which are unattainable by human beings. The poet contrasts the sorrow
of human life with the joy of the skylark. The skylark, among other things, serves as a symbol
of the poetic spirit, which sings songs unbidden and with an unpremeditated art. The poem
shows the superb lyrical genius of Shelley at its best. It is remarkable for its exquisite music, its
wonderful similes, its sensuous beauty, its spontaneity and melody.
Written in early 1820 and published in the same year with Prometheus Unbound, it is
the most anthologized of all Shelleys poems. Although a lovely poem, it has had its detractors
who have regarded it as the typically slight work of a typically slight poet.
6.2 About the Poet
6.2.1 Shelley : Life and Personality

Percy Bysshe Shelley, a son of a baronet of Sussex, was educated at Eton and Ox-
ford. After a year at the University he was expelled (1811) for having published a pamphlet on
The Necessity of Atheism. Soon afterwards he eloped with Harriet Westbrook, a daughter
of a coffee-house owner whom he married at Edinburgh, English law not permitting the mar-
riage of minors. Expulsion from the University and marrying much below his rank alienated his
family. For three years (1811-14) he led with Harriet a wandering life, engaging in reformist
propaganda in Ireland and Wales. In 1813 he privately printed for circulation among his friends
Queen Mab his first notable work. After a love affair with a school mistress, he left Harriet
(1814) and eloped with Mary Godwin, daughter of the anarchical philosopher, to Switzerland.
He married her after Harriets suicide (1816). On his return he published his first great poem
Alastor (1816) and The Revolt of Islam (1817). At the suit of Harriets father he was de-
prived of the custody of his children by his first wife. This as well as the public hostility aroused
by his conduct and opinions drove him abroad to Italy in 1818. Here he spent the remaining
four years of his life, living at Venice, Rome, Naples and Pisa. As in the case of Byron, Shelleys
greatest works were produced during these years of exile in Italy; lyrical dramas Prometheus
Unbound and Hellas, a tragedy, The Cenci , a love poem, Epipsychidion, an elegy on the
67
death of Keats Adonais, and the great Nature lyrics, Ode to the West Wind, The Cloud, To
a Skylark, etc. by which he is best known today. He left besides numerous poems published
during his life time or after his death including the satires Swellfoot the Tyrant, The Masque
of Anarchy, Peter Bell the Third; and lyrical pieces : The Sensitive Plant, The Witch of
Atlas, etc. Of his prose writings the best known is his Defence of Poetry.
He was drowned in the gulf of Spezzia in July 1822 and cremated in the presence of
Byron with whom he had been living. His ashes were buried in the Protestant cemetery at
Rome. Of his three children by Mary two died in childhood while the third, a son, lived and
succeeded to the title. Of his two children by Harriet, Only one, a daughter, lived to a good
age. They had of course no part in Shelleys life.
6.2.2 Literary Background

The Romantic Movement at the end of the eighteenth century and the beginning of the
nineteenth century was a deliberate and sweeping revolt against the literary principles of the
Age of Reason. Just as Dryden and Pope had rejected the romantic tradition of the Elizabe-
thans as crude and irregular and had adopted neoclassical principles of French literature in
their writings, so now Wordsworth and Coleridge, in their turn rejected the neo-classical prin-
ciples in favour of the romantic. To the First generation of the Romantics belenged Wordsworth
and Coleridge.
After Scott we come to the younger generation of the Romantics : Byron, Shelley and
Keats. They came to maturity when the older generation of Wordsworth, Coleridge, Southey
and Scott had already produced their best work. All the three died young : Byron at the age of
36, Shelley at 29 and Keats at 26. The poetic flame in them, however, burnt intensely and
during their short lives each produced work, which except perhaps Byrons is destined for
immortality. Byron who cannot be classed with the immortals of English poetry had, however,
the satisfaction of achieving great fame in his life time. He became a legend not only in England
but also on the continent.
6.2.3 The Principal Poetic Works of Shelley

A. Early Poems : (i) Queen Mab (1813) - This poem attacks Christianity for profess-
ing love while inciting its followers to religious intolerance. The corrupting influences of kings
and priests are also exposed in the poem, and the Golden Age is prophesied. It is a crude
poem attacking dogmatic religion, government, industrial tyranny and war. It was written un-
der the influence of William Godwin, the revolutionary philosopher.
(ii) Hymn to Intellectual Beauty (1816) It contains his devotion and worship of the
principle of Beauty who is looked upon as a deity.
(iii) Alastor (1816) It is an allegory condemning self-centred idealism and pleading
on behalf of human love. It is a vaguely autobiographical account of a young poets unsuccess-
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ful attempt to recapture his envisioned ideal.
(iv) The Revolt of Islam (1817-18) It is a symbolic epic in Spenserian stanzas
containing violent attacks on Theism and Christianity, and proclaiming a bloodless revolution
and the regeneration of man by lover. It is valuable for the story of mans revolt against tyranny
and for the glimpse of a Golden Age. The Revolt of Islam was Shelleys first long poem of
mature splendour and power.
B. Poetic dramas : (i) Prometheus Unbound (1818-20) It is a poetic drama con-
taining a series of lyrics and choruses. It is based on an ancient Greek myth. Prometheus is an
ideal and allegorical figure of progressive mans desire for intellectual light and spiritual liberty.
This drama is Shelleys most characteristic work, in both thought and style. Its subject was
suggested by Aeschyluss Prometheus Bound, in which Prometheus, heroic friend and lover
of mankind, was released from a rock where the tyrant Zeus had chained him. In Shelleys
treatment, Prometheus represents, not a super-human helper of mankind, but mankind itself,
heroic, just, gentle, sacredly thirsting after liberty and spiritual gladness, but chained and tor-
tured by Jupiter.
(ii) The Cenci (1819) It is a realistic tragedy based upon a morbid and sordid Italian
story which gives a detailed account of the horrors which ended in the extinction of one of the
noblest and richest families of Rome in the year 1599. In brief, the story was the murder of an
incestuous and inhuman father by the daughter, Beatrice, with the laws savage revenges.
When Shelley saw ther artist Guidos portrait of Beatrice at the Colonna Palace, he was
profoundly touched, and thought her to be one of the loveliest specimens of the workmanship
of Nature. The Cenci Palace, vast and gloomy spoke also to his imagination. Shelleys drama
is a poetical and moral commemoration of what may be called the martyrdom of Beatrice.
This drama is something of an elegy in honour of the heroism of Beatrice Cenci.
(iii) Hellas (1821-22) It is a lyrical drama inspired by the Greek declaration of
independence from the Turkish yoke. In its way Hellas is magnificent, though it was written
from the fragmentary information Shelley got from continental newspapers. For some the emo-
tional final chorus is the one thing that matters in this drama : The worlds great age beings
anew ., It is the last of Shelleys major political poems. Its aims are three. The first is
fundamentally political : to celebrate the Greek war against the Turks as a portion of the cause
of civilization and moral improvement. The second is ethical : to hold up as example for the
modern world the wonderful achievement of Athens in the fifth century B.C., and to describe
a new Athens symbolizing liberty and dedicated to the spread of brotherly love. The third is
metaphysical : to assert that thought is the sole reality and that all else in the world is a shadow
and a dream.
C. Short Humanitarian Poems : (i) The Masque of Anarchy (1819) It is one of the
worlds great revolutionary songs, which Shelley was moved to write by the news of the
massacre of Peterloo. With the drum-beat of its solemn march, it is a call to the workers of
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England to rise like lion after slumber in un-vanquishable number, and its true Shelleyan
quality lies in the fact that though it calls for rebellion it does not call for blood. The same belief,
the same ultimate trust that the only way to conquer evil is by good, runs through The Revolt
of Islam.
(ii) Song to the Men of England (1819) Based on the notion that Liberty, Englands
erstwhile queen, had been done to death in the course of recent months, and could be revived
only through the concerted efforts of her bereaved subjects, this poem was written to be sung
to the tune of Englands national anthem : God Save the King.
(iii) Ode to Liberty (1820) It is among the best of Shelleys political poems in the
grand style. The voice of liberty, coming out of the depth of thought, charges with mighty the
wings of his song, says Shelley, and he provides an idealized history, first of the rise of Athenian
liberty out of chaos, and then of libertys long decline under the Roman empire and the oppres-
sive forces of institutional Christianity. This poem was inspired by the Spanish Revolution.
(iv) Ode to Naples (1820) This poem was written by Shelley to greet the proclama-
tion of a constitutional government at Naples in 1820. The poem is a tribute to the Neapoli-
tans as the latest enemies of the league of tyrants.
D. Occasional Poems : (i) Julian and Maddalo It is a conversation between Julian
(Shelley) and Maddalo (Byron). The poem contains an important portrait of Byrons puzzling
personality. This poem gave to Shelleys friends a taste of verse which was, for once, both
earthly and human, those parts of it, that is, which do not concern the story of the madman.
(The story of the madman is a dreadful one which reads like veiled and nightmare autobiogra-
phy, of frightful projection of some inward canker of the mind). The tone of the verse in those
parts is that of man talking amongst friends. The poem shows that Shelley could talk as well as
sing.
(ii) Epipsychidion It is an idealized history of Shelleys life and feelings. It is ad-
dressed to Emilia Viviani, an Italian girl, whose wronged life produced a rapturous outburst in
favour of free love. It is a strange poem. The movement of Shelleys verse is habitually swift,
but the couplets of Epipsychidion seem to flow with an almost breathless speed. The pulse of
the poem beats at fever pitch, between waking and sleeping. After the veiled autobiography of
the opening passages, in which he describes the failure of a search to find a living embodiment
of that Being whom my spirit oft met on its visioned wandering, he declares that he has found
it at last; and the rest of the poem, beautiful as only Shelleys poetry can be, described as the
island beautiful as a wreck of Paradise whither he wishes to take his beloved.
(iii) Adonais It is an elegy on the death of John Keats, and one of the greates elegies
in the English language. It is a most noble tribute not only to the dead poet but to poetry itself,
and the life beyond life of which poets are assured : He is a portion of the loveliness which
once he made more lovely.. That life beyond life was becoming more and more the subject of
Shelleys brooding. Keats had spoken of death as lifes high mead, and had found it rich to
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die, when the nightingale was singing ; for him death had appeared as fulfilment, but for
Shelley it appeared as an escape and a liberation, more and more desired. The concluding
lines of Adonais, with their exultant sense of the melting away of the mortal body under the fire
of Love which created and sustains the universe and is itself the only reality, are at once an
inspiration and a prophecy.
E. Poems chiefly Lyrical These include the following : Mutability; Ozymandias;
The Cloud; To a Skylark; The Indian Serenade; Stanzas Written in Dejection Near Napels;
Ode to the West Wind; The Sensitive Plant; To Night; O World ! O Life ! O Time ! The
Witch of Atlas ; The Triumph of Life. Some of these lyrics are among the most glorious and
the most celebrated ones in the English language.
6.3 Reading the Poems (Text)

Now read the poems carefully.
6.3.1 Ozymandia
I met a traveler from an antique land
Who said : Two vast and trunkless legs of stone
Stand in the desert . Near them, on the sand,
Half sunk, a shattered visage lies, whose frown,
And wrinkled lip, and sneer of cold command,
Tell that its sculptor well those passions read
Which yet survive, stamped on these lifeless things,
The hand that mocked them, and the heart that fed :
And on the pedestal these words appear :
My name is Ozymandias, kind of kings :
Look on my works, ye Mighty, and despair !
Nothing beside remains. Round the decay
Of that colossal wreck, boundless and bare
The lone and level sands stretch far away.
6.3.2 To a Skylark
Hail to thee, blithe Spirit !
Bird thou never wert,
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That from Heaven or near it,
Pourest thy full heart
In profuse strains of unpremeditated art.
Higher still and higher
From the earth thou springest
Like a cloud of fire;
The blue deep thou wingest,
And singing still dost soar, and soaring ever singest.
In the golden lighting
Of the sunken sun,
Oer which clouds are brightning,
Thou dost float and run;
Like an unbodied joy whose race is just begun.
The pale purple even
Melts around thy flight;
Like a star of Heaven,
In the broad daylight
Thou art unseen, but yet I hear thy shrill delight,
Keen as are the arrows
Of that silver sphere,
Whose intense lamp narrows
In the white dawn clear
Until we hardly see we feel that it is there.
All the earth and air,
With thy voice is loud,
As, when night is bare,
From one lonely cloud
The moon rains out her beams, and Heaven is overflowed.
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What thou art we know not;
What is most like thee ?
From rainbow clouds there flow not
Drops so bright to see
As from thy presence showers a rain of melody.
Like a Poet hidden
In the light of thought,
Singing hymns unbidden,
Till the world is wrought
To sympathy with hopes and fears it heeded not :
Like a high-born maiden
In a palace-tower,
Soothing her love - laden
Soul in secret hour
With music sweet as love, which overflows her bower :
Like a glow-worm golden
In a dell of dew,
Scattering unbeholden
Its aereal hue
Among the flowers and grass, which screen it from the view
Lie a rose embowered
In its own green leaves,
By warm winds deflowered,
Till the scent it gives
Makes faint with too much sweet those heavy-winged thieves :
Sound of vernal showers
On the twinkling grass;
Rain- awakened flowers,
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All that ever was
Joyous, and clear, and fresh, thy music doth surpass :
Teach us, Sprite or Bird,
What sweet thoughts are thine :
I have never heard
Praise of love or wine
That panted forth a flood of rapture so divine.
Chorus Hymeneal
Or triumphal chant,
Matched with thine would be all
But an empty vaunt,
A thing wherein we feel there is some hidden want
What objects are the fountains
Of thy happy strain ?
What fields, or waves, or mountains ?
What shapes of sky or plain ?
What love of thine own kind ? what ignorance of pain ?
With the clear keen joyance
Languor cannot be :
Shadow of annoyance
Never came near thee :
Thou lovest but neer knew loves sad satiety.
Waking or asleep,
Thou of death must deem
Things more true and deep
Than we mortals dream,
Or how could thy notes flow in such a crystal stream ?
We look before and after,
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And pine for what is not :
Our sincerest laughter
With some pain is fraught :
Our sweetest songs are those that tell of saddest thought.
Yes if we could scorn
Hate, and pride, and fear;
If we were things born
Not to shed a tear,
I know not how thy joy we ever should come near.
Better than all measures
Of delightful sound,
Better than all treasures
That in books are found,
Thy skill to poet were, thou scorner of the ground !
Teach me half the gladness
That thy brain must know.
Such harmonious madness
From my lips would flow
The world should listen then as I am listening now.
6.3.3 Notes and Explanations

An antique land ancient country; here;Egypt. The Egyptian civilization is one of the
oldest in the history of the world. Who said the traveler said. Two vast and trunkless legs
of stone /stand in the desert- The two huge legs of a broken statue stand in the desert. The
trunk or the upper portion of the statue is severed from the legs, and lies nearby. (This is a
common sight in Egypt. Many broken and half buried statues of ancient kings of Egypt exist in
various parts of the land and remind a traveller of the ancient glory of those kings).
a shattered visage the broken face of the statue. Whose frown-And wrinkled lip,
and sneer of cold command On the face of the statue is an expression of anger, contempt,
haughtiness, and sternness. The face shows a hardened sense of authority and power.
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Tell that its sculptor well those passions read It is clear that the sculptor who
made the statue correctly understood the passions or feelings of the king and, therefore, suc-
cessfully reproduced them on stone.
Which yet survive. That fed (Lines 7-8) The passions or feelings of the kind still
exist on the face of the statue, while the sculptor who carved those passions or feelings on
stone, and the king who experienced those passions or feeling, are dead and gone. (The hand
that mocked them The sculptors hand which reproduced or represented the kings feelings
on stone. Mocked is here used in the sense of imitated them without feeling any admiration
for them. Them refers to those passions. And the heart that fed and the kingss heart
which nourhised or experienced those passions).
Note : To be able to get the meaning, you should read these lines thus : whose frown
and wrinkled lip, and sneer of cold command, tell that its sculptor well read those passions
which, stamped on these life-less things, yet survive the hand that mocked them and the heart
that fed. The idea is that the kings passions still remain depicted on stone, while the sculptors
hand and the kings heart are no more, both the sculptor and the king having died long ago.
Pedestal base ; foot, these words appear there is an inscription on the pedestal.
My name is Ozymandias King Ozymandias flourished about 2100 B.C. He was the first
soldier-king to invade Asia.
Note : The inscription on the foot of the pedestal reveals the name of the king, and
gives us an idea of how great and powerful he was.
Nothing beside remains .. stretch far away (Lines 12-14) There is nothing else
to be seen near the statue. A vast, desolate and barren desert surrounds the remains of that
huge statue which lies broken. (colossal huge. Colossal is from Colossus. Colossus was
a huge statue bestriding the harbour of Rhodes so that ships could pass under its legs. Colos-
sal therefore means huge).
Note : The last three lines describing the present ruined state of the statue present a
vivid and pathetic contrast with the preceding two lines which convey the glory and greatness
of Ozymandias.
6.3.3. (b) To a Skylark
Hail to thee, .. unpremeditated are (Lines 1-5) The poet calls the skylark a
cheerful and happy spirit. The skylark is not a bird but a spirit because, flying at a great height,
it is not visible. The poet offers a warm welcome to the skylark. He joyfully greets the skylark.
The skylark sings spontaneous songs from somewhere near the sky. It sings sweet melodies
which express the feelings and emotions of its heart. A continuous stream of rich music flows
naturally from the skylark. The skylark sings effortlessly and without any previous preparation.
Higher still and higher.. ever singed (Lines 6-10) The sky-lark leaps upward
from the earth and flies higher and higher into the blue sky. It flies up into the blue sky like a
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cloud of fire rising upward. It keeps singing while flying, and it keeps flying while singing. It
keeps flying and singing simultaneously.
In the golden lightning is just begun (Lines 11-15) - The sun is just rising. It
is still below the horizon, and it shoots its arrows as if they were flashes of lightning. The clouds
in the eastern sky look bright and radiant because of the light of the rising sun. It is at this time
that the skylark begins its upward flight. The skylark is a happy soul that has shaken off its
earthly coil and has set out on a journey toward heaven. (The skylark leaving the earth and
soaring upward is like a soul that has shed its mortal body and is on its way to heaven. The
expression unbodied joy means a happy soul that has shaken off its mortal body).
The pale purple even thy shrill delight (Lines 16-20) As the skylark flies
upwards, the pale and purple twilight of the morning seems to melt away, giving place to the
white light of the rising sun. The skylark becomes invisible as it flies higher and higher. For this
reason it is like a star which shines in the sky invisibly during the day time. The flight of the
skylark becomes known to us by its loud and joyous singing. (even actually the word even
means evening. But here it has been used to mean twilight, the twilight of the morning. Shrill
delight happiness expressed in a loud voice).
Keen as are the . it is there (Lines 21-25) During the night, the moon sheds its
white light upon the earth. But this bright light begins to fade with the coming of the morning. In
the light of the morning, the moonlight fades away. Although the moon now becomes almost
invisible, yet we are aware that the moon is still in the sky. In the same way, the skylark is
invisible to our eyes, but listening to its music, we are aware of its presence in the sky.
All the earth . Is overflowed (Lines 26-30) The whole earth and the whole
atmosphere above seem to be filled to overflowing with the song of the skylark. When the
moon emerges from behind a single cloud in the sky, the moonlight fills the whole earth as well
as the sky. The earth and the sky are flooded with the music of the skylark in the same way as
they are flooded with the bright light of the moon.
What thou . A rain of melody (Lines 31-35) The real nature of the skylark is
not known to us. It is not even possible for us to think of anything that closely resembles the
skylark. As it flies up and up, it sends a shower of rich music to us on the earth. The music
flowing from the skylark is much more pleasant and delightful even than the bright and lustrous
rain-drops falling from the clouds.
Like a Poet . it heeded on (Lines 36-40) The invisible skylark may be compared
to a poet who is hidden from the public gaze by the originality and obscurity of his ideas. The
poets message to mankind is so original and new that people cannot understand it. But the
poet is not discouraged. He goes on singing his songs and expressing his ideas through those
songs. Ultimately his songs do begin to produce an effect upon the people. The poet, by his
perseverance and persistence, compels people to listen to him and to try to understand him. At
last, the world is moved to sympathy with the poets hopes and fears which were previously
77
not understood by the people.
The idea is that the skylark keeps singing till we are moved to admiration for its songs,
even though the skylark is invisible.
Like a high-bron . her bower (Lines 41-45) The skylark is here compared to a
young damsel of high birth. This girl is supposed to be residing in a palace tower where she
sings songs of love. She is singing these songs to attain some relief by giving an outlet to the
intensity of her passion of love. Her songs are as sweet as her passion of love. The girl herself
is not visible to outsiders because she is confined in the tower. But the songs of the girl over-
flow her apartment, and are heard by people outside. The skylark too is invisible to our eyes,
but the sweet music of the skylark is audible to us. (The simile in these lines is highly suggestive
and romantic).
Like a glow-worm from the view (Lines 46-50) The skylark is like a beauti-
ful, shining glow-worm flying about among the dewcovered grass and flowers. The glow worm
itself is invisible because it is hidden by the grass and leaves of plants. But we can recognize the
glow worm by the light that it scatters around itself. In the same way we cannot see the
skylark in the aerial regions above, but we are conscious of the presence of the skylark on
account of the sweet music which comes from it.
Like a rose heavy-winged thieves (Lines 51-55) We may not be able to see a
rose which is wrapped up in its green leaves, but we shall certainly become conscious of it
because of its sweet scent. When the warm wind blows, it seems to rob the rose of the roses
sweet fragrance. Indeed, the wind which steals the roses sweetness becomes so heavy with
that fragrance that its movement becomes slow. The physical presence of the skylark is not
visible to our eyes, but we become aware of the presence of the skylark because of its sweet
songs which are loud enough to reach our ears.
(deflowered robbed of its sweet fragrance. those heavy-winged thieves the
warm winds which steal the fragrance of the rose and, becoming heavy with that fragrance,
become slow in their movement).
Sound of vernal ... doth surpass (Lines 56-60) - The music of the skylark
surpasses in beauty, joy, and freshness everything that could ever claim these qualities. The
music of the skylark is more fresh and joyful than the sound of rain falling on the bright grass in
spring. It is more joyful and fresh than flowers which have been awakened from their torpor by
rain.
Teach us. so divine (Lines 61-65) The poet would like to learn from the skylark
which is perhaps a bird, perhaps a spirit, what sweet thoughts give rise to its joyful songs. The
music of the skylark is full of a rapturous joy which seems to have a divine quality. No praise
of love or wine has ever been so rapturous or joyful as the songs of the skylark.
Chorus Hymeneal . some hidden want (Lines 66-70) As compared with the
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skylarks singing, a wedding song or a song of victory would seem to be meaningless. The
note of joy in the songs of the skylark is much greater than in those other songs. By compari-
son with the skylarks song, other songs seem to suffer from some deficiency which we cannot
define. (chorus a song sung by several persons together. Hymeneal relating to marriage.
Hymen is the god of marriage. Triumphal chant song of victory. Vaunt an empty boast;
something meaningless. Hidden want deficiency that cannot be defined).
What objects . ignorance of pain ? (Lines 71-75) The poet wants to know
what the source of the skylarks happiness is. What it is that makes this bird so happy? Does
the skylark derive its happiness from the sight of some wonderful objects of Nature like fields,
waves, mountains, the changing shape of the sky, and plains ? If so, where are those objects
of Nature which make the skylark so happy, because ordinary fields or waves or mountains
cannto be a source of such extraordinary joy. Is the skylark so happy because of its great love
for its fellow-creatures ? Is the skylark so happy because it has never known any sorrow or
grief ?
With thy clear keen ... Love sad satiety (Lines 76-80) The skylark feels so
exquisitely happy that there can be no question of its ever feeling lazy or indolent. Nor does
the skylark ever experience a feeling of the faintest irritation. This happiness of the skylark is
absolutely unadulterated. The skylark does not experience the disillusionment or disgust which
human beings invariably experience after an excessive enjoyment of the pleasures of love. The
skylark does enjoy the pleasure of love, but in its case the feeling of disillusionment or disgust
does not occur. (joyance joy ; happiness.) languor lazinees; indolence, loves sad sati-
ety the feeling or disgust which a human being experiences as a result of an excessive
enjoyment of the pleasure of love).
Waking or asleep . A crystal stream ? (Lines 81-85) Both in its waking and
sleeping hours, the skylark must be seeing truer visions of the nature and significance of death
than human beings can. For human beings, death is an impenetrable mystery. The thought of
death, therefore, not only puzzles and baffles human beings, but also depresses and saddens
them. But the skylark has perhaps a truer and deeper knowledge of the mystery of death. And
that is why the skylark is so happy and can produce such continuous and rapturous music.
(crystal stream continuous, joy full of music from the skylark).
We look before and .. saddest thought (Lines 86-90) The life of human be-
ings is full of disappointments and frustrations. Human beings have desires and longings which
remain unfulfilled. Whether they look back to their past or they look forward to their future,
they feel an intense desire for what they have not been able to achieve and for what they will
not be able to attain. There is an element of pain mingled even with their most genuine laugh-
ter. They can never enjoy unadulterated happiness. The sweetest songs of human beings are
those that are full of sorrow and grief. The songs of the skylark, on the contrary, are an
expression of pure joy.
Yet if we could scorn.. come never (Lines 91-95) Human happiness is marred
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by feeling of hatred, pride, fear, etc. Human beings are born to suffer sorrows and griefs and
to shed tears over their misery. Suppose that it were possible for human beings to cast off
hatred, pride and fear from their hearts, and suppose that there were no sorrows in the life of
human beings to make them weep. Even then they would not be able to enjoy that supreme
happiness which the skylark enjoys.
Better than all measures. Of the ground (Lines 96-100) The skylark is scornful
of the earth. That is why it flies in the higher regions above. If a poet could acquire the skylarks
musical skill he would be able to produce rapturous songs like the skylark. All joyful songs
known to mankind and all the available musical knowledge and instructions contained in books
would be inadequate for a poet to produce songs of pure and perfect joy. Only by acquiring
the skylarks musical skill can any poet equal the joyful singing of the skylark.
Teach me half of .. as I am listening now (Lines 101-15) If the skylark could
communicate to Shelley even half of its joy, Shelley would feel inspired to write poems that
would compete with the songs of the skylark. The world would then listen attentively to Shelleys
poems just as Shelley is now listening to the songs of the skylark. All that Shelley needs is the
feeling of ecstasy which the skylark experiences. (What he means to say is that his awareness
of the tragedy of human life makes it impossible for him to write poems expressive of a raptur-
ous joy).

This poem relates an experience of a traveller from Egypt. This traveller saw two huge
and trunkless legs of a statue in the desert. Near them lay, half-buried, the broken face of the
statue. On this face can still be seen the expression of haughtiness and a sense of authority
which had skillfully been depicted by the sculptor, and which survives the sculptor. On the
pedestal the following words were inscribed : My name is Ozymandias and I am a great king.
Look at the great deeds which I have accomplished and which nobody can equal. Round the
broken statue stretched a vast desert.
In form this poem is a sonnet. The sonnet-form was not really suited to Shelleys
genius because the sonnet imposes restraints and restrictions under which Shelley must have
felt impatient. For this reason, Shelley wrote very few sonnets, and failed to achieve distinc-
tion in them. This poem, for instance, does not rigidly obey the accepted conventions of the
form of the sonnet. The rhyme-scheme does not follow any of the recognized patterns, and
some of the rhymes are faulty (for instance, stone and frown; appear and despair).
But though not flawless, it is the best of the few sonnets that Shelley wrote. It has
earned high praise from critics and is considered a most powerful, imaginative and suggestive
poem. Its moral goes home to our hearts with force and vigour. Human glory and pomp are
not everlasting. Hammers of decay quickly follow the hammers of construction. Time works
80
havoc with buildings and monument. But the moral is not directly stated. The poet only pre-
sents a picture to our minds and we have ourselves to draw the moral. It is a didactic poem,
but its moral is not thrust upon us directly. Shelley said that didacticism was his abhorrence and
he did not, therefore, directly preach moral lessons.
There is a touch of melancholy about the poem because it makes us reflect over the
vanity of human wishes and the failure of all our efforts to keep our memory alive for ever. The
contrast between the past glory of the king and the present condition of the statue is very
striking to the mind and emphasizes the moral of the poem. The concluding lines of the poem
are particularly remarkable for their suggestiveness. The sonnet contains two note-worthy
pictures. One is the picture of the broken statue, a huge wreck, the face of which still wears the
picture of the lone and level desert, boundless and bare, stretching far away (Lines 12-14).
6.3.4 (b) To a Skylark
In this poem, Shelley dwells upon the sweet and rapturous singing of the skylark. The
music of the skylark has been idealized by Shelley. The poet wants to know what it is that
inspires the skylark to sing such melodious and ecstatic strains. He contrasts the sorrows and
sufferings of mankind with the unspeakable joy of the bird. If it were possible for the poet to
experience the gladness of the skylark, he would be able to sing songs as sweet and delightful
as those of the bird itself.
The poem is remarkable for its abundance of similes, each of which is a picture in
itself. The skylark climbs higher and higher in the sky like a cloud of fire (Line 8). The skylark
floats and runs like an unbodied joy whose race is just begun (Line 15).
The skylark is unseen like a star of heaven/In the broad daylight (Lines 18-19). The
skylark is like a poet hidden in the light of thought, like a high-born maiden singing love-songs
in a palace tower, like a golden glow-worm invisibly scattering its light among the flowers and
grass, like a rose hidden by its own green leaves and filling the air with its scent. The similes in
this poem are unsurpassed for their romantic charm and beauty. Each simile brings a separate
picture before the mind. These similes constitute a rich feast for the senses. We gloat over each
simile with an epicurean delight.
This poem is a marvel of music and melody. The sweetness of the poem, combined
with its other qualities makes it a lyrical masterpiece. The music of the poem is simply irresist-
ible. The following stanza may be quoted not only for its musical quality but for the truth that
it contains :
We look before and after
And pine for what is not :
Our sincerest laughter
With some pain is fraught;
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Our sweetest songs are those that tell of saddest thought.
There is an intensity of feeling throughout the poem. It is a passionate utterance. The
poets heart is overflowing with the flood of emotion. The note of longing and yearning, so
characteristic of many of Shelleys poems, is to be found in this poem also. The following
stanza in which the poet makes an appeal to the skylark, is an illustration :
Teach me half the gladness
That thy brain must know,
Such harmonious madness
From my lips would flow
The world should listen then as I am listening now.
All Shelleys lyrics possess a spontaneous quality. This poem is no exception. It seems
to have come directly from the writers heart. It appears to have been written naturally and
effortlessly. It is a pure effusion. It is a superb example of Shelleys lyrical gift.

(a) The answer to the following questions should not exceed 20 words each :
(i) Who are known as younger Romantics ?

(ii) Why was Shelley expelled from the University ?

(iii) What was the first notable work of Shelley ?

(iv) Name the two lyrical dramas written by Shelley.

(v) Name the Elegy on the death of Keats, written by P.B . Shelley.

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(vi) What is the best-known prose work of Shelley ?

(vii) Who was Ozymandias ?

(viii) What was written on the pedestal of the statue of Ozymandias ?

(ix) What is the theme of the poem Ozymandias?

(x) Why does the poet call the skylark a spirit ?

(xi) Mention two beautiful similes employed by Shelley to suggest the sweetness of the
skylarks music.

(b) The answer to the following questions should not exceed 500 words each :
(i) Critically examine the poem Ozymandias .

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(ii) Critically appreciate To a Skylark.

6.5 Answers to SAQs

(A) (i) Byron, Shelley and Keats.
(ii) For having published a pamphlet on The Necessity of Atheism.
(iii) Queen Mab
(iv) Prometheus Unbound and Hellas
(v) Adonais
(vi) Defence of Poetry
(vii) A great Egyptian king
(viii) My name is Ozymandias and I am a great king.
(ix) Vanity of human greatness and the non-yielding attempts to immortalize hu-
man grandeur.
(x) Because it pours forth rich melodies of spontaneous music from the sky.
(xi) The skylark is like a high-born maiden pouring forth her love into sweet songs;
it is like a golden glow-worm.
(B) (i) See Section 6.3.5 (a)
(ii) See Section 6.3.5 (b)
6.6 Let Us Sum Up

In this unit we have thrown light on the two representative poems of Shelley
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Ozymandias and To A Skylark. The unit also presents a brief description of Shelleys life and
literary career. To enable you understand the poems critically, you have also been given de-
tailed explanatory notes followed by a critical appreciation on both the poems.

1. Give an account of Shelleys views of nature as revealed in his poems.
2. Justify with examples that Shelley is the greatest lyric poet that England has produced.
6.8 Bibliogaphy
1. Desmond King Hele : Shelley, His Thought and Works (OUP).
2. J.A. Symonds : Shelley.
3. R.D. Trivedi : A Compedious History of English Literature, Vikas.
4. Stopford A. Brooke : Studies in Poetry, (OUP).
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UNIT 7
P.B. SHELLEY : (I) TO The NIGHT
(II) HYMN TO THE SPIRIT OF NATURE
Structure
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Reading the Poems (Texts)
7.2.1 To The Night
7.2.2 Hymn to the Spirit of Nature
7.2.3 Explanatory Notes
7.2.3. (a) To The Night
7.2.3 (b) Hymn to the Spirit of Nature
7.2.4 (a) To The Night
7.4 Answers to SAQs
7.5 Let Us Sum Up
7.7 Bibliography
7.0 Objectives
In continuation with the previous unit we intend to discuss in detail the two poems To
Night and Hymn to the Spirit of Nature (an extract from Prometheus Unbound) composed
by P.B. Shelley. We shall also familiarize you with Shelleys myth making power, of which the
poem To The Night is a good example. Through the poem Hymn to the Spirit of Nature we
intend to tell you that the story of Prometheus offered to Shelley an opening for his doctrine of
love as the central principle of things and the key to the ideal future of humanity.
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7.1 Introduction
To The Night is a remarkable lyric by Shelley. It is full of the passion and the yearning
so typical of much of Shelleys poetry. The poem expresses Shelley intense desire for Night,
which he has personified. The poem is a wonderful illustration of Shelleys power of making his
own myths. Not only has night been personified and made to live before us, but Day, Sleep,
and Death are also treated in the same manner. Furthermore, relationships have been estab-
lished between Night, Sleep and Death.
This poem expresses the writers intense love of Night and contains an invitation to her
to come soon. The poem is a sort of address of welcome to Night. The poet asks Night to
spread herself rapidly over the sky. The whole day, Night has been weaving dreams of joy and
fear in her cave. These dreams are to be seen by human beings in their sleep. Those who see
joyous dreams love Night, while those who see fearful dreams regard Night as terrible. The
poet wants Night to come without delay. Let Night establish her supremacy over the world.
Let her wrap herself in a gray cloak decorated with stars, and let her wipe out the light of the
day with her darkness. Let her sleepy influence be felt over city, sea, and land. The poet then
gives expression to his passionate delight in Night. When he arose and saw the dawn, he felt
unhappy at the departure of Night. At all hours of the day he felt miserable because of the
absence for Night and sighed for her coming. Death and Sleep offered to come to the poet but
he rejected their offers because he did not feel attracted by them. Let Sleep and Death come
to him when there is no more Night for him. But at present he is fascinated only by Night and
appeals to her to come soon :
Swift be thine approaching flight,
Come soon, soon !
Hymn to the Spirit of Natures is a delightful lyric taken from Shelleys poetic drama
Prometheus Unbound (Act II, scene v). It is a song sung by a voice in the air and addressed
to Asia who, in the play, represents Intellectual Beauty, or the Soul of the world, or as the title
above indicates, the Spirit of Nature. Prometheus is the spirit of love in mankind, while Asia is
the spirit of love in Nature. The union of Prometheus and Asia in Shelleys play is the union of
the spirit of love in man with the spirit of love in Nature. Their union marks the regeneration or
redemption of the world of man and the world of Nature, and signifies the end of evil in the
universe.
This song in praise of Asia is sung by an unknown voice in the air. Perhaps it is the
voice of Prometheus who loves Asia. In any case, it is a glowing tribute to Asia. Asia is the Life
(that is, the essence of life, or the source of life in Nature). Her lips brighten with their love, the
breath passing between them. Her smiles, before they disappear, warm up the cold air. She
ought to hide her smiles in her eyes which are so deep and so labyrinthine (that is, bewildering)
that whoever looks into them will faint with intoxication. Asia is the child of light (that is, made
of light or brightness). Her body seems to burn through her clothes in the same way as the
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brightness of the morning appears through the clouds. Wherever she may be, she is sur-
rounded by a heavenly atmosphere. It is not possible to look at Asia because her beauty is
dazzling and unbearable. Her voice is sweet and soft. It is like liquid splendour, and it screens
her from view so that everybody can feel her presence but none can actually see her. Asia is
the Lamp of Earth (because of her brightness). Wherever she goes, she sheds light and illu-
mines the dark shapes of earth. The souls of those whom Asia loves can walk upon the winds
till they fail as Prometheus is now failing and although he is feeling confused by Asias over-
whelming beauty and although he seems lost because of his love for her, yet he does not
complain or feel any regret.

Now read the poems carefully.
7.2.1 To The Night :

I
Swifly walk oer the western wave,
Spirit of Night !
Out of the misty eastern cave.
Where, all the long and lone daylight,
Thou wovest dreams of joy and fear,
Which make thee terrible and dear, -
Swift be thy flight !
II
Wrap thy form in a mantle gray,
Star inwrought !
Blind with thine hair the eyes of Day ;
Kiss her until she be wearied out,
Then wander oer city, and sea, and land
Touching all with thine opiate wand
Come, long sought !
III
When I arose and saw the dawn.
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I sighed for thee;
When light rode high, and dew was gone,
And noon lay heavy on flower and tree,
And the weary Day turned to his rest,
Lingering like an unloved guest,
I sighed for thee.
IV
Thy brother Death came, and cried,
Wouldst thou me ?
Thy sweet child Sleep, the filmy-eyed,
Murmured like a noontide bee,
Shall I nestle near thy side ?
Wouldst thou me ? And I replied,
No, not thee !
V
Death will come when thou art dead,
Soon, too soon
Sleep will come when thou art fled;
Of neither would I ask the boon
I ask of thee, beloved Night
Come soon, soon !
7.2.2 Hymn of the Spirit Nature

Life of Life ! thy lips enkindle
With their love the breath between them;
And thy smiles before they dwindle
Make the cold air fire ; then screen them
In those looks where whoso gazes
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Faints, entangled in their mazes.
Child of Light ! thy limbs are burning
Through the vest which seems to hide them,
As the radiant lines of morning
Through the clouds, ere they divide them :
And this atmosphere divinest
Shrouds thee wheresoeer thou shinest.
Fair are others; none beholds thee;
But thy voice sounds low and tender
Like the fairest, for if folds thee
From the sight, that liquid spendour;
And all feel, yet see thee never,
As I feel now, lost for ever !
Lamp of Earth ! whereer thou movest
Its dim shapes are clad with brightness.
And the souls of whom thou lovest
Walk upon the winds with lightness
Till they fail, as I am failing,
Dizzy, lost, yet unbewailing !
7.2.3 Explanatory Notes

Swiftly walk over the western wave.. thy flight ! (Stanza I). The poet here makes
an appeal to Night which has been personified. Night seems to the poet to be a living being,
capable of acting in accordance with its own will and capable of listening to the poet. Shelley
has, therefore, created a myth here. He appeals to Night to spread itself over the western sky
where the sun sets. He imagines that Night spends the hours of daylight in some misty eastern
cave, all alone, and that it keeps busy during that time, manufacturing or weaving dreams of
joys and fear for human beings. These dreams are seen by human beings during their sleep.
Sweet dreams, which human beings see, make Night dear to them; but the frightening dreams,
which they see, make Night terrible to them. Thus human beings are in love with Night and yet,
at the same time, they are afraid of Night. The poet is in love with Night without being afraid of
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it. He wants Night to come swiftly and without delay.
Wrap thy form in a mantle gray, star-inwrought. The poet calls upon Night to
wrap itself in a gray coloured cloak which has stars woven in its texture. The dark sky is
regarded here as the mantle of Night, and the stars that shine in the sky are supposed to be
woven in the texture of that mantle.
Blind with thine hair wearied out. (Lines 10-11). Here Day is also personified.
The poet asks Night to come and spread its black hair over the eyes of Day, so that Day may
no longer be able to see. Then the poet asks Night to overwhelm Day with kisses. Let Day be
kissed so vehemently and repeatedly that Day feels tired of these kisses and flees from the
world. This is poetic fancy. What the poet means is that, with the coming of Night, Day
withdraws from this world.
Touching all with thine opiate wand. We are to imagine that Night carries in its hand
a magic staff which as the power of sending everyone, who is touched with it, to sleep. When
Night comes, all creatures fall asleep.
And the wearied Day....... an unloved quest (Lines 19-20). When Day was tired of
its stay on the earth, it felt like resting. And yet Day stayed on for some time more, just as a
guest might prolong his stay in a house where he is no longer welcome. (The simile is very
appropriate).
Thy brother Death came. No, not thee ! (Lines 22-28). The poet is interested
neither in Death nor in Sleep. He looks upon Death as the brother of Night, and he calls Sleep
a child of Night. Death is the brother of Night because Night stands for darkness, and Death
takes human beings into the unknown dark regions. Sleep is the child of Night because it is
during night that human beings are overcome by Sleep. Both Death and Sleep offer to come to
him. Death is prepared to take him away from this world in case he is sick of life. Sleep, which
makes the eyelids close, speaks to the poet very sweetly and softly like the murmuring of a bee
at noon-time. Sleep offer to creep close to the poet and to send him into a state of temporary
forgetfulness. But the poet rejects both these offers, because he is attracted only by Night.
(Sleep, the filmy eyed Sleep is called filmy-eyed because the eyes of person whe
feels sleepy look dim or filmy).
Death will come when thou art dead Death would come to the poet in its own
time.
Soon, to soon Death would not take long in coming to the poet. (Here is an uncon-
scious prophecy of Shelleys premature death. It was at the age of thirty that he was drowned
in the sea).
Sleep will come when thou art fled The poet does not accept the offer of Sleep,
because Sleep can come to him when Night is gone. He would not like to waste his time in
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sleeping. He can sleep permanently after death.
Life of Life essence of life. they thy lips enkindle between themThere is such
love in Asias lips that it lights up the breath which passes through her lips. (This is poetical
language, and the words here are not to be taken literally). And thy smiles.cold are fire
There is such heat in her smiles that, before, fading away, they warm the cold air. The cold air
becomes warm in the fire of Asias smiles. Then screen themin their mazes - Asias
smiles are so bright and lovely that nobody can endure their brightness and loveliness. There-
fore, she is asked to screen or conceal her smiles in her eyes. Her eyes are like intricate and
bewildering paths. By looking into her eyes, a man would get lost and feel dazed. (maze -
labyrinth).
Child of Light Asia is now called the Child of Light because she is so bright and
shining. Thy limbs are burning thou shinest (Lines 7-12) Asia is so bright that rays of
light seem to be emanating from her body. Her body seems to be burning . Even her clothes
cannot hide the radiance of her body which appears to be on fire. The brightness of her body
is visible through her clothes just as the brightness of dawn becomes visible through clouds
before the clouds are parted by the sun. Wherever bright Asia may go, she is surrounded by
this heavenly atmosphere. In other words, she is a divine Spirit enveloped in heavenly light.
Fair are other.. lost for ever (Lines 13-18) There are other fair spirits in the
universe, but Asia surpasses them all in beauty. Nobody can see Asia, because her splendour
is dazzling to the eyes. Her voice is sweet, soft and gentle like the voice of the fairest of spirits.
The glorious melody of her voice seems to be screening her from the sight of others. Every-
body becomes dimly aware of her presence but nobody can actually see her, just as the
speaker (Prometheus) feels aware of her presence and is forever completely lost in her glory,
splendour and divine beauty.
Lamp of Earth ... Unbewailing (Lines 19-24) Asia is now regarded as the
lamp that sheds its light on the earth. Wherever she goes, her beauty and brightness illumine
the dark objects on the earth. Those whom Asia loves are very fortunate. Because of the
power of her love, their souls are enabled to walk lightly upon the breezes. Those souls can
walk upon the breezes till in the end they collapse just as the speaker (Prometheus) is about to
collapse. The speaker is feeling giddy or confused because of the dazzling beauty of Aisa and
because of the intoxication of his love for her. In spite of that, to be in love with Asia is in itself
a matter of pride, and that, though the lover is lost owing to his profound love for her, he does
not complain or grumble.
You will be disappointed if you look minutely for the meaning of words and lines in this
poem. It is the music of the poem that you must be able to feel. Therefore, the poem should be
read for its sound, not for its sense; for its melody and sweetness, not for its meaning.
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In this poem Shelley expresses his deep love of Night. Night is personified here and
regarded as a living entity, conscious of its own existence and of the existence of others. Night
has a strange fascination for the poet who is attracted neither by dawn nor by day. Neither
sleep nor death has any charm for the poet. He wants his beloved Night. He expresses his love
for Night in such lines as the following : Swift be thy flight ! Come, long-sought! Come
soon, soon.
There are a number of exquisite nature-pictures in the poem. Night is imagined as
living in some lonely and misty eastern cave where, throughout the day, she weaves as wearing
a gray cloak studded with stars. When Night appears, she blinds with her dark hair the eyes of
Day and kisses Day till Day is exhausted and retires from the scene. The idea of Day giving
place to Night has been conveyed to us through a beautiful picture :
Wrap the form in a mantle gray,
Star inwrought !
Blind with thine hair the eyes of Day;
Kiss her until she be wearied out, ..
Night is then depicted as wandering over city, sea and land, and producing a sleepy
effect upon all living beings. More pictures follow in the poem. There is the picture of the sun
riding high and the dew vanishing, and there is the picture of flowers and trees oppressed by
the heavy weight of noon. The weary Day is depicted as lingering like an unloved guest, a most
appropriate simile.
There is an atmosphere of melancholy in the poem which is also characterized by a
note of longing. The poet yearns for Night. Several times in the course of the poem he says that
he is sighing for Night, and several times he appeals to her to come soon. The music and
melody of the poem lend a great charm to it. Here is a specimen of the poemes music :
Death will come when thou art dead,
Soon, too soon
Sleep will come when thou art fled ;
Of neither would I ask the boon
I ask of thee, beloved Night
Come soon, soon !
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In short, this poem has all the qualities of Shelleys lyricism. The poem is remarkable
also for the simplicity of its language and ideas. There is nothing abstract or obscure, either,
about language or about the theme. Most of us do not have Shelleys love for Night, and yet
somehow we are made to share the writers sentiments in this poem, which only means that, as
we read through the poem, we fall under its spell. The music of the poem has certainly some-
thing to do with this spell.
Much of Shelleys poetry is divorced from real human life. It lacks substance. It is airy
or ethereal. It is vain to look for definite meaning in much of his poetry. The song here is an
example of the abstract or ethereal or insubstantial quality of Shelleys poetry. The four stanzas
before us have no logical or clear-cut thought. The meaning is vague and hazy, not clear and
definite. These stanzas have a dream like quality about them. But this song is regarded as one
of Shelleys supreme efforts. J.A. Symonds for instance, says about it : If a critic is so dull as
to ask what Life of Life ! thy lips enkindle means, or to whom it is addressed, none can help
him any more than one can help a man whose sense of hearing is too gross for the tenuity of a
bats cry. That is all very well, but it ought to be admitted that this lyric, for all its impassioned
imagery, is lacking in clear cut thought. It stirs a vague, transcendent emotion, but the last line
(Dizzy, lost, yet unbewailing!) aptly describes the feelings of the reader when he has finished
the poem. So far as the sense or meaning is concerned, it is a confusing poem, and our feelings
are best described in the last line.
Apart from the meaning, however this is one of the finest lyrics of Shelley. Its melody
and music are enchanting. The sweetness of its verse is delicious. As we read through the
poem, we feel delighted by its singing quality. Especially note-worthy is the abundance of the
liquid consonants (1, m and n) which always enrich and sweeten verse. For instance :
Life of Life ! thy lips enkindle
With their love the breath between them;
-
Till they fail, as I am failing,
Dizzy, lost, yet unbewailing
The poem is also remarkable for the richness of its imagery, and its similes and meta-
phors. The pictures of the breath of Asia being lighted up, her smiles warming the cold air, her
body seeming to burn through her garments, her brightness illumining the dim shapes of the
earth these are all wonderful. The beauty of Asias eyes is most fancifully depicted by saying
that whoever looks into them faints, entangled in their mazes. Asias eyes are compared to
labyrinthine, bewildering paths in which a man would lose his way, while the intoxication of her
yes would completely over power and overwhelm him. We have a beautiful simile when Asias
body seeming to burn through her garments is compared to the brightness of the morning
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which appears through the clouds in the east. A wonderful metaphor is employed when the
voice of Asia is called a liquid splendour. Another metaphor is used when Asia is addressed
as the Lamp of Earth.
This song or hymn has all the spontaneity for which Shelleys lyrics are known. As we
read it, we feel that it must have come from the poets imagination naturally and effortlessly, just
as a nightingales song comes naturally from her throat. The mood of the poem is rapturous
because of the fascinating and dazzling beauty, charm and radiance of Asia. The two closing
lines, however are tinged with sadness because there the speaker describes himself as failing
dizzy, lost.

(a) The answer to the following questions should not exceed 20 words each :-
(i) What does Asia represent in Hymn to the Spirit of Nature?

(ii) Why is it not possible to look at Asia ?

(iii) What does the union of Prometheus and Asia symbolize ?

(iv) What is the voice of Asia called ?

(v) Where has the song Hymn to the Spirit of Naturebeen extracted from ?

(vi) What is the main idea of the poem To Night ?

(vii) How is the Day depicted in To Night ?
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(viii) What does the Night do to the Day ?

(b) Answer the following questions in 500 words each :-
(i) Critically analyse the Poem To Night.

(ii) Critically appreciate the poem Hymn to the Spirit of Nature.

7.4 Answers to SAQs

(A) (i) Intellectual Beauty, Soul of the World or the Spirit of Nature.
(ii) Because her beauty is dazzling and unbearable.
(iii) The union of Prometheus and Asia symbolize the union of the spirit of love in
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man with the spirit of love in Nature.
(iv) Liquid splendour.
(v) From Shelleys poetic drama Prometheus Unbound.
(vi) It tells us about Shelleys intense love of Night and is an invitation to her to
come soon.
(vii) The weary Day is depicted as lingering like an unloved guest.
(viii) The Night blinds with her dark hair the eyes of Day and kisses till day is
exhausted and retires from the scene.
(B) (i) See the Critical Appreciation.
(ii) See the Critical Appreciation.
7.5 Let Us Sum Up

In this unit we have presented a detailed analysis of shelleys two poems To The
Night and Hymn to the Spirit of Nature. Both the poems are remarkable for their lyrical
quality, spontaneity and richness of imagery.
The detailed explanatory notes have been given to enable you to comprehend and
enjoy the poems. At the end are given the self-assessment questions to enable you check your
understanding.

1. Discuss the use of images in To The Night.
2. Elucidate the poem Hymn to The Spirit of Nature as remarkable example of Shelleys
lyrical richness.
7.7 Bibliography
1. Desmond King Hele : Shelley, His Thought and Work (OUP).
2. J.A. Symonds : Shelley.
3. R.D. Trivedi : A Compedious History of English Literature, Vikas.
4. Stopford A. Brooke : Studies in Poetry, (OUP).
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UNIT 8
JOHN KEATS : ODE ON MELANCHOLY,
LA BELLE DAME SANS MERCI
Structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 John Keats Life and Personality
8.2.1 John Keats Works
8.2.2 The Nature of an Ode and Keats Odes
8.3 Ode on Melancholy : Text
8.3.1 Glossary
8.3.2 Delailed Explanation of Ode on Melancholy
8.3.3 Self- Assessment Questions
8.4 La Belle Dame Sans Merci : Text
8.4.1 Glossary
8.4.2 Delailed Explanation of La Belle Dame Sans Merci
8.5 Let Us Sum Up
8.7 Bibliography
8.0 Objectives
This unit will help you to understand
1. Keats life and personality
2. his important works and his odes
3. the nature of an ode and Keats odes
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4. Ode on Melancholy
5. La Belle Dame Sans Merci
8.1 Introduction
In this unit we have given you an introduction to the early nineteenth century poets
who belonged to the Romantic Revival and the chief elements of the Romantic poetry with
special reference to John Keats. But you cannot understand Keats Ode on Melancholy in
isolation. In order to understand this ode you should study Keats other odes. A brief review
of his life and other poetic works is given so that you can understand Ode On Melancholy and
Ode on Indolence in a better way. Keats famous ballad La Belle Dame Sans Merci is also
explained in this unit. The text of the poems is included for your convenience. The glossary
and literary terms are explained for your better understanding of the poems.
Introduction to John Keats
The first thirty years of the nineteenth century are remarkable in the literary history of
England for a number of poets of literary genius whose work has been as much discussed as
that of any group of writers in English literature. The text books have attached the label
Romantic Revival to them to show how their work is different from that of their predecessors:
John Milton, John Dryden and Alexander Pope.
Romantic Revival is a movement in England inaugurated by the publication of Lyrical
Ballads by William Wordsworth and S.T. Coleridge in 1798. Wordsworth (1770-1850) is
the oldest, the greatest and the most long lived of the Romantic poets. The other significant
poets of this movement are S.T. Coleridge (1772-1834), Lord Byron (1788-1824), P.B.
Shelley (1792-1822) and John Keats (1795-1821).
The works of the romantic poets were significantly different from those of their
predecessors because they all had a deep interest in and love for nature, not only as a centre
of beautiful scenes but also as an informing and spiritual influence on life. They were turning to
nature to escape the nightmarish influence of industrialism, may be for protection. They all
valued their own experiences and there is a subjective element in their poetry as they looked
into themselves, seeking in their own lives for strange sensations and subject for their poetry.
In the poetry of all of them, there is a sense of wonder, a sense of mysterious, of life seen with
a new vision and fresh sensibilities.
8.2 John Keats Life and Personality

John Keats (1795-1821) was the last-born of the romantics and the first to die. Yet in
this short span of twenty six years three volumes of his poetry were published : Poems (1817),
Endymion (1818) and Lamia and Other Poems (1820). All the great odes (eight) of the
1820 volume contain his maturest works, Two others Fragment of an Ode to Maia, written
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on Mayday (1818) and Ode On Indolence (1819) have been taken from the posthumous
poems which were published after his death.
Keats was the son of a stable keeper. He was a West Countryman by descent, but a
Londoner by birth. His father, Thomas Keats, was employed in livery stable in Finsbury and
married his masters daughter Frances Jennings. He is described as a man of remarkably fine
common sense and respectability. From their marriage were born John Keats, the poet,
George, Tom, Edward, who died in infancy and one daughter called Fanny. Though Keats
birth was not aristocratic, his parents were well to do and ambitious. Soon after Keats had
started going to school, his father died in 1804. His mother to whom Keats was deeply
attached, died of consumption when he was only fifteen. He spent the best years of his youth
in training to be a doctor though from the first a devotion to poetry occupied him intensely.
It was Charles Cowden Clarke who initiated Keats to Spenser and it was under the
influence of The Faerie Queene that Keats thought of writing verses. The abundance of
images in Spensers poetry fascinated him most and it is reflected in his work at many places.
From Spenser and Shakespeare he learned the magic power of words and from Elgin Marbles,
Greek sculpture and paintings of Haydon he discovered what pictorial art could contribute to
his poetry. He discovered the classical fables and legends from Dictionaries and reference
books. When he decided to dedicate himself to poetry, he received positive encouragement
from his brothers and friends who had great faith in him. His lovable nature won him many
friends, most important among them were Leigh Hunt and Hayden. By 1817 Keats had given
up his medical studies altogether and devoted himself to poetry as his lifes work.
Keats letters have played a significant role to sustain his popularity in the twentieth
century. They reveal his critical opinions, his frustration in love for Fanny Brawne, his capacity
for intimate friendship and his journey to Italy in an effort to recover his failing health.
The emigration of his brother George Keats and his wife to America, was the first
blow that struck Keats. He writes : My love for my brothers, from the early loss of our
parents, and even from earlier misfortunes, has grown into an affection passing the love of
woman. In the summer of 1818 Keats went on a walking tour through the English lakes and
Scotland with his friend Charles Brown. Over exertion and exposure during this trip brought
on fever and bad throat which soon developed into the fatal disease of consumption. His
mother had died of it and his brother Tom was dying of it. He was already much depressed by
Georges departure to America, now Toms illness broke him down. He nursed Tom till his
death in December 1818. Then came the death of Tom as a last blow when Keats himself was
far from well.
The first few months of 1819 were the most fruitful period of his life and one of the
famous poems of this period is Ode to A Nightingale.Certain lines of this ode show how
deeply he felt the loss of his younger brother and how he himself longed for death:
Now more than ever seems it rich to die,
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To cease upon the midnight with no pain,
While thou art pouring forth thy soul abroad
In such an ecstasy! (II. 55-58)
A reference to the memory of Toms closing days and his own failing health may be
traced in the following lines:
Here, where men sit and hear each other groan;
Where palsy shakes a few, sad, last grey hairs,
Where youth grows pale, and spectre-thin, and dies... (II. 24-26)
Sickness was eating his life away and in 1820 he was torn between his disease and his
passion for Fanny Browne. After the appearance of his last volume of Poems in 1820, he was
at length ordered by the doctors to go to Italy to recover from his illness. He sank fast and
died on February 23, 1821. Keats epitaph is of his own dictation:
Here lies one whose name was writ in water.
8.2.1 Keats Works

Keats was not well known during his life time and as Shelley puts it, his work was
doomed to total neglect and obscurity. Many years later Matthew Arnold, one of the most
famous Victorian poets and critics, said of Keats,
He is with Shakespeare. This was complete reversal of judgement. If Keats work
is compared with the work of other English poets produced by the age of twenty five, he,
undoubtedly stands supreme.
Keats published three volumes of poetry:
1. Poems in 1817
2. Endymion in 1818
3. Lamia and Other Poems in 1820
In the Poems of 1817, Keats expresses the youthful spirit of delight and of liberty of
the new age. In this volume he seems to be influenced by Leigh Hunt in his idiomatic cast of
language and versification. However, there are in this volume perfect sonnets: Much have I
travelled in the Realms of gold, On First Looking into Chapmans Homer.
Endymion was published in 1818. It is a classical love story of a Shepherd prince
and the goddess which depicts the passion of the human soul for nature and for absolute
beauty.
The next important poem was Isabella which was finished in Summer 1818. In Isabella
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Keats versifies a tale from Baccaccio of the love of Isabella and Lorenzo, and the murder of
Lorenzo by Isabellas cruel brothers.
The Eve of St.Agnes is woven around an Italian legend which narrates the story of
Porphyro who falls in love with the daughter of a hostile house, Modeline.
Hyperion and The Fall of Hyperion mark the opening and closing of the most creative
year of Keats poetry. He narrates in Hyperion the overthrow of the Titanic gods by the new
Olympian gods.
Lamia, composed in 1819 has allegorical significance. The story seems to suggest
that philosophy alone is cold and destructive while the pleasures of senses alone are unreal and
unsatisfying.
Odes: In the spring of 1819, Keats was chiefly engaged in the composition of his
unique odes which have no parallel and are a class by themselves. The spirit of sadness which
predominates his thought in the last year of his life, strikes the Keynote of the odes. The most
important Odes of Keats are: Ode to a Nightingale, Ode on a Grecian Urn, Ode to Autumn,
Ode on Melancholy, Ode to Psyche and Ode on Indolence.
8.2.2 The Nature of an Ode and Keats Odes

The Ode is defined in the Oxford New English Dictionary as a rimed lyric often in
the form of an address, generally dignified or exalted in subject, feeling and style.
The Greeks defined the word Ode simply as a song and applied it to any kind of
poetic composition that was composed to be sung to music. The Greek odes were of two
kinds:
1. The first category of odes were composed for a single voice, such as lyrics of Sappho.
They were regular and simple in metre.
2. The second type of odes were written for a choir. The best examples are the odes of
Pindar. They were highly elaborate.
Amongst the famous writers of odes before Keats were Milton, Spenser, Dryden,
Gray, Collins and Wordsworth. A reading of their poems shows that the Greek definition of
ode must be changed for English poets. As a matter of fact, opinions may differ about the
exact features of an ode. Now the name of ode is applied to one type of lyric poem only.
Dignity of theme and style, elaborate metrical structure, solemnity in tone usually taking the
form of an address are the essential features of an ode.
The odes written by English poets can be roughly classified into three categories:
regular and Pindaric, regular and simple and irregular.
1. In the first group Thomas Grays Progress of Poesy and The Bard can be included.
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They are composed of a group of stanzas; each group consists of three stanzas.
2. To the second group belong Spensers Four Hymns of Love and Beauty, Miltons
Nativity Hymn, Grays Eton College, Collins Ode to Evening and others.
3. To the third group belong Spensers Epithalmion and Drydens Song for Saint
Cecilias Day, Collins The Passion and Wordsworths Ode on the Intimations of
Immortality.
Among the most distinguished writers of odes who belonged to the early nineteenth
century are Shelley Coleridge and Keats. Shelleys to a Skylark and Ode to the West Wind
are written in regular stanzas, while Coleridges Dejection is written in irregular stanzas.
Keats does not follow the strict Pindaric pattern. His structure of ode is sometimes
regular and simple as in To Fancy. The most characteristic form of his odes consists of a
group of stanzas complex in structure but regular or nearly regular.
We are brought into personal contact with the mind of Keats when we study his great
odes. He expresses his own feelings and shows how they are coloured by the events of
his life. Robert Bridges comments:
Had Keats left us only his odes, his rank among the poets would not be lower
than it is, for they have stood apart in literature.
8.3 Ode on Melancholy : Text

No, no! go not to Lethe, neither twist
Wolf s-bane, tight-rooted, for its poisonous wine;
Nor suffer thy pale forehead to be kissd
By nightshade, ruby grapes of Proserpine;
Make not your rosary of yew-berries, 5
Nor let the beetle nor the death-moth be
Your mournful psyche, nor the downy owl
A partner in your sorrows mysteries;
For shade to shade will come too drowsily,
And drown the wakeful anguish of the soul. 10
And when the melancholy fit shall fall

Sudden from heaven like a weeping cloud,
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That fosters the droop-headed flowers all,
And hides the green hill in an April shroud;
Then glut thy sorrow on a morning rose, 15
Or on the rainbow of the salt sand-wave,
Or on the wealth of globed peonies;
Or, if thy mistress some rich anger shows,
Emprison her soft hand, and let her rave,
And feed deep, deep upon her peerless eyes. 20
She dwells with Beauty Beauty that must die;
And Joy, whose hand is ever at his lips
Bidding adieu; and aching Pleasure nigh,
Turning to poison while the bee-mouth sips:
Ay, in the very temple of Delight 25
Veild Melancholy has her sovran shrine,
Though seen of none save him whose strenuous tongue
Can burst Joys grape against his palate fine;
His soul shall taste the sadness of her might,
And be among her cloudy trophies hung. 30
8.3.1 Glossary
Stanza 1
Melancholy a deep feeling of sadness that lasts for a long time.
Line 1 Lethe A river in the lower world, by drinking from which the spirits of the
dead obtained forgetfulness.
Line 2 Wolfs bane The poisonous plant called aconite or monks hood. Bane =
harm. The plant was anciently used as a bait for wolf traps.
Line 3 Twist The action of turning or bending with your hand twisting is required
for tearing up its root and for extracting its poisonous juice.
Line 4 Tight rooted Rooted firmly in the ground.
Line 5 Pale A person having face or skin that is almost white.
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Line 6 Nightshade Yields red bright berries which is the most dangerous of British
poisonous plants.
Line 7 Ruby grape The ruby grape refers to the vivid red berries of the woody
night shade.
Line 8 Proserpine Ceres daughter Proserpina was carried off by Pluto, King of the
World of the dead. Ceres, who was the goddess of the fruits of earth, mourned for
Proserpina so much that all the harvests were spoiled and Jupiter sent Mercury to
fetch Proserpina back. But proserpina had eaten part of a pomegranate among the
shades. As a result even Mercury could not wholly free her and she spends four
months of every year in the nether world ahd the rest with her mother.
Line 9 Rosary The string of beads by which Roman Catholics count their prayers.
Line 10 Yew berries Yew tree is a small tree with dark green leaves and small red berries,
associated with graveyards.
Line 11 Beetle Beetle lives in walls and woodwork generally, and by drumming with its head
produces a melancholy sound of rapid tapping, believed by many to be a presage of
the death of some person in the house.
Line 12 Death-moth The deaths head hawk-moth. As it flies it produces a low, melancholy
sound.
Line 13 Psyche Psyche typifies the soul of man. It is generally represented as having the
wings of a butterfly.
Line 14 Owl a bird of ill omen.
Line 15 Downy covered in soft hair or feathers.
Line 16 Drowsily In a tired or almost sleepy manner. The feeling caused by death or calamities
is of deadening grief, not melancholy. Keats here probably means conscious enjoyment
of sorrowful feeling which is associated with everything that is beautiful and joyful.
Line 17 Anguish Severe pain, mental suffering or unhappiness.
Stanza 2
Line 18 Fit shall fall the visitation of melancholy mood is sudden.
Line 19 a weeping cloud pouring rain
Line 20 Foster to encourage to develop.
Line 21 The droop-headed flowers all All those flowers which hang down their heads.
Line 22 April Shroud a shroud of April rain The word shroud which means cover, lends a
touch of mystery and sadness.
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Line 23 Glut indulge to the full
Line 24 Morning rose A rose that blooms in the morning. The morning rose in spring season,
after a shower looks beautiful but its beauty will fade away.
Line 25 Rainbow of the salt sand-wave The colours of the rainbow sometimes produced by
the play of sunlight on on wet sand left by a retreating wave. The rainbow occasionally
appears after a shower and its charming reflection will remain for a short while.
Line 26 Wealth wealth or abundance of flowers
Line 27 Globed globe shaped
Line 28 Globed peonies plants with large globular red or white flowers.
Line 29 Rich precious, pleasant In Ode to a Nightingale Keats longs for death and says:
Now more than ever seems it rich to die. To cease upon the midnight with no pain
(55-56) This use of rich is characteristic of Keats.
Line 30 Rich anger a fervent emotion or passion of anger Keats is no doubt thinking of Fanny
Brawne, whom he seems to have regarded as an incarnation of his ideal of beauty.
Line 31 Emprison imprison, to hold her soft hand so that she cannot escape.
Line 32 Rave Under the influence of some intense passion.
Line 33 Peerless eyes eyes better than all others. The eyes acquire a lustre under the influence
of a strong feeling.
Stanza 3
Line 34 She Melancholy is personified here
Line 35 Dwells lives
Line 36 Beauty, Joy are personified
Line 37 Bidding adieu saying good bye
Line 38 Aching feeling a continuous dull pain.
Line 39 Aching pleasure nigh Melancholy dwells close to pleasure whose intensity merges
into pain. The heart aches when the pleasure is excessive. Satiety in pleasure causes
a sad feeling. Pleasure thus turns almost to pain and a feeling of disillusionment.
Line 40 Nigh nearly
Line 41 The bee mouth sips The bee is the emblem of the pleasure seeker. Man is compared
to the bee which sucks honey with great avidity. So man also indulges in pleasure with
zeal and gusto but the sweetness of joy turns to poison as soon as it is tasted.
Line 42 Temple of Delight Delight is personified
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Line 43 Veild Melancholy The face of the goddess Melancholy is covered or hidden from
dull, insensitive souls.
Line 44 Sovran The older form of sovereign
Line 45 Sovran Shrine The dominating shrine. Melancholy dominates delight. Her face is
veiled and she reveals her face only to those who are capable of experiencing intense
pleasure.
Line 46 Save except
Line 47 Strenuous tongue a vigorous or strenuous pursuit of pleasure will lead to the realization
of melancholy.
Line 48 Palate The top part of the inside of the mouth palate fine is the soft part at the front
or back of the palate.
Line 49 Save him ... palate fine Only those who can appreciate the ecstasies of joy, can
appreciate the finest shades of melancholy. The sense of taste and touch contributes
to the perception of knowledge.
Line 50 The sadness of her might the power of her sadness.
Line 51 Cloudy trophies Sensitive souls of men are compared to clouds which are hung as
trophies in the shrine of Melancholy. The clouds suggest the gloom and a feeling of
dejection, melancholy.
8.3.2 Detailed Explanation of Ode on Melancholy

Ode on Melancholy is one of the most important odes of Keats. This is the last of the
Odes in the 1820 volume. It reveals that melancholy and truest sadness dwell with beauty and
joy, for the pain of suffering is less keen than the pain of knowing that beauty and joy will fade:
She dwells with Beauty Beauty that must die
And Joy, whose hand is ever at his lips
Bidding adieu; and aching pleasure nigh, .....
A note of solemnity, deepening now and then to poignant sadness and suffering can be
heard through this ode as well as his other great odes.
Keats was reading Burtons Anatomy of Melancholy about this time when he
composed Ode on Melancholy. He admired Burtons Anatomy of Melancholy for its fantastic
and forcible images. Burtons influence on Keats style and tone can be noticed in the following
lines which were first written as the opening stanza:
Though you should build a bark of dead mens bones,
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And rear a phantom gibbet for a mast
Stitch shrouds together for a sail, with groans
To fill it out, blood-stained and aghast;
Although your rudder be a dragons tail,
Long severd, yet still hard with agony,
Your cordage large uprootings from the skull
Of bald Medusa, certes you would fall
To find the Melancholy Whether she
Dreameth in any isle of Lethe dull,
This stanza was omitted by Keats from the printed version this explains the seeming
abruptness of the opening line:
No, no! go not to Lethe, neither twist...
The main thought of the poem is that only those who are capable of experiencing the
extremest joy will know what real melancholy is. The poet suggests that true melancholy does
not lie in the sad and ugly things of life, not even in death and the accompaniments of death but
in all things that are beautiful and joyful:
Ay, in the very temple of Delight
Veild Melancholy has her sovran shrine...
Thus the profound perception of the poet is reflected in this central idea that the source
of the deepest melancholy lies in Joy, Delight and in eternal Beauty.
That is why the poet suggests:
No, no! go not to Lethe, neither twist
Wolfs bane, tight rooted, for its poisonous wine...
Nor suffer thy pale forehead to be kissed
By night shade, ruby grape of Proserpine ...
These lines follow naturally from the omitted stanza.
Keats suggests in the opening lines that Melancholy is a delicate feeling and not
deadening grief. Those who seek to find melancholy, should not look for her in the places
which are commonly supposed to be her dwelling such as Lethe in the lower world, Wolfs-
bane, ruby grape of Proserpine, the beetle, the death-moth, your mournful Psyche or the
downy owl. The objects, places and creatures named in this stanza are associated with gloom
108
and mourning. The sufferer from melancholy, A partner is your Sorrows mysteries, will be
lulled into drowsiness to forget the pain and suffering of the soul.
In the second stanza the poet describes how the fit of melancholy will fall suddenly like
a weeping cloud. He uses a simile to describe the pouring rain which will encourage the
flowers in the mouth of April to grow. There will be an abundance of flowers with their heads
hung down covering the green hill. The tender melancholic feeling lies deep in your heart when
you look at April showers, the beauty of the morning rose and the peerless eyes of your
beloved.
The concluding stanza strongly suggests that a deep feeling of sadness, the sense of
tears in mortal things is always presently in everything that is beautiful and joyful. Melancholy
is personified, so are Joy, Pleasure and Delight. She lives close to the pleasure whose keenness
merges into pain. A wealth of meaning is compressed in the graphic description of Melancholy
as a veiled woman living in the very temple of Delight. The poet communicates with his
characteristic magniticence of style and imagery that only those can appreciate the finest shades
of melancholy who can equally appreciate the ecstasies of joy.
In Ode on Melancholy each stanza consists of ten iambic pentameter lines, a quatrain
of alternate rhymes and a sestet rhyming cde cde. Its structure is most nearly regular.
1. Iambic: The iambic in which the unaccented syllable precedes the accented ( ) eg.
today
Example:
The night / is dark / and i / am far / from home.
2. Pentameter : line of verse with five metrical feet.
8.3.3 Self-assessment Questions

1. What are the places which are commonly supposed to be melancholys dwelling?
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2. From where shall the melancholy fit fall and what shall it be like?
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3. When melancholy fit falls, what does the poet ask you to do ?
109
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4. Where does Melancholy dwell?
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5. Who can see the veild face of Melancholy?
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6. What is the central idea of the poem?
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1. The places which are commonly supposed to be melancholys dwelling are Lethe is in
the lower world, Wolfs-bane, ruby grape of Proserpine, rosary of yew-berries, the
beetle, the death-moth mournful Psyche and the dawny owl.
2. The melancholy fit shall fall from heaven and it will be like a weeping cloud.
3. The poet suggests that when the melancholy fit falls suddenly from heaven, indulge
your sorrow in April showers, a morning rose and the matchless eyes of your beloved.
4. She dwells with Beauty and Joy in the very temple of Delight.
5. The veiled face of Melancholy can be seen only by those who can appreciate the finest
shades of melancholy and can equally appreciate the ecstasies of joy.
6. The central idea of the poem is that melancholy does not dwell in the sad and ugly
things of life, not in death and the accompaniments of death, but in everything that is
beautiful and joyful.
110
8.4 La Belle Dame Sans Merci : Text
O what can ail thee, knight-at-arms,
Alone and palely, loitering?
The sedge is witherd from the lake,
And no birds sing.
O what can ail thee, knight-at-arms,

So haggard and so woe-begone?
The squirels granary is full,
And the harvest is done.
I see a lily on thy brow

With anguish moist and fever dew;
And on thy cheek a fading rose
Fast withereth too.
I met a lady in the meads,

Full beautiful a faerys child;
Her hair was long, her foot was light,
And her eyes were wild.
I made a garland for her head,

And bracelets too, and fragrant zone;
She lookd at me as she did love,
And made sweet moan.
I set her on my packing steed,

And nothing else saw all day long,
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For sidelong would she bend and sing
A faerys song.
She found me roots of relish sweet.

And honey wild and manna dew;
And sure in language strange she said,
I love thee true!
She took me to her elfin grot,

And there she wept and sighd full sore;
And there I shut her wild, wild eyes
With kisses four.
And there she lulled me asleep,

and there I dreamd Ah! woe betide!
The latest dream I ever dreamd
On the cold hill side.
I saw pale kings and princes to,
Pale warriors, death-pale were they all;
Who cried- La Belle Dame Sans Merci
Hath thee in Thrall!
I saw their starvd lips in the gloam

With horrid warning gaped wide,
And I awoke, and found we here
On the cold hill side.
And this is why I sojourn here
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Alone and palely loitering,
Though the sedge is witherd from the lake,
And no birds sing.
8.4.1 Glossary
Title Belle - a beautiful woman
Dame - woman
Sans - without
Merci - mercy
Line 1 Ail cause problem and make sickThee YouKnight in-arms a man who saves a
woman form a dangerous situation.
Line 2 Palely loitering lingering with a pale face
Line 3 Sedge a plant like grass that grows in wet ground or near water. Withered dried up
Line 6 Haggard looking very tired because of illness Woe begone looking very sad
Line 7 The squirrels granary is full The squirrel has gathered his food for the winter.
Line 8 Harvest is done the cutting and gathering of crops on a farm is done.
Line 9 Lily a large white or brightly coloured flower
Line 10 Anguish pain and unhappiness
Line 11 Thy cheek a fading rose your cheeks have become paler as if all colour has faded
from them.
Line 12 Fast moving or happening quickly Withereth Witness
Line 13 Meads Meadows
Line 14 Full Very
Line 18 Fragrant Zone a girdle of sweet-scented flowers.
Line 20 Moan make a long deep sound
Line 21 Packing walking up and downSteed (literary) horse to ride on
Line 25 Relish sweet Sweet taste
Line 26 manna dew enchanted food
Line 29 elfin grot fairy cave
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Line 30 Sighd took a long deep breath expressing sadness Sore painfully
Line 33 lulled Soothed my nerved by singing
Line 34 Woe betide there will be trouble for.........
Line 37 I saw pale kings... These men with pale faces had died for love of the Beautiful Lady
without pity.
Line 38 death pale as pale as death.
Line 40 Hath hasin thrall enslaved
Line 41 Starvd lips Lips showed that they were feeling very hungry. gloam evening twilight
Line 42 horrid terrible, horrible gaped wide staring with open mouth in surprise
Line 45 Sajourn Stay here for a time
8.4.2 Detailed Explanation

La Belle Dame Sans Merci is a wonderful romantic ballad which some have considered
one of the best of Keats poems. It was composed probably in the spring or summer of 1819.
The title of the poem means The Beautiful Lady without Pity. The title is taken from
a poem of Alain Chartier, a French poet of the 15th Century of the Court of Charles VI. Keats
is indebted to Alain Chartier only for the title which had a kind of fascination for him. In the
Eve of St. Agnes, the title is mentioned in the following lines:
He played an ancient ditty, long since mute,
In Provence called, La belle dame sans merci:
(11, 291-92)
Chartiers poem narrates a prolix conversation between on obdurate lady and her
lover. At the end the lady goes away indifferent to dance and play while the lover is desperate
to tear his hair and die.
Among books which Keats read with devotion and which influenced his poetry
considerably should be mentioned Burtons Anatomy of Melancholy. The Knight-at-arms of
Keats La Belle is the same one who is Burton:
wandered in the woods sad all alone,
Forsaking mens society, making great moan.
These lines can be compared with the opening lines of Keats La Belle Dame Sans
Merci.
O what can ail thee, Knight-at-arms,
114
Alone and palely loitering?
The central idea of the poem is unrequited love, and the pain and suffering of one who
loves but is not loved in return. It is said that in writing this ballad, Keats was perhaps expressing
his own feelings; for he also loved but his love was not returned.
The poem starts with a question: What can trouble the Knight at arms and make his
look pale and sick? To describe the Knights condition, epithets like Alone, palely loitering
haggard and so woe-begone are used. His brow is compared with white lily and his pale
cheeks with a fading rose.
In the following stanzas the knight-at-arms narrates his sad story how he was enchanted
by a very beautiful lady in the meadows who appeared to be as beautiful as a fairy and whose
wild eyes seemed to be inviting. He expressed his love for her by making a garland for her
head and a girdle of sweet scented flowers. She gave him a loving glance, so he made her sit
on his horse.
The beautiful lady reciprocated the knights love and sang a fairy song while riding on
the horse with him. She brought sweet tasting roots, honey and enchanted food and in an
unfamiliar language said, I love thee true! She took the knight to her fairy cave and sang a
lullaby to make the knight go to sleep.
The knight dreamed that there would be trouble in his life. He saw pale kings and
warriors who had died for the love of this beautiful lady without mercy. They told him that she
had enslaved the knight as she had enslaved them. Their pitiable condition in the evening
twilight woke him up from his dream. After giving this simple explanation the knight says:
And that is why I sojourn here
Alone and palely loitering,
Though the sedge is witherd from the lake,
And no birds sing?
The knight at-arms represents that chivlrous and romantic hero who has aspirations of
each one of us. It is not only the soul of the poet in thrall in love but the soul of every lover
and idealist. The knight expresses the infinite agony of frustrated love which is doomed to
loiter padely and alone.
The ballad is medieval in subject matter and the medieval element is highlighted by
Keats power of recapturing the mystical as exemplified in this poem and his other poems
Lamia and The Eve of St. Agnes.Herford has rightly commented that Keats La Belle Dame
Sans Merci is a master-piece of horror-stricken reticence and magical suggestion. The poet
intentionally left the story slightly mysterious, that the reader may be left asking questions.
115
It is a ballad of forty lines arranged in twelve stanzas of four lines each. The diction is
very simple, selective and dignified, old spellings of the words such as thee hath thy dont
pose any difficulty in understanding. It may be concluded that the composition of this ballad is
full of artistic skills and the epithets and images convey the poets ideas successfully.

1. Is the title of the Poem a good one? Why?
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2. Who is alone and palely loitering?
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3. What ails the knight?

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4. Why did the lady charm the knight?
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5. What happened to the knight in the end?
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6. What is the theme of the poem?
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1. Yes, the title is a good one. It is appropriate because the knight-at-arms is enchanted
by the beautiful lady and expresses his love for her but she instead of returning his love
enslaves him and has no mercy for him.
2. The Knight-at-arms is along and lingering with a pale face on the cold hill side.
3. The knight looks pale, sad and worried because the beautiful lady without pity has
enslaved him and his fate will be like that of other pale kings and warriors.
4. The enchantingly beautiful lady charmed the knight because she wanted to enslave him
though she had no mercy for him.
5. The knight saw the pitiable condition of pale kings and warriors in the dream with their
starved lips in the evening twilight. They cried that the beautiful lady Hath thee in
thrall! He woke up as they warned him about his tragic fate. That is why the Knight
is staying on the cold hill side alone looking pale and sad. Keats intentionally leaves
the story at slightly mysterious note so that we may be left asking questions.
6. The theme of the poem is unrequited love, and the pain and suffering of one who loves
but is not loved in return. It is said that in writing this poem Keats was expressing his
own feelings. He too loved, but was not loved by Fanny Brawne.
8.5 Let Us Sum Up

In this unit we have tried to briefly sum up John Keats life and his works. You will be
able to understand Ode on Melancholy with the help of glossary, detailed explanations and
notes. The nature of an ode and the structure of Keats odes will be helpful in writing a critical
appreciation of this ode. After going through the text of Keats Ode On Melancholy and La
Belle Dame Sans Merci you will be able to study them with the help of glossary and detailed
explanation. You must have noticed Keatsuse of epithets and figures of speech, his sensuousness,
his use of various images his love of nature, his mood and the treatment of his themes.

1. Write a critical appreciation of Keats Ode on Melancholy.
2. Bring out the narrative acumen of Keats by citing examples from the prescribed poems.
8.7 Bibliography
1. The Penguin Book of English : Edited by John Hayward verse
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2. Selected Poems of John Keats : Edited by George H. Ford
3. A short History of English : Sir Ifor Evans; ELBS Addition
4. Studies in Keats : J.M. Murry
5. Keats : Robert Bridges
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UNIT 9
JOHN KEATS : ODE ON INDOLENCE
Structure
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Keats Works
9.3 Ode on Indolence : Text
9.3.1 Glossary
9.3.2 Detailed Explanation of Ode on Indolence
9.4 Self- Assessment Questions
9.5 Answers to SAQs
9.6 Let us Sum Up
9.8 Bibliography
9.0 Objectives
This unit will help you understand
1. Keats life and personality
2. Keats important works and his odes
3. Ode on Indolence
9.1 Introduction
In this unit we have given you an introduction to the early nineteenth century poets
who belonged to the Romantic Revival and the chief elements of the Romantic poetry with
special reference to John Keats. But you cannot understand Keats Ode on Indolence in
isolation. In order to understand this ode you should study Keats other odes. A brief review
of his life and personality and his other poetic works is given so that you may understand Ode
on Indolence in a better way. The text of the poem is included for your convenience. The
glossary and detailed explanation of the poem are given to help you understand the poem.
Introduction to John Keats
The first thirty years of the nineteenth century are remarkable in the literary history of
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England for a number of poets of literary genius whose work has been as much discussed as
that of any group of writers in English literature. The text books have attached the label
Romantic Revival to them to show how their work is different from that of their predecessors:
John Milton, John Dryden, and Alexander Pope.
Romantic Revival is a movement in England inaugurated by the publication of Lyrical
Ballads by William Wordsworth and S.T. Coleridge in 1798. Wordsworth (1770-1850) is
the oldest, the greatest and the most long lived of the Romantic poets. The other significant
poets of this movement are S.T. Coleridge (1772-1834), Lord Byron (1788-1824), P.B.
Shelley (1792-1822) and John Keats (1795-1821).
The works of the romantic poets were significantly different from those of their
predecessors because they all had a deep interest in nature, not only as a centre of beautiful
scenes but also as an informing and spiritual influence on life. They were turning to nature to
escape the nightmarish influence of industrialism, may be for protection. They all valued their
own experiences and there is a subjective element in their poetry as they looked into themselves,
seeking in their own lives for strange sensations and subject for their poetry. In the poetry of
all of them, there is a sense of wonder, a sense of mysterious, of life seen with a new vision and
fresh sensibilities.
9.2 Keats Works

Poems
Keats first volume of Poems appeared in1817. This early volume contains one of the
most splendid sonnets of English poetry, On First Looking Into Chapmans Homer. By his
sheer genius Keats has transformed the experiences and reminiscences of his school boy
reading into wonderful poetry. Sleep and Poetry was perhaps the last written among the
poems included in this volume. This volume of poems well illustrates the youthful spirit of
delight and of liberty of the new age. It shows that he loved Spenser for his imagery but had not
yet mastered the secrets of Spensers art.
Endymion
Endymion, published in 1818 is perhaps his longest poem. Keats was indebted to
Drayton and Fletcher for certain hints especially to Man in the Moon for the wanderings of his
hero Endymion. It is a classical love story of a Shepherd Price and the goddess. He depicts
the passion of the human soul for nature, for absolute beauty and its manifestation in the moonlight,
sunlight, earth, sea, love, heroic adventure and death.
Isabella
Keats next important poem was Isabella which was begun in February 1818 and was
finished during the next two months. The story of Isbella was taken from Boccaccios
Decameron. Lisabetta is the heroine of Decameron and the heroine of the story of Isabella
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is Isbella. In Keats story the passion of Isbella and Lorenzo is depicted on the superior level
of art and ethics in comparison to the vulgar intrigue of Lisabettas brothers vengeance in
Decameron.
Hyperion and The Fall of Hyperion
Hyperion and The Fall of Hyperion mark the opening and closing of the most creative
year of Keats poetry. He wrote every poem that places him among the major poets of the
world between September 1818 and September 1819. The subject of Hyperion had been
long in his mind when he composed Endymion. Keats narrates in Hyperion the overthrow of
the Titanic gods by the new Olympian gods. The supernatural character of the conflict is
presented and his love of nature is also fully depicted when Hyperion is brought down to the
earth. Althought Hyperion is a fragment, it is the only poem of Keats which has epic dimensions
and its grandeur is mainly due to its style.
The Eve of St. Agnes
The Eve of St. Agnes: In January 1819, Keats composed The Eve of St. Agnes
which is not a tragedy like Isbella. It is the story of Porphyro who falls in love with the
daughter of a hostile house, Madcline. The beauty of the poem consists in how Keats brings
it into association with the popular belief as to the way a love-lorn maiden may be granted a
vision of her lover in a dream. In the last stanza he says:
And they are gone: ay, ages long ago
These loves fled away into the storm,
A marvellous effect is achieved by Keats by the use of contrasts. The fierce sleeping
warriors tormented by nightmare are contrasted with the wakeful lovers. The happy Madeline
is contrasted with joyless Angela and the youthful Porphyro with the aged beadsmen. The
skilful use of contrast between the cruel cold outside and the warm love within the heart of the
lovers is notable.
Lamia
The source of Keats Lamia is Burtons Anatomy of Melancholy. He felt that there
was that sort of fire in the story of Lamia which must hold of people is some way. The poem
was composed in the summer of 1819. Lamia depicts the conflict of sensuous love and
philosophy. The story highlights the fact that philosophy alone is cold while the sensuous
pleasures are unsatisfying and not real. While reading the poem sometimes we feel that the
love of Lycius is a passing illusion and at other times that the mutual love and passion of Lycius
and Lamia is a beautiful thing. The rich imagery and pictorial quality of Keats poetry is
reflected in this poem.
Keats Odes
Keats was engaged in the composition of his famous odes in the spring of 1819.
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Keats odes occupy a unique place and have no parallel because they are a class by themselves.
They are: Ode to a Nightingale, Ode on Melancholy, Ode on a Grecian Urn, Ode to Psyche,
and Ode on Indolence, Ode to Autumn was composed in September 1819.
Ode to a Nightingale
Ode to a Nightingale is one of the finest Odes. Listening to the nightingales song, the
poet is oppressed by its beauty and joy. He wishes to escape to the world of the forest so that
he may be free from the worries and sorrows of daily human life. The sensuous quality of
Keats poetry is highlighted when he describes the natural beauty of early summer is St. 4. It
this moment of ecstasy, when the nightingale is singing he longs for easeful death. In the
concluding stanzas as the song of the nightingale fades away, the poet returns to the real world
with a jolt.
Ode on a Grecian Urn
Ode on a Grecian Urn is important for the expression of the Hellenic Spirit in Keats.
Keats is thinking of Greek sculpture in general and of figures and the scene of a sacrifice
carved on a Grecian Urn. The central idea is the contrast between art and life. The carven life
of imagery is more real than the human life of Heard melodies. The love depicted on the urn
is more permanent than the human love which never brings real happiness. In the concluding
stanza he suggests that amidst the changes of this mortal life Beauty and Truth are permanent
and everlasting.
To Autumn:
To Autumn: In September 1819 Keats wrote to John Hamilton Reynods from
Winchester:
How beautiful the season is now-how fine the air-a temperate sharpness about it!
Keats was struck by the beauty of the season so much that he composed upon it. The ode is
composed of three stanzas which show a gradual rise of thought. In the opening stanza Autumn
is seen as the season itself bringing all the fruits to ripeness. In the second, Autumn is personified
as a woman who is present at the various activities of the harvest. In the last stanza, Autumn is
associated with the sunset. The songs of spring are over but Autumn has its music too.
9.3 Ode On Indolence : Text

They toil not, neither do they spin
I
One morn before me were three figures seen,
With bowed necks, and joined hands, side-faced;
And one behind the other steppd serene,
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In placid sandals, and in white robes graced;
They passd, like figures on a marble urn, 5
When shifted round, to see the other side;
They came again; as, when the urn once more
Is shifted round, the first seen shades return;
And they were strange to me, as may betide
With vases, to one deep in Phidian lore. 10
II
How is it, Shadows! that I knew ye not?
How came ye muffled in so hush a mask?
Was it a silent deep-disguised plot
To steal away, and leave without a task
My idle days? Ripe was the drowsy hour; 15
The blissful cloud of summer-indolence
Benumbd my eyes; my pulse grew less and less;
Pain had no sting, and pleasures wreath no flower;
O, why did ye not melt, and leave my sense
Unhaunted quite of all but nothingness? 20
III
A third time passd they by, and, passing, turnd
Each one the face a moment whiles to me;
Then faded, and to follow them I burnd
And ached for wings, because I knew the three;
The first was a fair Maid, and Love her name; 25
The second was Ambition, pale of cheek,
And ever watchful with fatigued eye;
The last, when I love more, the more of blame
Is heapd upon her, maiden most unmeek,
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I knew to be my demon Poesy. 30
IV
They faded, and forsooth! I wanted wings;
O folly! What is love? and where is it?
And for that poor Ambition! it springs
From a mans little hearts short fever-fit;
For Poesy! no, - she was not a joy, - 35
At least for me, - so sweet as drowsy noons,
And evenings steepd in honied indolence;
O, for an age so shelterd from annoy,
That I may never know how change the moons,
Or hear the voice of busy common-sense! 40
V
And once more came they by; - alas! wherefore?
My sleep had been embroiderd with dim dreams;
My soul had been a lawn besprinkled oer
With flowers, and stirring shodes, and baffled beams:
The morn was clouded, but no shower fell, 45
Tho in her lids hung the sweet tears of May;
The open casement pressd a new-leaved vine,
Let in the budding warmth and throstles lay;
O shadows! t was a time to bid farewell !
Upon your skirts had fallen no tears of mine. 50
VI
So, ye three Ghosts, adieu! Ye cannot raise
My head cool-bedded in the flowery grass;
For I would not be dieted with praise,
A pet-lamb in a sentimental farce!
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Fade softly from my eyes, and be once more 55
In mosque-like figures on the dreamy urn;
Farewell! I yet have visions for the night,
And for the day faint visions there is store;
Vanish, Ye Phantoms! from my idle spright,
Into the clouds, and never more return! 60
9.3.1 Glossary
They toil not, neither do they spin (Matthew, VI, 28)
And why take ye thought for raimen?

Consider the lilies of the field, how they grow;
they toil not, neither do they spin,
These lines can be compared with Spensers Faerie

Queene, Ii, vi, 17:
Why then dost thou, O man, that of them all
Art Lord, and eke of nature Soveraine,
Willfully make thy selfe a wretched thrall,
And waste thy joyous houres in needlesse paine,
Seeking for daunger and adventures vaine?
Stanza 1
1. morn morning
2. bowed necks their heads bent, so that it is difficult to recognize them.Side-faced
their profile only could be seen.
3. Serene calm and peaceful
4. Placid calm, peaceful and undisturbed. robes graced dressed in white garments.
5. Urn tall vase, usually with a stem and base specially one used for holding the ashes
of a cremated person.
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6. to see so that one may see
8. Shades Shadowy figures
10. Phidian lore Phidias was a famous Athenian sculptor of the fifth century B.C. Phydian
lore refers to the sculptors art. Keats means that the figures depicted on a marble
urn are various, and even a skilled artist of Greek sculpture can not easily recognize
them.
Stanza 2
11. Shadows Shadowy figures Ye You
12. muffled disguised So hush a mask so quiet a disguise
13. Was it ... my idle days The poet imagines that the Shadowy figures had intentionally
disguised themselves so as to join in a secret plot to shatter the vision of the poet in his
mood of indolence.
15. Ripe... It was noon when one feds most drowsy in summer season.
16. Blissful joyful Blissful ... summer indolence the mood and state of indolence in
summer is compared with a joyful cloud
17. Benumbd deadened the sensibility of eyes
18. Sting unbearable pain Pain... Flower There was no sharpness in pain and suffering
no delight and attraction in the pursuit of pleasure.
19. melt dissolve
20. my sense ... nothingness The poet feels that his mind is blank and it is not conscious
of anything but its own vacuity. Unhaunted not visited repeatedly
Stanza 3
22. A moment whiles for the space of a moment.
24. ached for wings The poet is filled with a keen desire to chase the three figures whom
he recognizes. In a mood of dreamful indolence the poet feels a strong desire to have
wings so that he can fly and follow them.
25. fair maid the epithet fairwhich means beautiful is used to indicate the infinite charms
of Love.
26. Ambition, pale of cheek Ambition has pale cheeks because to realize ambition one
has to give up delights and live laborious days, vigilance and hard work are the befitting
attributes of Ambition. Note: A connection can be noted between these lines and
the closing lines of KeatsThe Terror of Death: never have relish in the faery power of
unreflecting love ...Till love and Fame to nothingness do sink.
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27. fatigued tiredness usu resulting from hard work.
28. the more of blame A reference is to unreasoned, bitter reviews of Endymion which
had appeared in Blackwoods Magazine or The Quarterly Review.
29. most unmeek The poets creative energy is irrepressible, that is why unmeek.
30. demon the word is used in the Greek sense of familiar or guardian spirit. Whom I
love more ... Poesy The poet loves Poesy more than Love and Ambition, because
Poesy fills him with demoniacal energy. He loves her hostile and unsympathetic critics.
Stanza 4
31. forsooth an archaism (old-fashioned use) for indeed. I wanted wings It refers to
the poets momentary craving for pursuing them.
32. Where is it? Compare with the following lines from Ode to a Nightingale: Where
beauty cannot keep her lustrous eyes, or new Love pine at them beyond tomorrow.
(29-30)
34. Short fever-fit Ambition springs from a strong desire to achieve something in life,
from a brief turmoil caused by the petty passions. Compare with Ode to a Nightingale:
The weariness, the fever, and the fret (I. 23)
36. drowsy noons noon time which induces sheep.
38. Sheltered from annoy free from the annoyances and worries of life.
39. how change the moons - how the seasonal changes take place and how the time
passes.
40. busy common sense the wisdom of the world.
Stanza 5
42. Sleep... embroiderd with dim dreams Sleep has been imagined as a dress and
beautiful delicate embroidery is the dreams.
43. Soul ... lawn besprinkled oer with flowers Soul has been compared with a lawn.
Flowers are scaltered over it.
44. Stirring shades... beams flickering of light and shade in a graden of flowers is baffling.
45. morn morning
46. in her lids ... tears of May The poet depicts a lovely metaphorical painting of soft
cloudy days of spring and early summer (May). The air smells of coming rain. Vernal
shower has not yet burst forth from the clouds floating above. The sweet tears of May
are the raindrops.
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47. Casement Window that opens on hinges like a door.
49. O Shadows ... bid farewell! It was a time when the ghostly figures of love, ambition
and poesy should leave him alone and say good bye.
50. Upon your skirts... tears of mine He wishes that these figures should leave him while
he was still plunged in indolence without rousing him to activities of life which were
sure to bring suffering and tears. He would have no regrets for their disappearance.
Stanza-6
51. adieu (archaic) good bye
52. head cool-bedded compare with Tennysons The Lotus Eaters; Resting weary
limbs at last on beds of asphodel
53. dieted with praise This expression suggests that the food offered is not natural. The
poet refuses to be fed by praise which is either undeserved or insincere.
54. A pet-lamb ... farce! Keats does not wish to be petted like a lamb (by the public)
and fed with flattery. In summer 1819, he wrote to a friend; I have been very idle
lately, very averse to writing, both from the overpowering idea of dead poets and from
abatement of my love of fame. I hope I am a little more of a philosopher and I was,
consequently a little less of a versifying pet-lamb.
54. Farce funny play for the theatre based on unlikely situations and events.
56. masque like figures character is masque were often disguised, refers to the Elizabethan
masques or pageants. dreamy urn urn with shadowy figures sculptured on it.
58. faint visions the visions that will come during day will come with lessened force than
the vision of night.
59. Vanish disappear completelyPhantoms ghostly figuresSpright Spenserian spelling
for spirit.
9.3.2 Detailed explanation of Ode on Indolence

Ode on Indolence is one of the important odes of John Keats. This ode is the depiction
of a transient mood and may be the description of a half-wakeful vision.
The Theme:
The theme of the poem is that in this transient mood of indolence the poet imagines
himself lying on a lawn. Three figures appear before his eyes which pass and repass and it
seems as if they are carved on the sides of an urn which is slowly moving. Twice they move by
him but he is sunk in a quiet indolent mood and fails to recognise them. The third time when
they appear, he recognises them to be Love, Ambition and Poesy. Their sight wakes him up
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from a dreamy state and he wants to pursue them but checks himself. When they return the
fourth time, he bids them farewell because in this mood of lethargy he loves indolence better
than Love, Ambition and Poesy. The poet is reluctant to face the hard labour and strife to
which they call him.
In the summer of 1819 Keats wrote to his friend:
You will judge of my 1819 temper when I tell you that the thing I have most enjoyed
this year has been writing an Ode on Indolence. In the same letter he says:
I have been very idle lately, very averse to writing; both from the overpowering idea
of our dead poets and from abatement of my love of fame. I hope I am a little more of a
philosopher than I was, consequently a little less of a versifying pet-lamb.
In the same year Keats wrote in another letter to a friend about his temper and his
indolent careless mood:
This morning I am in a sort of temper, indolent and supremely careless... in this state
of effiminacy the fibres of the brain are relaxed in common with the rest of the body, and to
such a happy degree that pleasure has no show of enticement and pain no unbearable power.
Neither poetry, nor Ambition, nor Love have any alertness of countenance as they pass by me;
they seem rather like figures on a Greek vase a man and two women whom no one but
myself could distinguish in their disguisement. This is the only happiness, and is a rare instance
of the advantage of the body overpowering the mind.
These passages are very significant in explaning the mood of the poet and the ode. In
the opening lines the poet imagines himself lying on a lawn half asleep. Three figures appear
before his dreamy eyes, they pass and repass like figures on an urn which is slowly turned
round. The figures depicted on vases move by him twice with their heads bent making it
difficult for him to recognise them. Even a skilled artist of Greek sculpture cannot recognise
them at one sight.
In the next stanza the poet is sunk deep in a mood of quiet indolence and the figures
appear to be Shadows who come quietly disguised in a mask. They poet suspects that the
shadowy figures had deliberately disguised themselves so as to join in a secret plot to shatter
the visions so dear to him in his mood of indolence. It is noon, the poet feels drowsy in
summer, the sensibility of his eyes is deadened, the pulse rate is slow and he is in a state when
he feels no sharpness in suffering and no real delight in the pursuit of pleasure. His mind is
blank and he is conscious of nothing but its own vacuity and asks the figures:
O, why did ye not melt, and leave my sense
Unhaunted quiet of all but nothingness? (19-20)
When the figures pass the third time he knows them to be Love, Ambition and Poesy.
Since he recognises them, he is filled with a burning desire to have wings and to chase them.
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The first figure is that of a beautiful lady called Love, the second is Ambition with pale cheeks
because in order to realise ambition, one has to scorn delights and work hard. The poet says
that the third figure, whom I love more is poesy. The creative energy of poesy is irrepressible
that is why she is maiden most unmeek. In this stanza a reference is also made to bitter
reviews of Keats Endymion in these lines;
The last, whom I love more, the more of blame
Is heapd upon her, maiden most unmeek, -
(II. 28-29)
He loves Poesy all the more for the unreasoned attacks as he writes in one of his
letters:
Praise or blame has but a momentary effect on the man whose love of beauty in the
abstract makes him a serve critic of his own works ... and also when I feel I am right, no
external praise can give me such a glow as my own solitary repurcussion and ratification of
what is fine. The poet is a drowsy watcher and the sight of these figures wake him up. Soon
they fade and he is filled with a momentary desire to pursue them:
They faded, and forsooth! I wanted wings:
O folly! What is love? and where is it? (31-32)
In a moment he realises the foolishness and the futility of it all. The poet is haunted by
such questions as: What is love? Where is it? He knows it well that ambition which springs
from the desires of the heart, can be fulfilled by short fever-fit. In Ode to a Nightingale it is
described as:
The weariness, the fever and the fret (I. 23)
These questions make him restless momentarily. He realises that neither Poesy, nor
Ambition nor Love seem to bring him any joy because his mind and body are under the
influence of indolence. He is no more willing to face the labour and strife to which these figures
call him. He wants to sink deep into an indolent mood and forget how time passes.
In the fifth stanza the figures appear again for the fourth time but he loves indolence
better and is not moved by them. He imagines his sleep as a dress which is embroidered by
soft beautiful dreams and his soul as a lawn over which sweet scented flowers are scattered.
Stirring Shades of light and shade add to the sensuous dreamy atmosphere of the garden. A
lovely metaphorical painting of soft cloudy days of spring and early summer is drawn in these
lines:
The morn was clouded, but no shower fell,
Tho in her lids hung the sweet tears of May;
(45-46)
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The poet wishes that the shadowy figures of Love, Ambition and Poesy should leave
him while he was still indulged in dreamy indolence. It is time to say goodbye to them without
any feeling of regret.
In the concluding stanza he bids them farewell and relapses into dreams as he has
ample store of them. He asks these masque like figures to vanish into the clouds and never
return again. He knows very well that he does not wish to be petted by the public praise and
fed with flattery:
For I would not be dieted with praise,
A pet-lamb in a sentimetal farce! (53-54)
An important aspect of Keats genius his sensuous, dreamy, pleasure element is reflected
in this ode especially in the description of spring and early summer. The metaphorical description
of the morning with clouds hanging on her lids and the air smelling of the approaching vernal
shower which has not yet burst forth from the clouds as Tears of May stands out as a
painting.
The poem has some forceful images and felicitous phrases such as ye muffled in hush
a mask, the blissful cloud of summer indolence, drowsy noons, sleep embroiderd with
dim dreams, soul imagined as a lawn be sprinkled ovr with flowers and the sweet ters of
May hanging in the lids of the morn.
Love, Ambition and Poesy are personified and human characteristics are attributed to
them.
This ode is composed of six stanzas of ten lines each. The iambic pentameter lines are
divisible into a quatrain of alternate rhymes and a sestet introducing two more rhymes.
Iambic : The iambic (from Iambus) in which the unaccented syllable precedes the
accented ( ) eg. today.
- unaccented symbol
- accented symbol
Example:
The night / is dark / and I / am far / from home
Quatrain : poem or verse of a poem consisting of four lines.
Sestet : Six line stanza esp. the last 6 lines of an Italian Sonnet.
9.4 Self-Assessment Questions

1. In what mood did the poet write this poem?
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2. Whom did he see one morning?

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3. How did these figures appear before him?
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4. Why tdid these appear figures strange to him?
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5. What is Phidian lore? Why does the poet refer to it?
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6. How did the Shadows come?
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7. What does the poet suspect about ?
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8. Why was the drowsy hour ripe ?
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9. What is the physical state of the poet?

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10. What happened when the figures appeared a third time?
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11. Why did the poet want to have wings?
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12. Who were the three figures?
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13. Who was the first figure?
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14. Who was the second figure and why was she was pale of cheek?
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15. Why does the poet love poesy more?
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16. What does this line the last ... the more of blame refer to?
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17. From where does Ambition spring up?
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18. Why does the poet want to remain in the mood of indolence?
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19. Why does the poet want to bid farewell to the Shadows?
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20. Explain dieted with praise.
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9.5 Answers to SAQs

1. The poem was written in a pleasant mood of dreamful indolence.
2. One morning he saw three figures with bent heads, joined hands and side faced, one
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following the other calmly.
3. These figures appeared before him dressed up in white robes and appeared to be
carved on the sides of an urn.
4. The figures passed and repassed and twice they moved by him when the urn was
shifted round but the poet did not recognise them that is why they appeared strange to
him.
5. Phidian lore is the sculptors art. Phidias was a famous Athenian sculptor of the fifth
century B.C. Keats refers to it because the figures depicted on the urn are so various
that even a skilled artist cannot recognise them at one sight.
6. The shadows came disguised in a quiet mask.
7. The poet suspects a silent secret plot and imagines that the shadowy figures had
deliberately disguised themselves to join in a secret plot to disturb his vision and his
mood of indolence.
8. The drowsy hour was ripe because it was noon when one feels most drowsy in summer.
9. The poet is in a mood of indolence in summer, the sensibility of his eyes is deadened
and his pulse is slow. The poet feels that there is no sting in pain and pleasure has no
attraction for him.
10. When the figures passed by him a third time, each of them turned their face to him for
a moment, then they disappeared.
11. The poet had recognised the three figures so he had a burning desire to have wings to
pursue them.
12. When the figures pass the third time, he recognises them to be Love, Ambition and
Poesy.
13. The name of the first figure is Love. She is described as a beautiful woman.
14. The second figure was Ambition. She was pale of cheek because to realise ambition
one has to scorn delight and be perpetually vigilant. Continuous hard work and fatigued
eyes are other attributes of Ambition which make her cheek look pale.
15. The poet loves Poesy more because she is maiden most unmeek. Keats means that
the creative poetic energy of a poet is irrepressible.
16. In this line there is an allusion to the bitter, unreasoned reviews of Keats Endymion
which had appeared in Black Woods Magazine or The Quarterly.
17. Ambition springs up from a brief turmoil caused by the passions and desires of the
heart to achieve something in life.
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18. The poet wants to remain in the mood of indolence in drowsy summer because he
wants to be free from the petty annoyances of life so that he does not even know how
time passes.
19. The poet wants to bid farewell to the shadows as he is still plunged in an indolent mood
and wants that shadows should leave without pushing him to the activities of mundane
life.
20. This phrase suggests that the food offered is not natural. He does not want to be fed
and baited by praise which is not sincere.
9.6 Let Us Sum Up

In this unit we have tried to briefly sum up John Keats life, personality and his important
poems to give you an overall perspective of Keats works. After going through the text,
glossary and detailed explanation of Ode on Indolence you will be able to understand the
poem well. A brief review of his other odes will help you understand the chief characteristics
of his poetry his love of beauty and nature, his sensitivity, his ear for music and his felicity for
phrasing.

1. Write a critical appreciation of Keats Ode on Indolence.
2. Ode on Indolence is a remarkable example of Keats word painting, well-chiselled
language, music with under current of melancholy. Explain.
9.8 Bibliography
1. The Penguin Book of English Verse: Edited by John Hayward; Penguin Books, 1956
2. Selected Poems of John Keats :Edited by George H. Ford
3. A Short History of English Literature:Sir Ifor Evans; ELBS Edition
4. Studies in Keats :J.M. Murry
5. Keats:Robert Bridges.
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UNIT 10
HOPKINS : (I) PIED BEAUTY (II) GODS GRANDEUR
Structure :
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 About the Poet
10.2.1 Hopkins and His Age
10.2.2 Life, Career and Contribution
10.3.1 Pied Beauty
10.3.2 Gods Grandeur
10.3.3 Annotations
10.3.3 (a) Pied Beauty
10.3.3 (b) Gods Grandeur
10.3.4 Model Explanations
10.6 Let Us Sum Up
10.8 Bibliography
10.0 Objectives
The purpose of this unit is to enable you to comprehend Hopkins poetry. Our aim is
also to familiarize you with the two opposite characteristics of his temperament the aesthetic
and the ascetic. For the aforesaid purpose we have selected two representative poems Pied
Beauty and Gods Grandeur. We intend to present an elaborate discussion on these poems
by presenting to you
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(i) the glossary of difficult words and phrases,
(ii) a detailed thematic analysis of the poems.
(iii) a discussion on the literary devices such as sonnet (particularly curtal sonnet) instress,
inscape and sprung rhythm employed by Hopkins.
(iv) Some model explanations from the text.
(v) Self assessment questions to assess your achievement level.
10.1 Introduction
Pied Beauty is a catalogue poem. The poet catalogues the things which change
from moment to moment, from season to season; things whose function, appearance, charac-
teristics mark them out separately and individually the changing patterns of the sky, like the
brinded (dappled) hide of a cow; the small pink or red moles which lie like stippled (dotted)
paint on a trouts back : the contrast between the red-brown nut of the fallen chestnut and the
green husk which encloses it, a contrast which he likens to the glowing flame which is revealed
by breaking open a lit coal, the varied browns and yellows of finches wings; the patchwork of
landscapes, changing according to time and space from the green of the fold where animals are
pastured, to dull fawn-brown of land left fallow, and the rich deep brown of fields newly
ploughed; all the gear, tackle and trim of mans different jobs-the fishermans nets, floats and
lines, the mechanics spanner, wrench and grease-gun and so on.
Then, moving from particulars, the poet lists the contrasts and antithesies of life which
create instress and inscape- all things set in opposition, all things which strike one with a shock
of newness, all things whose function is individual and economical. All these things whose
nature is freckled with opposites in union are products of God. Yet God himself is past (or
above) change; He who creates is not the same as His creations; they are the signs of his
powers of invention, of individuation. These things praise him, but the final words are really
an imperative, addressed to man Praise Him; it is your duty and should be your delight to do
so. The poem is denotative in its method, indicating specific examples of Gods variousness.
As is evidenced in Pied Beauty, Hopkinss nature poetry is descriptive but one finds
no long passages of pure descriptions. His effort is to inscape objects with the art of concen-
tration, activity and individuating. Needless to say, the result is instress both by the poet and
the reader. In his painting of nature, there is the Keatsian sensuousness evident everywhere.
He prefers the concentrated thrust of compounds like fresh-firecoal-chestnut-falls and dis-
penses with prepositions and articles which as elsewhere, show his violence to syntax. Exces-
sive use of alliteration coupled with this concentration, results in verbal inscape. On the whole,
the poem itself becomes an inscape of delicate variety and pattern.
The deep sympathy of Hopkins with the thirteenth century Franciscan philosopher
Duns Scotus was responsible for the lovely, carefree poems of praise such as Pied Beauty,
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Gods Grandeur, The Windhover and Hurrahing in Harvest. The influence of the teach-
ings of lgnatius Loyola and the two phases his Keatsian sensuousness and Hellenic intellec-
tualism before he became a Jesuit priest, resulting in his sacramental view of nature, all go to
make the poem characteristically Hopkinsian in form, theme and poetic art. The priest who
was a poet demonstrated through the poem that as a poet he was deeply convinced of Gods
presence and being in everything, while the poet, as man was also aware of sensuous beauty in
everything.
The sonnet Gods Grandeur was written by Hopkins in February 1877. This sonnet
is a protest against the crass materialism of the age. Yet the poet says that everything is not lost.
Till the time God continues to brood over it there is hope for the world. Gods glory is going to
burst out like the shine of the gold tinsel.
The world is full of the glory of God. This glory will burst out like the foil of gold. It
gathers greatness like the oil crushed from olives. It achieves magnificent proportions after the
human ego has been crushed under religious discipline. Just as oil becomes useful only when
crushed out of seeds, likewise man partakes of Gods glory only after religious devotion.
Then, why do people not pay attention to Gods glory? Generations of men have trodden the
same path without recognizing Gods power to punish them. Everything in this world has been
made ugly by crass materialism, by commercial activity, and by human toil for monetary ends.
The world bears mans smudge and smells of mans ugliness. The fragrance of nature has been
drowned in the foul smell of machinery.
Despite mans activities leading to the destruction of the beauties of nature, it remains
fresh and undestroyed. Although the sun moves to the western horizon and the earth is plunged
into darkness, yet the sun will be rising again the next day. Likewise there will be a renewal of
nature. From darkness would come light; from winter, spring. In nature there is a never drying
source of freshness, which envelopes the world in spring. The Holy Ghost broods over the
bent world and this brings forth renewed life. The Holy Ghost looks after mankind with the
same protective care as a dove looks after its little ones.
10.2 About the Poet
10.2.1 Hopkins and His Age

Gerard Manley Hopkins (1844-1889) was a nineteenth century poet whose place
and influence it have been left for the twentieth century to assess and determine. Except for a
few intimate friends, including Coventry Patmore and Robert Bridges, his work was hardly
known to anybody. His poetry remained hidden away in manuscript form until Bridges launched
his major works as Poems of Gerard Manley Hopkins. It happened in 1918 although he had
died in 1899. The second edition of his poems was issued in 1930. While the first edition had
an introduction from Robert Bridges, the second edition was introduced by a great but dis-
criminating admirer of Hopkins, Charles Williams.
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Hopinks lived in the second half of the nineteenth century; so his one face looked at his
own, the Victorian age; his poetry having been brought to light only in 1918, his other face
looked towards the modern age. Again, as an artist, his one face looked at beauty with a
deeply sensuous appreciation; as an ascetic, his other face looked at ascetic denial with all the
intensity of a devout man of religion. As a boy, he had a passion for drawing and he wrote
poetry under the influence of Keats and the Pre-Raphaelites. As a youth he came under the
influence of Cardinal Newman and the Oxford Movement; became a Roman Catholic in 1866,
and a Jesuit priest in 1877. England was non-Catholic but rare-dear England for Hopkins,
the patriot.
From his youth, his life was one of inner strife, very keenly felt. At first ,he gave up
poetry : what I had written, I burnt before I became a Jesuit and resolved to write no more,
as not, belonging to my profession, unless it were the wish of my superiors. But after seven
years of poetic silence, he resumed poetry in 1875 with The Wreck of Deutschland, taking
as permission, the remark of his rector that he wished someone would write a poem dealing
with that disaster in which five nuns, banished from Germany, were drowned at the mouth of
the Thames. Even so, there were times when he felt that to write poetry was to misuse time for
which Gods service had other demands, though his letters prove how continuously he was
preoccupied with an insatiable interest in the technique of poetry. He feared beauty almost as
much as he loved it and he would punish himself by sometimes refusing to let himself look upon
the beauty of nature when he was walking. Indeed, in 1866, in a poem, The Habit of Perfec-
tion, when he was contemplating the taking up of religious life, he bade all his senses renounce
the world :
Elected-silence, sing to me
And beat upon my whorled ear,
Pipe me to pastures still and be
The music that I care to hear.
Hopkins was typical mid-Victorian. He was born in 1844; he died in 1889. In the
words of Martin Gilkes, These are unexpected dates. They suggest Sesame and Lilies and
Idylls of the King; beards, ottomons and four-wheel cabs : the palmy days, in fact, of the
nineteenth century, the period in which everything that we mean by Victorian came to full
flower. The decadence of the 90s had not yet set in, and as for the modern revolt against
nineteenth century standards and poetical poetry-the mere idea would have seemed fantastic
and incredible. Yet today the greatest single influence upon the development of modern poetry,
with the solitary exception of T.S. Eliot, has been this stray mid-Victorian-who is anything but
mid-Victorian when you come to read him.
So, Hopkins, the Janus-faced, is the only nineteenth century poet who is included in
the anthologies of both the Victorians and the Moderns, for now, both are equally eager to
140
claim him. In this matter of being published out of times, he resembles Emily Dickinson. Al-
though he died at the age of 45, in 1889, his poetry was not published until 1918. Prophetically
during his lifetime, Hopkins had written to his lifelong friend and correspondent, Robert Bridges,
about his poetry : If you do not like it, is because there is something you have not seen and I
see, and if the whole world agreed to condemn it or see nothing in it, I should only tell
them to take a generation and come to me again.
When the history of the 1920s comes to be written by a dispassionate critic, no influ-
ence will rank in importance with that of Gerard Manley Hopkins. Most critics saw Hopkins
as a Maverick, born out of his due time, an idiosyncratic poet without affinities. Only recently
have critics seen his poetry as a synthesis of the new and the old, the revolutionary and the
traditional. It has at last been recognized that his poetry was either the result of the organic and
integral collaboration of the priest and the poet, of his sensibility and belief, or on the other
hand, that it was an inscape of the tension between the two, a triumphant and victorious
expression of his inner drama, the war within, as he refers to it in one of his sonnets. It is true
that the poets religious dedication restricted the quantity of his poems, but they correspond-
ingly gained an intensity and in those very qualities which every critic now considers as consti-
tuting the greatness of Hopkins.
Hopkins was a major influence on modern poets. When the second edition of the
poems of Hopkins was published in 1930, the appreciative reviewer of the Times Literary
Supplement made the following bold statement on 25 December 1930 : It would hardly be
an exaggeration to say that Hopkins was the most original of the poets of the nineteenth cen-
tury. There is no denying the fact that Tennyson, Browning and Arnold were original in their
own peculiar ways, though none of them broke new grounds like Hopkins. The technical
innovations brought about by Hopkins were so perfect that Edith Sitwell was forced to remark
that he should not be regarded as a model, since he worked his own discoveries to the
uttermost point; there is no room for advancement, for development, along his lines.
In the thirtees, Hopkins became a major influence upon new poets. But for the unde-
niable traces of his influence we must go back to the Georgians, to Robert Bridges, in whom
we find unconscious echoes of the diction of the younger friend. About his influence on the
poets of the thirties Ifor Evans wrote : In the thirties Hopkins became a major influence on
new poets. They were not interested in his religious themes, for many of them, at that time at
least, were agnostics, but they were fascinated by the originality of his rhythms and his vocabu-
lary and, above all, in the contrast of his genius against the whole nineteenth century romantic
tradition.
10.2.2 Life, Career and Contribution

Gerard Manley Hopkins was born on 28 July 1844, in an Anglican family in Stratford,
Essex. He was brought up in a family where simple piety and practical endeavour mixed with
varied artistic culture. His father was the Consul-General of the Hawaiian Islands to Great
141
Britain. He combined this office with that of an average adjuster in the city. His father mixed
practical efficiency with something of a poets vision. His mother, who was a religious woman,
gave her son her simple nature and love for metaphysical speculation. The literary bent of the
mind of his father, gave Gerard a poetical turn. Through his father he also came in contact with
problems of nautical law and he wrote learnedly on the subject of nautical law. There are many
people who believe that his love of the sea was responsible for the writing of the great odes of
the sea such as The wreck of the Deutshland and The Loss of EurydiceAlthough his par-
ents were devout, they were far from narrow out-look, and painting and music, both of which
influenced Hopkins, were cultivated and loved in the family. Most of the children in the family
were interested in painting and music. Arthur, a younger brother, ultimately became a profes-
sional painter. The poet himself, received, after his sixth year, lesson in music and drawing from
an aunt who was both a musician of sorts, and an accomplished portrait-painter.
Soon Gerards interest in drawing increased and he made great progress, and by the
time he was twenty he had developed strength and delicacy of line, together with a feeling for
internal patterns. These are difficult things for an amateur to achieve. But Gerard was able to
achieve these delicacies of taste. He was a great admirer of Ruskin. His affinity with Ruskin is
revealed in his love and knowledge of architecture and in the nature descriptions and word
paintings of his journal.
With age his interest in music also matured. But the difficulty with him was that he was
neither able to devote himself exclusively to music nor to poetry, though he knew well that the
production of a large body of work of the highest excellence in any of the disciplines de-
manded devotion. Still his musical studies were not wasted, for they influenced his poetry by
giving it typical rhythmic patterns.
He was born at Stratford, Essex, but soon his family moved to Hampstead. In 1854
he was sent to the Cholmondley Grammar School. Hopkins showed an unusual interest in
study and excelled in English. The devoutness of his parents was of moderate character, but
Hopkins soon became less moderate under the influence of Canon Dixon, who was at that
time the curate of the parish of Lambeth. He also worked as a teacher in the Highgate School
where Gerard was a student. Hopkins had already been attracted by poetry. At this stage the
influence of poets like Spenser and Keats was predominant. At the school he twice won the
Poetry Prize. When he was sixteen he won the Poetry Prize for his poem The Escorial. The
second poetry prize was won by him two years later, when he was eighteen.
In 1862 Hopkins won a scholarship to Balliol College, Oxford. In the same year he
wrote a poem A Vision of the Mermaids. He entered Oxford in October 1863 and for the
next four years he remained an avid reader of the classics. Here he came under the influence of
Jowett, The Regius Professor at Oxford. The friendship he made at Oxford lasted all through
his life and the reference must especially be made to Robert Bridges, who was later to become
the literary executor of Hopkins. Among his more intimate friends, besides Bridges, were
A.W.M. Baillie, and D.M. Dolben.
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Hopkins himself had started to take life seriously. As a student he was very punctual.
Bridges writes : Hopkins was so punctilious about the text, and so enjoyed loitering over the
difficulties, that I foresaw we should never get through. This fascination for the difficult re-
mained a life-long infatuation with Hopkins. His diaries provide a fairly accurate and very
scrupulous account of his youthful misdemeanours. In 1866, during Lent, he wrote : No
puddings on Sunday. No tea except to keep one awake, and then without sugar Not to sit
in armchairs except I can work in no other way. Ash Wednesday and Good Friday bread and
water.
Hopkins entered the Oxford University at a time when it was vibrant with many reli-
gious controversies. Eighteen years earlier, Cardinal Newman had entered the Roman Catho-
lic Church and the repercussions of his conversion to Catholicism were still felt at Oxford.
Edward B. Pusey, who after Newman became the leader of the Oxford Movement was still at
the University. And so was Benjamin Jowett, who represented the more rational and intellec-
tual conceptions of Christianity. Hopkins was influenced by all these three church leaders.
Largely under the influence of Cardinal Newman he embraced Roman Catholicism in 1867.
Then he wanted to leave the University. But Cardinal advised him to complete his degree. He
graduated the same year with a First class in the Classics. This conversion to Roman Catholi-
cism had far reaching effects. His letters record how deeply his conversion affected his whole
being; he offended his family by this conversion. This also caused complication in his relations
with Robert Bridges. As a result of this conversion he was isolated from many Oxford person-
alities with whom he was on the best of terms. His anguish and depth of distress can be gauged
from a letter he wrote to Newman : I have been up at Oxford long enough to have heard from
my father and mother in return for my letter announcing my conversion. Their replies are
terrible. I can not read them twice. If you will pray for them and me just now I shall be deeply
grateful.
This conversion caused a tragic isolation for Hopkins from the world that he had
known for so long. And his only possibility of consolation lay in a strenuous, fervid and con-
suming loyalty to the new-found faith. The experience of a person who has become a convert
is always different from that of a person who has been born into a faith. Such a person has to
work in isolation. This isolation must be compensated by the intensity of the faith. This also
explains why Hopkins attached so much importance to his relations with friends like Robert
Bridges.
After graduation Hopkins left Oxford. From now onward the religious experience is
the one great reality for the poet. He entered the Society of Jesus in 1868 and subordinated
himself passionately to its discipline. Now he left poetry considering it to be something which
could not continue with his life as a priest. He burned much of his earlier work. On leaving
Oxford, Hopkins first went to Birmingham where he served at the Oratory school. Here Car-
dinal Newman initiated the new convert to the Catholic ways. Now, the main field of his study
remained philosophy. About the hardness of this life he wrote to A.W.M. Baillie : The life
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here though it is hard is Gods will for me as I most intimately know, which is more than violets
kneedeep. In 1877 he was ordained as a priest. When he entered the Society of Jesus he left
poetry, but now he was encouraged to recommence his work as a poet. This was the happiest
advice which could have been given to any man. His highly individual poetry, which arose from
his faith and his deep and mystical attachment to it belongs to the later years (1875-1899).
As a member of the Society of Jesus he was asked to fill many positions. He served
both as a teacher and a preacher. His health was seldom very good, and he was moved from
one office to another with great regularity, for reasons which have never been fully explained.
After 1877 he served at Jesuit College at Manresa House and Stonyhurst. In 1884 he became
Professor of Greek in the Catholic University of Ireland. Sometimes before his death Hopkins
wrote : Unhappily I cannot produce anything at all; not only the luxuries like poetry, but the
duties almost of my position. I am a eunuch-but it is for the kingdom of Heavens sake.
At the age of forty-four Hopkins died of typhoid fever. He lived a life of hard work,
deprivation and suffering. He was a puritanical person who enjoyed self-abnegation and self-
suffering. Once he wrote in his Diary : Consider your own misery and try as best as you can
to rise above it, by punctuality, and the particular examine; by favour at office, mass and
litanies; by good scholastic work; by charity if you get opportunities.
Hopkins never aimed at achieving worldly success. The deep, religious strain in his
character prevented him from seizing worldly success which appeared to be almost in his
grasp.
The influences which shaped him should be clearly understood. Reference has already
been made to the influence of Newman and the Oxford Movement. That his early model was
D.G. Rosetti shows that he was influenced by the Pre-Raphaelite Movement. From sixteen to
twenty-two, he essayed with skill, the styles of many poets from Milton to Byron and Keats,
Tennyson, Arnold and Rossetti. The Keatsian sensuousness in his approach to poetry is clearly
marked; in fact his poetry is the battle-ground between the Keatsian sensuousness and the
sacramental view of Nature-that Nature abides as a handiwork of God. Hellenic intellectual-
ism also had its hold on him in the early stages. The influence of the Welsh language with its
beauty of consonant chime and internal rhyme (called Cynghanedd : pronounced Kung-
hanneth) is also evident in his poetry. But much more than all these were the influence of the
Franciscan philosopher Duns Scotus (in the matter of idiosyncrasy and individuation) and of
St. Ignatius Loyola (on Hopkins theme and metaphor).
Among his early poems written between 1860 and 1868, Heaven-Haven and The
Habit of Perfection indicate the turn of the poets mind and heart towards priesthood. Then
followed the ten years itch when he assiduously cultivated silence. Out of the pent-up energy
and tension were born the Wreck poems The Loss of Eurdice and The Wreck of
Deutschland and some ten other religious poems of 1876-1879. The Poems of Priest-
hood, fifteen in number, dealing with the everyday experiences of a priest, belong to the years
144
between 1879 and 1883. The Windhover (falling paeonic rhythm, sprung and outriding) and
Pied Beauty (a Curtal Sonnet), Duns Scotuss Oxford (Sprung, outriding rhythm), Felix
Randal (Sonnet, sixfoot lines), As Kingfishers (Scotist Sonnet) are all sonnets of 1876-
1883. From 1883-1889 came what are now called The Terrible Sonnets, dealing with the
wreck of his own life. Unfinished poems, fragments, light verse, translations, Latin and Welsh
poems, many in number, are not accounted for, here.
In spite of the terrible pathos , Hopkins poetry as a whole gives the impression of
strength a strength which is often refined to delicacy. Even in the poems of desolation the
note of heroic resistance, or stoic acceptance, or willing surrender to the higher necessity, is
more marked than the tone of self pity. He is the poet with plumage of far wonder and
heavenward flight. He wanted a stronger rhetoric of English language, tried to capture the
naked sinew of the English language. You will find him strange if not obscure at first; he is the
poet of many faults as Bridges called him, because of his syntactical inversions, ellipses,
parentheses, and violent packing of words into unexpected places. You will have to familiarize
yourself with Sprung Rhythm, Inscape and Instress to understand him. But he is also the
greatest master of the poetic compound word in English. His style is, by turns, dramatic and
contemplative, strenuous and graceful. There is variety, originality and organic function in his
imagery. He has a unique command of rhythm. He was a master of the sonnet form though
both an innovator and preserver. He gave depth and spiritual power to everything he wrote.
His poetry was the outcome of a tension between the creativity of the artist and the dedication
of the priest. He wrote to serve and praise God. And as Brownings poetry is described, his
poetry is not a substitute for a game of cards.
Misunderstanding about his life, and accomplishment and ill-health marred the last
years of Hopkins. Mental depression coupled with drudgery made him say : Life here is as
dank as ditch water. Yet, his death bed words were : I am so happy, I am so happy, I am so
happy.
The question often asked is : Did his becoming a Jesuit priest affect his poetry ?
Quantitatively, there was restriction. But qualitatively, it added to his absolute honesty, direct-
ness, passionate personal utterances and concentrated intensity. Renunciation made him inde-
pendent and unconventional.
His last poems are deeply expressive of his religious belief. The Seven Sonnets of
1884-85 are possibly the greatest of all his poems. These sonnets, all highly autobiographical,
are written in blood. They show the final struggle of the poet to adapt himself both to the ways
of Christ and the ways of society. Carrion Comfort, To R.B. and other sonnets of this
period illustrate the religious despair, and the lament for the waste and loss of his poetic gift.
10.3 Reading the Poems

Now you read the poems :
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(i) Pied Beauty and (ii) Gods Grandeur
10.3.1 Pied Beauty

(Text)
Glory be to God for dappled things
For skies of couple colour as a brinded cow ;
For rose-moles in all stipple upon trout that swim;
Fresh firecoal chestnut falls; finches wings;
Landscape plotterd and pieced fold, fallow, and plough;
And all trades, their gear and tackle and trim.
All things counter, original, spare, strange;
Whatever is fickle, freckled (who knows how ?)
With swift, slow; sweet, sour; adazzle, dim;
He fathers-forth whose beauty is past change :
Praise Him.
10.3.2 Gods Grandeur

(Text)
The world is charged with the grandeur of God;
It will flame out, like shining from shook foil;
It gathers to a greatness, like the ooze of oil
Crushed. Why do men then not reck his rod ?
Generations have trod, have trod, have trod ;
And all is seared with trade; bleared, smeared with toil;
And wears mans smudge and shares mans smell : the soil
Is bare now, nor can foot feel, being shod.
And for all this, nature is never spent ;
There lives the dearest freshness deep down things;
And though the last lights off the black West went
146
Oh, morning, at the brown brink eastward, springs -
Because the Holy Ghost over the bent
World broods with warm breast and with ah ! bright wings.
10.3.3 Annotations
Section 4.3.3 (a) includes annotations of the poem Pied Beauty and 4.3.3 (b) anno-
tations of the poem Gods Grandeur.
Pied : parti-coloured or multi-coloured.
Lines 1-2. Both the cow and the sky, one animate and the other inanimate, bear witness to
Gods artistic power.
Dappled brinded marked with spots or streaks, Couple-col-our- two colour combina-
tion. Brinded early form of brindled; streaked.
Line 3. Stipple dots of paint. The poet touches upon Gods handiwork in sky, land and in
the water. Trout a kind of fish.
Line 4. Fresh-fire coal etc coloured husks that fall from the chestnut tree. Finch a kind
of bird multi coloured wings of these brids.
Line 5. Fold sheepfold. Fallow uncultivated land. Plough ploughed land.
Line 6. Trades occupations. Gear tackle and trim occupational implements which
reveal the glory of God.
Line 7. Counter opposite.
Line 8. Freckled coloured with.
Line 9. Things counter to each other.
Line 10. Fathers-forth Hopkinsian word. God creates and puts it forth. God is a reposi-
tory of beauty which does not change. Whose beauty is past change Gods beauty
is not subject to change; it has neither past, nor future; it does not pass or change ; it
is eternal in comparison to the transient beauty of nature.
Line 1. The world is full of the grandeur of God. Charged filled with energy.
Line 2. This grandeur of God will shine forth like the foil made of gold. Shook foil metal foil
which is beaten to make thin foil.
Lines 3-4. the ooze of oil crushed When olives are crushed they give oil. Likewise the
147
poet suggests that human ego improves under religious crushing (discipline).
Line 4. reck his rod pay attention to the punishing power of God.
Line 5. The repetitions are effective. The poet says that unmindful of divinity, people have
followed the same way.
Line 6. seared with trade withered because of the application of the heat of trade. bleared
- blinded. Smeared covered with dust etc.
Line 7. And wears mans smudge The nature wears the marks of mans corruption and
pollution. shares mans smell Man-dade machinery and its foul smell have cor-
rupted nature.
Line 8. The soil is bare now The growth of nature has been arrested. Nor can foot feel,
being shod Because man is wearing shoes he is unable to feel the softness of the
soil.
Line 9. Despite everything nature can never be exhausted. Nature will reassert itself.
Line 10. Deep down the earth the same freshness still persists.
Lines 11-12. The poet says that the sun goes down through the western horizon and the
world is plunged into darkness, yet the next day also dawns. Likewise nature also
refreshes itself.
Line 13-14. The nature is renewed because of the presence of the Holy Ghost. Here Hopkins
compares the Holy Ghost to a dove. Just as the dove broods over her young ones, in
the like manner the Holy Ghost gives a protective covering to the earth. So the world
is full of the grandeur of God.

(i) Glory be to God. Tackle and trim.
These lines have been taken from the poem Pied Beauty written by Gerard Manley
Hopkins. Hopkins was a Victorian poet but his fame was posthumous. He was almost un-
known to all except a few friends, especially Robert Bridges. It was Bridges who put him
before the reading public. Today he is considered to be the greatest influence on modern
poetry. Pied Beauty is a curtal sonnet, that is, a sonnet which has less than fourteen lines. It
has ten and a half lines in all. Hopkins wrote only two curtal sonnets, the other being Peace.
Here the main qualities of a sonnet are retained, but in a circumscribed manner.
The theme of the poem is the praise and glorification of God for creating various multi-
coloured, multi-shaped and multi-natured things in this world. He begins the poem by this
praise. He says Glory be to God for dappled things. The poet catalogues the various things
which change from moment to moment, from season to season. He praises the sky which is
many-coloured and compares it with a brinded cow. He also praises God for creating the
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fish with black-spots on their rose-coloured skin. And he also praises God for the fallen chest-
nuts and the green core which encloses it. Hopkins is all praise for God for the patchwork of
landscapes, changing according to time and space.
The poet praises God for creating all fish and fowl, men and animals. It is from God
that all animate and inanimate objects take life. Hopkins gives a catalogue of all the things
created by God for which praise be His. Beginning with praise, the poem builds up through a
description of a variety of beautiful things which either are pied or contain opposites of various
kinds colour, taste, speed, brightness- to an assertion of the Creator of them, whose ability
to comprehend the paradoxes within his unity aptly demand praise.
(ii) The world is charged . Feel, being shod.
These lines have been taken from Hopkins immortal poem, Gods Grandeur. This
poem was composed by Hopkins in February 1877. This poem is a protest against the crass
materialism of the age; yet despite mans wantonness and greed and wastefulness, there is
hope for the world, as God continues to brood over it. The poems of Hopkins written in 1877
breathe with a simple rapture at the loveliness of the world as a manifestation of God, and by
a confident, even triumphant mastery of rhythm, diction and imagery.
In these lines the poet says that the world is full of the glory and grandeur of God. And
this grandeur of God bursts out like shining from a hammered foil- like shining from shook
foil. This gathers greatness just as the oil gathers after it has been crushed out from olives. So
the poet suggests that Gods grandeur gets its totality after a fruitful but painful crushing of
human ego under religious discipline. Just as oil becomes useful only after it has been taken out
of olives, in the like manner human ego partakes of Gods glory and grandeur only after a great
deal of religious perspiration and devotion. This leads the poet to lament the fact that still
people do not pay attention to Gods power and glory. Generation after generation of men has
followed the same path without minding the power of God to punish them. In this world
everything has been seared and corrupted by the dirty materialism in which man has taken
part. Everything has been smeared and corrupted by commercial activity and the toil which
brings worldly success or monetary gains. The nature around bears the marks of this smearing
mans foul odour can be seen in the midst of nature. In other words, we can say that all the
beauty and graces of Nature have been blurred by mans worldly activities. The sweet fra-
grance of nature has been drowned in the foul smell of machinery. These ideas are reminiscent
of Wordsworth who also spoke against the crass materialism of his age. In a word, Hopkins
suggests that the beauty of nature has beenspoiled and marred by mans industrial activities.
Because of mans activities nature is becoming shorn of vegetation.
Hopkins says that man has been despoiling nature unmindful of the punishments which
God can inflict on humankind. Mans toiling feet have worn away vegetation from the surface
of the earth. In term of imagery also these lines deserve special mention. The similes intro-
duced by the poet in the beginning are unique. He mentions shook foil and ooze of oil
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crushed. These similes, to say the least, are highly suggestive. The repetition of the phrase
have trod is very effective. It brings to our mind the poets opposition to the industrial civili-
zation which is taking root everywhere.

It consists of two sections. The first section presents a critical analysis of the poem
Pied Beauty and the second section presents a critical analysis of the poem Gods Gran-
deur
Pied Beauty is a dazzling creation of Hopkins. It is a curtal sonnet a sonnet curtailed
in length. Instead of having the traditional fourteen lines, it consists of ten and a half lines.
Hopkins used this curtal form only in two of his poems, in the present poem and in Peace.
The curtal form was an original invention of Hopkins. Still the poet is able to retain all the
essential character- ristics of a sonnet- it has an octave and a sestet. The Octave consists of
the first six lines while the last four and a half lines form the sestet. The metre of this poem is
sprung paeonic.A paeonic foot has one stressed and three unstressed syllables.
The religious fervour of the poems is extremely remarkable. According to Norman H.
Mackenzie, Hopkins praises God for brindled cows and the blacksmiths anvil as well as for
the so-called poetic objects around him. He whose beauty is past change is recognized as
fathering forth the slow and the sour, the shade as well as the light, pleasant little echoes ripple
and lap through the poem - dappled, couple, stipple, tackle, fickle, freckled, adazzle.
Even though it is unwise and hard to categorize a poets works, the poems of Hopkins
can be divided into two categories: the poems written between 1876 and 1879 as nature
poems expressing joy, positive faith and mystical perception and those written between 1879
and 1885 as poems on man trying to adjust himself to a difficult world. But whether a poet of
nature or of man God was always supreme in the mind of Hopkins.
Hopkins had great admiration for Wordsworth. But Wordsworth was a pantheist;
Hopkins, a true Catholic. So God is apart from Nature, to Hopkins God is an artist, the
Master-creator of beauty, for Hopkins. And the beauty of created things is a message from
God, that behind Pied Beauty, varied and shifting, is the creator, changeless, eternal, One.
The poem expresses the poets joyous wonder at the beauty of the work, of a joy enhanced
because creation is seen sacramentally and because he himself is using beauty to praise his
Maker. The beauty of created things, including the beauty of Nature is not permanent, but only
by knowing transient beauty in the many, can the heart grasp the Immutable Beauty of God.
God is Beauty is itself. So praise Him; let it be your duty and your delight.
Hopkins uses the technique of enumeration in the poem. He is a poet of particulars,
here. He catalogues things which change form moment to moment, form season to season :
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the changing patterns of the sky, the contrast between the rich, red-brown nut of the fallen
chestnut and the green husk or case which encloses it ; the patchwork of landscape changing
according to time and place; the green pasture-land, the dull fawn-brown fallow lands, the
deep brown ploughed lands ; the different implements of artisans and workmen; he catalogues
them all. Then he generalizes, contrasting the anithesis of life, thinges set in opposition. All these
things are products of God.Yet God Himself is past or above change. He creates, but He is
not the same as His creations. These things praise Him; are meant to praise Him.
In his Nature poetry, Hopkins betrayed as complete and unashamed a sensuousness
as Keates himself . He fuses a Keatsian immediacy of sense perception with the spiritual
tranquility of Wordsworth and his sublime healing power. Pied beauty shows how alert and
alive, his sensuous faculties were. The poet is adazzled by different colours in Nature; his
physical feelings are stirred by thought of earthly occupation: he is aware of the sweet-sour
tastes of life . As for the power of concentration shown by the poet the original poem has to be
placed by the side of a paraphrase to understand the poets nutty style. The compound-
words, like Fresh firecoal, Chestnut-falls, are full of force and meaning. At the same time, the
poem is a good example of the violence to syntax and grammar.
To understand what Inscape was to Hopkins, one need read only Pied Beauty.
The poem is full of image to give an idea of the variety and dapple of the world, giving
experiences of inscape in nature. For Cynghanedd, the Welsh art of making intricated and
beautiful patterns of speech sound which Hopkins turned to good use in his poems, lines like
with swift, slow , sweet sour addazle, dim are good examples. This is the art of alliteration by
which language in inscaped.
Like Milton who rose to greatness by writing poetry to vindicate the ways of God to
men, Hopkins, by nature a dreamer and a sensualist, only raises himself to greatness by
writing poetry for great causes as liberty and religion. In dong this , he had to sublimate his
petice power. In a poem like Pied Beauty we see how he did it . There is sensualism in the
poem; there is no asceticism. It is a tribute to Gods glory, as all poetry must be ; but they are
tributes of the senses.
Gods Grandeur was written by Hopkins in February 1877. The poem is permeated
with the glory and grandeur of God. The poet begins by saying that nature has been made ugly
by the industrialization of the age. Everything has become seared and corrupted :
Generations have trod, have trod, have trod ;
And all is seared with trade; bleared, smeared with toil ;
And wears mans smudge and shares mans smell : the soil
Is bare now, nor can foot fell, being shod.
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Here the protest of the poet against crass materialism of the age can well be compared
with the complaint of Wordsworth, who was also dissatisfied with industrialization. In the
poem The World is Too Much With Us he says :
The world is too much with us; late and soon,
Getting and spending, we lay waste our powers :
Little we see in nature that is ours ;
We have given our hearts away, a sordid boon !
Both the poets lament the indifference of people to the beauties of nature that lies
round. But while Wordsworth safisfies himself with lament only, being a Jesuit, Hopkins goes
further and having full faith in the greatness and goodness of God feels certain that the grandeur
of God will still shine forth, Man has tried to kill nature but it will rejuvenate itself because the
spirit of the Holy Ghost lies over it :
And for all this nature is never spent :
There lives the dearest freshness deep down things :
And though the last lights off the black West went
Oh, morning, at the brown brink eastward, springs
Because the Holy Ghost over the bent
World broods with warm breast and with ah ! bright wings.
The poem states its meaning with severe precision and hence the development of the
thought becomes slightly difficult. There is great compression in the thought elements, perhaps
because the sonnet form demanded great economy. The sentence-structure demands close
attention to be understood properly. For ceaseless, untiring efforts the poet uses the structure
have trod and repeats it thrice in the same line. The Holy Ghost bending over the world and
thus proving Gods grandeur connects it with the opening statement The world is charged
with the grandeur of God.
In many poems of Hopkins, we find a streak of pessimism lurking through the texture.
But in this case there is no pessimism. The pessimism is short-lived. The poet, being confident
of the grandeur of God, is sure that nature is never spent. He sees natural beauty being
seared, blurred and smudged by the footfall of man, but the poet never becomes despondent.
He is aware of the wings of the Holy Spirit spreading over the earth so that the dearest
freshness of nature will be revived.
The theological element of the poem is insignificant. The conviction of the poem tran-
scends any particular doctrinal belief. And everything is bound in typical Hopkinsian language.
It is very sinewy, strong, personal, and inventive. The internal rhymes in seared and bleared
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and smeared are very happy indeed. The rhymes suggest richness and plentitude. The poem
comprises some very individual and very personal poetry.
This poem belongs to Hopkins year of renewed inspiration when he wrote copiously.
After the composition of The Wreck of the Deutschland there was an inordinate silence. But
in 1877 there was a spurt of renewed inspiration and he wrote some wonderful poems ex-
pressing ecstatic wonder at the beauty of nature. And among these poems about nature, Gods
Grandeur stands supreme.

(a) Answer the following questions in about 20 words each :-
1. What is a curtal sonnet ?
........
........
2. Who is the English poet associated with the curtal sonnet ?
........
........
3. What, according to Hopkins, is our duty ?

........
........
4. Name the catalogue poem prescribed for your study ?
........
........
5. Why is the poem Pied Beauty called a catalogue poem ?
........
........
6. Name the Fransican philosopher who had a great influence on Hopkins?
........
........
7. When was the poem Gods Grandeur written ?
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........
........
8. What kind of protest does the sonnet Gods Grandeur express ?
........
........
9. Which poem of Wordworth can be compared with Hopkins Gods Grandeur ?
........
........
10. Why does Hopkins compare the Holy Ghost to a dove ?
........
........
11. How, according to Hopkins, does human ego improve ?
........
........
(b) Answer the following questions in about 500 words each.
1. Critically appreciate Hopkins curtal sonnet Pied Beauty.

2. Critically analyse Hopkins poem Gods Grandeur ?

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(a) 1. A curtal sonnet is a sonnet curtailed in length. It contains ten and a half lines.
2. Hopkins
3. Our duty is to praise the Master the creator who created the things of var-
iegated beauty for us.
4. Pied Beauty
5. Hopkins uses the technique of enumeration in Pied Beauty and catalogues
things which change from moment to moment, from season to season.
6. Duns Scotus.
7. February 1877
8. The poem is the protest of the poet against crass materialism.
9. The World is Too Much With Us.
10. The Holy Ghost looks after mankind with the same protective care as a dove
looks after its little one.
11. Through religious discipline.
(b) 1. See the critical appreciation of the poem.
2. See the critical appreciation of the poem.
10.6 Let Us Sum Up

In this unit we have presented an elaborate discussion on Hopkins two representative
poems Pied Beauty and Gods Grandeur. Pied Beauty is a poem of praise to God for
the variousness of his creation, whereas Gods Grandeur is an expression of protest against
the crass materialism of the age.
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1. Pied Beauty is Hopkins tribute to God as he believes Glory to God for dappled
things. Explain.
2. Compare and contrast Hopkins Gods Grandeur with Wordsworths The World
is Too Much With Us.
10.8 Bibliography
1. John Pick : Gerad Manley Hopkins : Priest and Poet (OUP).
2. W.A.M. Peters : G.M. Hopkins : A Critical Essay Towards the Understanding of His
Poetry (OUP).
3. W.H. Gardner : G.M. Hopkins : A Study of Poetic Idiosyncracy in Relation to Poetic
Traditions, Vols I and II.
___________________
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UNIT 11
HOPKINS : (I) FELIX RANDAL (II) SPRING AND FALL
Structure
11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Felix Randal
11.2.1 Text
11.2.2 Annotations
11.3 Spring and Fall
11.3.1 Text
11.3.2 Annotations
11.4 Terms used for Understanding Hopkins Poetry
11.7 Let Us Sum Up
11.9 Biliography
11.0 Objective
In this unit we intend to acquaint you with Hopkins intense love for common humanity
by presenting to you a detailed analysis of his two most representative poems on man. Felix
Randal and Spring and Fall. Such other poems are The Buglers First Communion, The
Candle Indoors, The Handsome Heart and Brothers. These poems reveal Hopkins
Wordsworthian sympathy towards Nature and all living creatures, old and young, proud and
wretched alike. They recall to our minds Wordsworths Leech-gatherer, Old Cumberland
Beggar and Michael. Felix Randal was only a farrier, but his death is of great significance to
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Hopkins. Harry the Ploughman is another mute Karmayogin whose work, being the bodys
offering to God, is akin to the prayer. The Bugler also, humble for all his red-coated glory,
kneels at the altar rail. Brothers, based on a real incident, deals with Harry, a reserved,
sensitive boy and his impulsive younger brother John. In Spring and Fall : to a young child,
Hopkins delicately unfolds a childs growing sensibility. In The Candle Indoors, the salt of
Henrys tears is the very salt of Christ, whereby men become the salt of the earth.
11.1 Introduction
Felix Randal is a sonnet with sprung and outriding rhythm, of six-foot lines, written at
Liverpool in 1880. You should note the appropriateness of the name, Felix, which is a Latin
word meaning happy.
Felix Randal, the blacksmith is the subject of the poem; he used to make horse-shoes.
Although he was robust and healthy, still he was overcome by diseases and died after receiving
the Holy Communion. He was attended and looked after by the poet during his illness, and at
the time of death, as a priest. The poem is a priestly meditation on his death.
In Spring and Fall, written at Lancashire, in 1880, Hopkins tells us that youth has an
intuitive, almost innate knowledge of the sad transciency of all things due to the curse of Adams
original sin. Remarkably compressed and condensed, the poem opens with a tender and gentle
address by a father-confessor to an imaginary child.
In the Title Spring and Fall Spring suggests the Garden of Eden in the Bible.
(Margaret, the young child, also represents Spring). Fall suggests Adams fall, the penalty of
Adam, for eating the forbidden fruit. Fall also suggests the season of Autumn, when leaves
ripen, become pale and ultimately fall. This is one of the few poems of Hopkins which is free
from doctrinal elements explicitly stated. Spring in the title suggests both the season of growth
and the Garden of Eden (of Adam and Eve in The Bible); Fall similarly suggests Autumn,
when the leaves fall, as well as the Fall of Adam, the penalty of Adam. Remarkably com-
pressed and condensed, the poem opens with a tender address to a child by a kindly father-
confessor. The child Margaret is imaginary only; Goldengrove may also refer to an actual
village ; it means the golden trees in a grove or garden, which in the Autumn season, stand
bare, leafless. Are you, Margaret, my young child, sorry for it? Leaves like the things of man
suggests the Biblical assertion in Isiah, And we all do fade as the leaf; and our iniquities, like
the wind, have taken us away.
11.2 Felix Randal
11.2.1 Text
Felix Randal the farrier, O he is dead then ? my duty all ended,
Who have watched his mould of man, big-boned and hardy-handsome.
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Pining, pining, till time when reason rambled in it and some
Fatal four disorders fleshed there, all contended?
Sickness broke, hi,. Impatient, he cursed at first, but mended
Being anointed and all; though a heavenlier heart began some
Months earlier, since I had our sweet reprieve and ransom
Tenders to him. Ah well, God rest him all road ever he offended !
This seeing the sick endears them to us, us too it endears,
My tongue had taught thee comfort, touch had quenched thy tears,
Thy tears that touched my heart, child. Felix, poor Felix Randal;
How far from then forethought of, all thy more boisterous years,
When thou at the random grim forge, powerful amidst peers,
Didst fettle for the great grey drayhorse his bright and bettering sandal!
11.2.2 Annotations
Line 1. The farrier one who shoes horses or cures horses disease. My duty all ended
the spiritual duties of Hopkins, the priest, ended now that Randal is dead.
Lines 2-5. Randal who was once big-boned, hardy and handsome, was later afficiated by
diseases, and he began to wish for death, illness broke his body and spirit.
Line 6. Anointed consecrated with holy oil; like baptism at childhood, a religious ceremony
before death.
Line 7. Reprieve Holy Communion : religious ceremony. Randal, in preparation for death
and salvation.
Line 8. God rest him May his soul rest in peace! All road ever he offended any road,
anyway, anyhow; hence, in whatever manner he may ever have sinned.
Lines 10-11. The solace and comfort, as the priest sat by the side of ther innocent, childlike,
sick man, was mutual. The priest contrasted his boisterous past with his helpless present
and was moved; the patient derived comfort from the touch and words of the priest.
Line 12. Did anyone then in those good old days, foresee that Randal would come to such
a situation ?
Line 13. Random built with rough, irregular stone. Forge a smithy ; the workshop of a
workman in iron. Peers equals ; other farriers.
Line 14. Fettle make ready; repair or set right. Drayhorse horse which pulls low, strong
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cart for heavy goods. Sandal Randal used to shoe horses ; but now the horse which
carries him aloft to the Heavens, wears sandals; it is light-footed.

(i) This seeing the sick . Battering sandal !
These lines have been taken from Hopkins poem Felikx Randal. This sonnet was
written by Hopkins when he was in Liverpool in 1880. In this poem the happy (Felix is a
Latin word which means happy) Randal is the chief character. By profession he is a black-
smith who makes horse shoes. He was healthy and gay but after receiving Holy Communion
he fell sick and died soon after. The poet attended him during his last illness. He also attended
his last hours as a priest. So this poem represents the poets priestly meditations on death.
In these lines the poet says that the visits of the priests to the sick persons make them
mutually dear to one another. The priests become fond of the patients and the latter also begin
to love their priests. When Hopkins, as the poet-priest visited Felix Randal, and spoke dear
words in his ear, the words gave solace to him. Hopkins also tried to give relief to Randal by
his caresses. The loving touch of the poets hands stopped the flow of the tears of Felix Randal.
Once Felix was strong man but now he had grown helpless like a child.
This makes the poet to think about the days of Randal when he was young. At that
time he was full of vigour and vitality. In his youth Randal was big-boned, hardy and hand-
some. At that time Felix Randal never imaged that he could fall a prey to such a sickness that
will eat into his vitality and youth. He continued to work at his shop where his skill was ac-
knowledged by one and all. Then with marvelous artistry of equivocation double meaning
Hopkins uses the world sandal at the end of the poem; Bright and battering sandal? Not
shoes ? That one word sandal brings in pictures of hooves of horses, not iron-shod, but
sandaled, battering, beating not the ground below, but flying with lighting in the skies, towards
Heaven, in the company of, escorted by , angels who are riding the horses, lightning-shod.
Look at the different picture now ! Randal, for who salvation is assured, is pictured as prepar-
ing for this last journey, on horses not shod, but sandaled. Now, his name Felix which means
happy becomes appropriate. He is happy on his way to Heaven.
The sheer force and beauty of these closing lines should be noted. There is the clump-
ing assonance as also thumping alliteration in these lines. The diction should also be noted.
Peers and sandals are evocative mytho-poetic words. Horse-shoes are heavy; sandals are
light. We batter the ground with shoes; we fly in the air like birds with their light wings. Hence
the suggestion of heavenward flight. Modern readers, mainly skeptical of metaphysics and
religion, should give more importance to the theme of dissolution of material things than to the
theme of humility, repentance and the Sacraments, in the poem Felix Randal
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The poem Felix Randal was composed by Hopkins in April 1880 when he was
staying in Leigh, Lancashire. Hopkins stayed in Leigh from September to December 1879
serving the parishioners there. This poem was written by Hopkins when he was in a happier
frame of mind. What is so surprising about this poem is that its subject is death, but it does not
have the melancholy and sadness which usually accompany his poems concerning death.
Felix Randal, a farrier, is the subject of this wonderful poem. Felix Randal, the black-
smith, was a robust and healthy man who had not known sickness. But after receiving the Holy
Communion he was overtaken by sickness and died soon after. During his last days, this
maker of horse shoes, was attended by Hopkins. The description of Randals occupation is
made in the following words :
When thou at the random grim forge, powerful amid peers,
Didst fettle for the great grey dray horse his bright and
Battering sandal!
This big-boned and hardy-handsome young man falls sick and his mind wanders :
Pining, pining, till time when reason rambled in it and some
Fatal four disorders, fleshed there, all contended ?
The poem tells us about the physical as well as the spiritual state of Felix Randal.
Though his physical condition deteriorates, his spiritual condition becomes stronger.
The poem is also rich in the use of the linguistic devices. This is the first of Hopkins
Liverpool poems, and introduces Lancashire dialect, expression and all (line 6), all road
over (line 8) and fettle in line fourteen. Commenting upon the imagery and vocabulary of
Felix Randal Norman H. Mackenzie has observed : Felix Randal is noteworthy for the
richness of its imagery and vocabulary. There is a word mould for example, which was, both
in dialect and in poetry, used for the grave; here this word has only a submerged meaning, His
mould of man is a metaphor from casting of metal particularly appropriate to a blacksmiths
forge. Hopkins with his own frail physique, always admired strong-bodied persons. The last
three lines of the sonnet are magnificently evocative of the blacksmith in his prime, physical
strength. The word random evokes the unplanned casualness of the smithy, typical of smiths
life itself. The word grim combines reminiscences of the powerful and forbidding Satanic
rebels in the smoke of Pandemonium, with its homely, widespread dialect use, dirty, grim
covered with soot or filth. The word fettle, which every customer would use to the farrier,
means to make or to mend. Furthermore, the last few lines are so arranged as to impart to
Felix Rnadal the stature and splendour of the magnificent horse he is shoeing. How the rhythm
beats out at time the sledge-hammer blows; random grim forge, great grey drayhorse (where
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the repeated vowels underscore the heavy strokes); we may catch too, the ringing of the
horseshoe on the paving. The final phase of the poem is inspired; it transforms the drayhorse
from drabness to radiance as the sonnet reaches an impressive and exultant close : his bright
and battering sandal!
11.3 Spring and Fall
11.3.1 Text
Margaret, are you grieving
Over Goldengrove unleaving ?
Leaves, like the things of man, you
With your fresh thoughts care for, can you ?
Ah ! as the heart grows older
It will come to such sights colder
By and by, nor spare a sigh
Though worlds of wanwood leafmeal lie ;
And yet you will weep and know why.
Now no matter, child, the name :
Sorrows springs are the same.
Nor mouth had, no nor mind, expressed
What heart heard of, ghost guessed :
It is the blight man was born for.
It is Margaret you mourn for.
11.3.2 Annotations
Line 1. Margaret no real Margaret is intended; any child.
Line 2. Goldengrove the golden trees in a grove. There is Goldengrove Farm in North
Wales. Unleaving leaves falling away getting leafless.
Line 3. Leaves refer to The Bible (Isiah) : and we all do fade as the leaf; and our iniquities,
like the wind, have taken us away. Like the things of man mortality is a part of all
created things.
Line 4. Fresh thoughts the poet points out a childs growing sensibility. Young Margaret
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grieves because the trees in the grove are getting leafless and beauty is fading away.
Line 5 -6. The heart grows older . Colder one day, later, when you lose your sensibility.
Line 7. Nor spare a sigh Margaret, you will be unmoved.
Line 8. Wanwood a very effective coinage; the bitterness of wormwood is suggested. Wan
gives the combined meaning of dark, gloomy, deficient, pale, bloodless (note it, as an
example for inscape). Leafmeal piecemeal; leaf by leaf ; like inchmeal, limbmeal,
in Shakespeare. Wanwood leafmeal lie one by one, the leaves fall, and then rot
into mealy fragments.
Line 9. You will weep note this as an example for the ambiguities in Hopkins. This can mean
: (1) insist upon weeping, now or later, (2) shall weep in the future. And know
another ambiguity : (1) you insist upon knowing, (2) you shall know. You will weep
and know a third variation, listen, and I shall tell you why you weep. Know a
third variation listen, and I shall tell you why you weep.
Why because of the blight of the original sin of Adam.
Line 10. The name of Adam, his sin and fall and the curse source.
Line 11. Sorrows. the same all sorrows have virtually one source.
Line 12. Mouth mind of Margaret or somebody elses.
Line 12-13. Nor mouth .. guessed neither your mouth nor even your mind has ex-
pressed what your heart must have known and your spirit must have guessed.
Line 13. What heart heard of mortality. Ghost archaic usage : spirit (of the living). It
stands for both mortality and grave.
Line 14. The blight the curse of decay and death.
Line 15. You mourn for the inevitability of decay and death of all created things, the result
of the original sin, the disobedience of Adam and the resultant punishment.

(i) Margaret, are you grieving.. care for, can you?
These lines have been taken from the poem Spring and Fall written by Gerard Manley
Hopkins, a Victorian poet, who remained almost unknown to the poetry reading public during
his life time. He was first published by Robert Bridges, and since then he has been the most
potent influence on modern poetry. This poem was written by Hopkins in 1880. This poem is
remarkably condensed and compressed. The poem opens with a tender and gentle address
by a father-confessor to an imaginary child.
This is one of the few poems of Hopkins in which the doctrinal viewpoint does not
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dominate. Spring in the title of the poem suggests, both the season of spring during which
nature takes on a new look, and the Garden of Eden where Adam and Eve lived so blissfully
before their transgression. Fall in the title similarly suggests two things : the autumn season,
when the leaves fall, and the Fall of Adam, the penalty which he got for his transgression.
The child Margaret of the opening statement of the poem is an imaginary child. Like-
wise, Goldengrove is no actual place, although the reference to Byzantium where there were
golden trees may be made. The poet begins by giving a picture of autumn season when leaves
begin to fall from trees. The poet asks Margaret if she is full of sorrow because leaves in the
Goldengrove are falling. The poet asks her the reason of weeping. Then he asks her whether
she is so upset because the leaves in the grove are falling or whether she is weeping for a
similar mortality in human world. Here leaves like the things/humans suggest the Biblical asser-
tion in Issiah, And we all do fade as the leaf; and our iniquities, like the wind, have taken us
away. The poet asks the child whether she, in all her simplicity, is grieving over the trees in the
grove getting leafless and their beauty fading away. The father asks the child not to be so
sensitive because as she matures she will know the facts of life and hence of decay and drab-
ness of things in the autumn season.
(ii) Nor mouth had.. you mourn for
These lines have been taken from the poem Spring and Fall written by Gerard Manley
Hopkins. In this poem the title suggests the coming and going of seasons. The poet emphasises
the sad transiency of all things due to the curse of Adams original sin. This poem is free from
any doctrinal content. It has been a favourite with anthology collectors. This poem expresses
the idea of sad mortality of man as well as nature. The child Margaret (who weeps because
she finds leaves falling in the Goldengrove) does not know that she too is mortal and subject to
decay like the autumnal leaves.
In these concluding lines of the poem the poet speaks about the little girl Margaret
who has no suitable words, nor real understanding of her own grief. She does not know that
like the leaves she is also liable to decay. Her heart half knows and her heart has half guessed
the cause of her grief. But she has no definite words through which she could express the
thoughts that come to her mind. Still her heart has sensed the truth almost intuitively.
But it must be remembered that the poem does not end on a note of admonition to
Margaret. It is on a note of sympathy, Wordsworthian sympathy, that the poem ends. In this
poem Hopkins expresses with poignant regret the fact of decay and mortality with great ten-
derness and pathos. In the words of Thornton, The series of balances and comparisons in the
poem give it a calm persuasive articulation, and the consciousness of all that is involved in
knowledge and fall gives this apparently slight poem a great deal of weight.

Sring and Fall is one of Hopkins most popular poems. It is also one of his sad
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poems. This poem was written by Hopkins in the spring of 1880. It was written by Hopkins
when he was struggling with great personal depression. Here we find him overworked and
worried. Then he was living in Liverpool which for him was the most museless, a most un-
happy and miserable spot. About this poem he wrote to his friend Robert Bridges, (it is) a
little piece composed since I began this letter, not founded on any real incident. I am not well
satisfied with it. Still, it remains a poem of great lyrical intensity and passion in which technical
innovations also abound. The poem expresses the idea of sad mortality of man and nature
alike. The child Margaret who weeps because of the golden leaves falling in autumn really
mourns, though she does not yet know it, her own mortality.
The poem concerns human mortality. It is a kind of lamentation which the poet makes
because of the Fall of man. In the beginning man lived in perfect innocence and bliss in the
Garden of Paradise, but now after the disobedience of God, he has been made to decay and
death. In this connection the use of the coined word Goldengrove in the second line of the
poem is greatly suggestive. To some it is a simple and rather gratuitious invention; they con-
sider it to be merely a description of trees, the leaves of which have turned red and yellow, or
gold. The unleaving of the Goldengrove, however, gains wider implication when we con-
sider it with reference to the Garden of Paradise. The leaves that are falling, we are told are
like the things of man (line 3). So Goldengrove may also stand for golden days of youth,
the spring time of life. Thus the two aspects the seasons of the year and chronological stages
of mans life, get united in this one word. Then, the capitalization of the word Goldengrove
alerts us to other suggestions in the poem worlds of wanwood, ghost guessed, and the
blight man was born for. The words world, ghost and blight give us an invitation to
read the poem in the context of the Garden of Eden for which Goldengrove is a happy
coinage.
From the ninth line onwards we find a change in the thought of the poem. Here he tells
us about the cause of Margarets grieving ;
Nor mouth had, no nor mind, expressed.
What heart heard of, ghost guessed :
It is Margaret you mourn for.
Now we are told about the cause why death and decay have come into the world.
Thus we come across a double symbolism in the poem. Fall refers to autumn as well as mans
fall from grace. And Spring stands for the fountain head of sorrow (the Original Sin) and the
spring of tears. Thus, this poem expresses Hopkins conviction that all sorrow springs from
one cause - mortality, deriving from sin, and this is so, whether we are conscious of it or not.
Margaret, now a mere child, will grow soon, and like Hopkins come to know of this great
truth.
The poem is a direct address to the girl, Margaret, and there is no scene-setting worth
165
the name. The poem is written objectively. But we can feel that this is rather away from the
truth. The poem is a projection of the poets self in the form of Margaret. And the generaliza-
tion of the human condition may also be read as the consciousness of the poets own position.
In Margaret he recognizes his own youth, and the distance he has traveled from it. Natural
beauty, instead of being a revelation of God, is increasingly seen as a reminder of the shortness
of his own life and his own mortal nature.
Hopkins has garnered the common resources of language and invented new words
by extending the common process of its development and growth (shifting parts of speech,
compounding new words from old elements). In the coinage of new words Hopkins has used
old elements into new entities. In this poem he has twice coined two new words in a single line.
In the second line he has coined Goldengrove and unleaving, and in the line eight wanwood
and leafmeal. The happy choice of the coinage of Goldengrove has already been explained.
As regards unleaving- it is composed of a noun leaf used as a verb with a negative prefix
un to mean leaving leaves. The cause of misunderstanding is that many people consider it
a compound of leave used as verb with the compound un.
The other line that contains two coined words is line eight. Wanwood is a compound
of two words wood and wan. And the woods are pale because the trees have shed their
leaves and so they have become wan, that is pale. Leafmeald seems ambiguous but this
ambiguity is soon removed. Here we have to remember that there is a world in English, piece-
meal which means piece by piece. Likerwise leafmeal means leaf by leaf. This line, thus
may be read : though huge areas of dark, colourless groves have dropped their leaves on the
ground, one by one to decay, becoming a mass of mealy matter.
11.4 Terms used for Understanding Hopkins Poetry

The section discusses the terms Inscape, Instress and Sprung Rhythm, central to the
poetry of Hopkins :-
(a) Inscape : We talk of olive trees. We generalize. But Hopkins treated each olive tree as an
individual item. When you read his The Windhover, you find the flight of the
Windohover expressing the whole personality of the bird. That is inscape for Hopkins
(and should be, for you). Hopkins wrote I have no other word for that which takes
the mind or eye in a bold hand. So he coined a new word Inscape. He used it to
designate the beauty of Things. Inscape is applied to some particular thing of beauty
which is distinctive and patterned. It is the individual quality of an object as revealed in
its characteristic action which reveals the inner form of it. Inscape is an effect to trans-
late this into words. Verse is inscape of the spoken sound. Poetry is only speech
employed to carry the inscape of speech. Hopkins adds : It is the virtue of Inscape
to be distinctive and it is the virtue of distinctiveness to be queer. Inscape is the very
soul of art.
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Verbal inscape is a pattern of design in words. When words are used to suggest the
inscape by means of a sound pattern we get verbal inscape. For example, (1) earliest
stars, earl stars, (2) dapple drawn dawn.
(b) Instress : Inscape is the individuating quality. The readers response to the inscape may
be called instress. It is the observers response to the object of observation. It is
stress emphasized, stress felt inside, seen through the inner self. It is in order to
produce this effect that the poet creates the inscape of the object. The poet finds
adequate words to project the inscape which the object has, is such a way that the
desired instress is produced. Hopkins tries to capture the flight of the Windhover in
words and his apprehension of the characteristic activity of the bird, passed on to the
readers, is called instress. It is the sensation of the inscape (W.H. Gardner). Hopkins
has nowhere specifically defined instress.
(c) Sprung Rhythm : A term used by Hopkins to denote the method by which his verse is to
be scanned. In his time, most English verse was written in Running Rhythm, that is,
metres with regular stresses in the line. Hopkins wished to free English verse from this
rhythm, so as to bring verse into closer accord with common speech, to emancipate
rhythm from linear unit, and to achieve a freer range of emphasis. It is a rhythm not
counted by syllables and regular feet but by stresses (stress being the emphasis of the
voice upon a word or syllable). If you imagine a line divided into feet, then one syllable
would be stressed in each foot, but that syllable can either stand alone or be accompa-
nied by a number of unstressed syllables (usually not more than four). As stresses, not
syllables, make up the line, it may vary considerably in length. To put in differently, in
Sprung Rhythm, the number of stresses in each line is regular, but they do not occur at
regular intervals, nor do the lines have a uniform number of syllables. The rhythm also
drives through the stanza, and is not basically linear. Consider these lines from The
Wreck.
Thou hast bound bones and veins in me fastened me flesh,
And after it almost unmade, what with dread.

(a) Answer to the following questions should not exceed 20 words each.
1. What does the word Felix mean ?

2. Who was Felix Randal ?

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3. Who are the patient and the priest in the poem Felix Randal?

4. When was the poem Felix Randal written ?

5. Name the poem of Wordworth which can be compared to Hopkins Felix Randal
and Spring and Fall

6. What do the words Spring and Fall suggest in the title of the poem Spring and
Fall?

7. What does the word goldengrove mean in Spring and Fall ?

8. Who is Margaret ?

9. By whom were Hopkins poems first published ?

10. What does the poem Spring and Fall express ?

(b) Answer the following question in 500 words each :
1. Critically appreciate the poem Felix Randal.
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2. Critically appreciate the poem Spring and Fall.


(a) 1. Felix is a Latin word which means happy.
2. Felix Randal, the blacksmith, or ironsmith is the subject of the poem Felix
Randal. He used to make horse shoes.
3. The patient is Felix Randal, the ferrier and the priest is Hopkins, the poet.
4. Felix Randal was written in April 1880 when Hopkins was staying in Leigh,
Lancashire.
5. Wordsworths poems Leech-gatherer, Old Cumberland Beggar and
Michael can be compared to Hopkins Felix Randal and Spring and Fall.
6. Spring in the title suggests both the season of growth and the Garden of
Eden; Fall similarly suggests Autumn and the Fall of Adam.
7. Goldengrove means the golden trees in a grove or garden. It may also refer
169
to an actual village.
8. Margaret refers to an imaginary child to whom the poem Spring and Fall is
addressed.
9. Robert Bridges was the first to publish Hopkins poems.
10. The poem expresses the sad mortality of Man as well as nature.
(B) 1. See the Critical Appreciation of the poem.
2. See the Critical Appreciation of the poem.
11.7 Let Us Sum Up

In this unit we have discussed in detail Hopkins two representative poems Felix
Randal and Spring and Fall. These poems express Hopkins intense love for common hu-
manity. The unit also contains a brief discussion on the terms Inscape, Instress and Sprung
Rhythm, vital to the understanding of Hopkins poetry.

1. Comment on the confessional aspect in Hopkins poems.
2. Comment on the uniqueness of Hopkins poetry.
11.9 Bibliography
. John Pick : Gerad Manley Hopkins : Priest and Poet (OUP).
2. W.A.M. Peters : G.M. Hopkins : A Critical Essay Towards the Understanding of His
Poetry (OUP).
3. W.H. Gardner : G.M. Hopkins : A Study of Poetic Idiosyncracy in Relation to Poetic
Traditions, Vols I and II.
____________________
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UNIT 12
ROBERT BROWNING : MY LAST DUCHESS
Structure
12.0 Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Age and Author
12.2.1 About the Age
12.2.2 About the Author
12.3 Reading Text
12.3.1 Text
12.3.2 Glossary
12.3.3 Summary
12.4 Analysis
12.4.1 Critical Analysis
12.4.2 Dramatic Monologue
12.4.3 Form and Style
12.5 Let us Sum Up
12.7 Bibliography
12.0 Objectives
In this unit we wish to acquaint you with the Victorian Age. We will give you practice
171
to understand and appreciate poetry through Robert Brownings masterpiece dramatic mono-
logue My Last Duchess. We will give you practice by:
(a) giving you the theme, story and detailed summary of My Last Duchess, one of the
best dramatic monologues;
(b) giving you meanings and explanations in a very simple language; and
(c) critically analysing the text and explaining the literary devices used by the poet,
We will let you know about the social conditions and literary trends of The Victorian
Age. We will also discuss Robert Brownings life, his literary genius and contribution to society
and literature at large. After reading and understanding My Last Duchess. You will surely be
able to :
(i) appreciate and evaluate a dramatic monologue; and
(ii) develop insight into understanding the hidden meanings and literary devices used by
the poet.
12.1 Introduction
The poetry of the Victorian age that of the middle part of the nineteenth century,
between the first Romanticism which fills its beginning, and the second which precedes its end
is woven of the two main strands of thought and feeling which run through the central period;
that poetry finds its proper perspective on the intricate, shifting background of their interplay.
The inspiration of each individual poet can be described more precisely in relation to those
broad lines of development.
Viewed as a whole, the display of poetic talent during these years is as prolific as it is
subtly varied in the wide range of its colouring. One can, however, distinguish in it two groups
of poets; they are not divided because of any well-defined antagonism-indeed, they are united
by many intermediary shades; but one group rather seeks to identify itself with the contempo-
rary movement in intellectual and critical thought, stressing the need for objectivity, and aiming
at a standard of balance, based upon the quality of precision in each idea; while the other
group seems to favour the idealistic reaction with its desire for emotion, its cult of beauty, and
its dreamy tendency, weaving the main themes of vision round the subtle blending of imagina-
tion and sensibility. From the point of view of general literary history, the first group logically
precedes the second, explaining, so to speak, and determining its existence, just as action
naturally precedes reaction. The Victorian age is above all characterized by an intellectual and
positive movement. But poetry is not always the surest, nor the most minutely accurate, symp-
tom of the evolution of mind. Compared with other forms of art, it may show an appreciable
backwardness; it is the privileged domain of conservative tendencies. In fact, the poets of the
second group occupy a position of slight priority with relation to those of the first. A student
who keeps chronology in mind will begin his examination with them.
172
The reason is that the idealistic reaction does not constitute an absolute beginning; in
many respects it represents the natural, direct continuation of Romanticism. Neither in litera-
ture nor in the inner life of the soul can it be said that the properly Romantic inspiration is
exhausted after 1830. It is seen in mixed forms, and combines with the other psychological
elements which characterize the new period. There is scarcely a poet from now onwards who
does not reveal, in some degree, the reciprocal penetration and fusion of the influences in
conflict.
There is an element of Romanticism in all the Victorian poets. With many, this remains
their strongest and most obvious characteristic. But the spiritual change that has taken place
and the atmosphere of a different age give their art another aspect. The new features are either
a more strongly disciplined manner, a more elaborate perfection of the form; or a more spon-
taneous sympathy with emotions which seem to exclude the Romantic obsession of self; or
again, a stringent intellectualism which colours the highest flights of the imagination. In the same
way, the poets who show most clearly in their work the decline of purely Romantic themes no
doubt derive their inspiration from the restless activity of the mind; they are occupied with
mere truth; philosophy and psychology appeal to them; their poems are analyses, demonstra-
tions, into which one feels that science has instilled something of its method; their ideal lies, or
seems to lie, in objectivity. But all their poetry is impregnated with a diffused Romanticism,
which at times crystallizes in words that seem to be but the echo of those of yesterday. In view,
therefore, of the very varied and mixed tendencies of work, strict classification would be
arbitrary. Writers and groups can be studied according to a certain order; but this order must
remain pliant, avoid all system, and leave full scope to the study of individual temperaments.
12.2 The Age And The Author

In this section we will discuss the position, gravity and importance of The Victorian
Age. The life and poetic genius of Robert Browning will also be given in this section. Browning
is one of the major poets of this age.

The period from 1830 onwards witnessed a development in literary tradition. And
1832 is the year of a great reform which lays the solid foundation of political democracy. The
third decade of nineteenth century traced the beginning of a new age in English society and
literature.
This period derives its title from the reign of Queen Victoria lasting 1837-1901. As the
literary trends, most marked in this age, had begun some years earlier, it is often dated from
1832, the year of Scotts death. Its notable events were the Oxford Movement, the rise of
democracy, the expansion of the British empire, and the progress of science and industry. The
Oxford Movement, so called from its origin at Oxford, was a movement for reviving the same
faith in the Church that it commanded in the Middle Ages. In this way it sought to combat the
173
sceptical tendencies of the age. It was initiated by John Keble with a sermon on national
apostasy at Oxford University in 1833.
The democratic process, which began with the Reform Act of 1832, was carried yet
further in this age by a series of progressive legislatinos that included the extension of the
franchise to the labouring classes, removal of many of the remaining disabilities of the Roman
Catholics, the admission of the Jews to membership in the Parliament, universal adult male
suffrage, voting by secret ballot, and increased opportunities for education. Side by side, the
British empire steadily expanded so as to include India, Egypt and the Sudan, South Africa
and the self-governing colonies of Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. Britain also acquired
control of the Suez Canal. In the field of science a number of inventions and discoveries took
place : those of Pasteur in medicine and Darwin in biology, the railway, the automobile, and the
aeroplane; the telephone, the telegraph, and the wireless; and the application of machinery to
industry.
In spite of the changes political, economic, scientific, religious noticed above, the
poetic temper of the Victorian age is not materially different from that of the early nineteenth
century. In its individualism, play of imagination, love of the picturesque, and interest in Nature
and the past, it continues the romantic tradition. But in its response to the changed conditions
it acquired a distinctive character of its own.
Democracy had introduced a new force to reckon with the people conscious of
their rights ; the new industry had made the rich richer and the poor poorer ; science, which
had done all this, had by another stroke the evolutionary theory banished God from the
universe; and religion therefore had little useful role to play. What would happen to England
now that her elaborate religious system, which used to solve all such problems, had failed her?
The poets Tennyson, Browning, Arnold-filled in the breach. Each came out with a message
of his own to reassure his readers that their doubts, distractions, and fears notwithstanding, all
was right with the world. The poet turned a prophet too. There were two exceptions to this
preoccupation with the present : the Pre-Raphaelites and those who came under the influence
of the Oxford Movement. The former sought refuge in the pleasures of art and the latter in the
pleasures of piety.
Under the impact of science, again, the poetic style underwent a change. While it
continued to be ornate, most notably in Tennyson and the Pre-Raphaelites, it became more to
the point than before. It is more rational and less extravagant. It is neo-classical in its plainness
and romantic in its picturesqueness. One more factor contributed to this change : the stress the
age laid on order and discipline in every walk of life. Poetry therefore shed the mere flowers of
speech. It strove for beauty within the limits of reason.

Robert Browning was born in Camberwell on May 7, 1812. His father, an unusual
174
man was a clerk in the Bank of England. He was a man of more than ordinary culture and
originality of mind, who was devoted to the study of various subjects of human interest. He
possessed a library of six thousand volumes. The poets mother belonged to Scotland. She
was a devoted lady who took proper care of her children. Young Robert was encouraged to
read a large number of subjects and side by side alongwith reading. He was encouraged for a
careful training in music : and the Dulwich Gallery, not far away from his home, became a place
which he visited regularly from his childhood.
Till the age of fourteen years he remained at a School for young gentlemen, run by a
Mr. Ready at Peckham. After that he was not sent to any school by his father. He was placed
under the care of a private tutor. When he was seventeen, he was admitted for a term to a
Greek class at The University College, Gower Street. The systematic use of his fathers library
was probably the most important factor in the poets early education while still a boy. H read
the great Elizabethan writers and Byron with special interest. The first book he bought with his
own money in his childhood was Ossian. His mother bought works of Shelley and Keats from
London on his request. If we do not clearly understand that Browning was an ardent and
almost the first disciple of Shelley, we shall miss the secret of his first inspiration.
When he was twelve years of age, a collection, under the title Incondita, was pub-
lished by him. It contained his Byronic poems. This was studied by W.H. Fox, editor of The
Monthly Repository, who did not forget the boy poet. The wholesome confusion of poets
youth is visible in his first long poem entitled Pauline. It was published in 1833. He was only
twelve years old at that time. It is probably the most consummate poem of its length ever
written by a youth. In 1833 Browning visited Russia and applied for a diplomatic post in
Persia. He was not then interested in diplomatic work and did not join. During the next year he
contributed poems to The Monthly Repository. In 1835 his Paracelsus was published. In
vision and in apprehension it was the most profound of his youthful poems. This gained him the
attention and appreciation of great poets and men of letters like wordsworth, Dickens, Carlyle
and Landor. After this he tried his hand in writing a play and his first play Strafford was
successfully produced at Covent Garden on 1st May, 1837.
His third successful poem Sordello came in 1840. From 1841 to 1845 he wrote a
series of astonishing poetical pamphelts to which the simple hearted Browning gave the title
Bells and Pomegrantes. Browning couldnot take an objective view of any character.
He married Elizabeth Barnett Moulton Barrett in 1846. She was six years older than
him. After marriage Brownings made their home at Florence in Italy. Elizabeth was not very fit
physically and did not to much physical exertion and labour. Their only child Robert Barrett
Browning was born 1849. Brownings continued their literary endeavours in Italy. Mrs. Browning
died in 1861. This made Robert Browning leave Italy and settle down in London for the rest
of his life. His literary career rose to new heights with Dramatic Personae (1864), The Ring
and the Book (1868-69), Asolando (1870), Balaustions Adventure and Prince Hohenstiel
175
Schwangam (1871), Refine at the Fair (1872), Red Cotton Night Cap Country (1873)
and La Saisiaz (1878)
He mostly lived in London and visited France and Italy at least once in a year. He was
the centre of an admiring group of friends and an adoring crowd of disciples and enjoyed self
respect and dignity. The brave and noble old man fell into his last sleep on the night of Decem-
ber 12, 1889. He was buried at Westminster Abbey.

Choose the correct answer from the three alternatives given below each question :
1. Victorian Age is characterized by :
(a) Intellectual and Positive Movement
(b) Poetic Honesty
(c) Idealistic Reason
2. The element of Romantics is found in :
(a) Victorian Poets
(b) Elizabethan Poets
(c) Augustan Poets
3. The Victorian poets can be :
(a) taken as one group
(b) divided into two groups
(c) divided into many groups
4. Queen Victoria reigned over England from:
(a) 1830-1900
(b) 1837-1901
(c) 1832-1901
5. The Reform Act was begging of :
(a) The Queens Reign
(b) Democratic Process
(c) The Tractarian Movement
6. The self governing colonies were :
176
(a) Canada, Newzealand and Australia
(b) Australia and Canada
(c) Australia and India
7. Darwins theory of the origin actually challenged :
(a) The Throne of England
(b) The biblical version of the creation
(c) The growth of machinery
8. Robert Brownings son was born in :
(a) 1845
(b) 1846
(c) 1849
9. Browning went to University College to study :
(a) Literature
(b) Greek
(c) Classical Literature
10. The first collection of Brownings poems was published :
(a) when he was twelve years
(b) when he was fourteen years
(c) when he was sixteen years

1. (a) Intellectual and Positive Movement
2. (a) The Victorian poets
3. (b) divided into two groups
4. (b) 1837-1901
5. (b) democratic process
6. (a) democratic process
7. (b) the Biblical version of creation
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8. (c) 1849
9. (b) Greek
10. (a) when he was twelve years
12.3 Reading The Text

The dramatic monologue My Last Duchess is regarded as the best dramatic mono-
logue in the whole range of English Literature. The speaker is the Duke of Ferrara, an impor-
tant city and cultural center of Italy. The spirit of Renaissance, its intrigues, its sensuality, its
greed and cultural qualities are presented in it.
You are advised to read, understand and paraphrase the text of the poem with the help
of the glossary. A summary and a detailed critical analysis are also given in this section to help
you understand this dramatic monologue in a better way.
12.3.1 The Text of My Last Duchess

Thats my last Duchess painted on the wall.
Looking as if she were alive; I call
That piece a wonder, now : Fra Pandolfs hands
Worked busily a day and there she stands.
Willt please you sit and look at her? I said
Fra Pandolf by design, for never read
Strangers like you that pictured countenance,
The depth and passion of its earnest glance,
But to myself they turned (since none puts by
The curtain I have drawn for you, but I) 10
And seemed as they would ask me, if they durst,
How such a glance came there; so, not the first
Are you to turn and ask thus. Sir, twas not
Her husbands presence only, called that spot
Of joy into the Duchess cheek : perhaps
Fra Pandolf chanced to say Her mantle laps
Over my Ladys wrist too much. or Paint
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Must never hope to reproduce the faint
Half-flush that dies along her throat ; such stuff
Was courtesy she thought, and cause enough 20
For calling up that spot of joy. She had
A heart ... how shall I say ? .... too soon made glad
Too easily impressed; she liked whateer
She looked on, and her looks went everywhere.
Sir, twas all one! My favour at her breast,
The dropping of the daylight in the West,
The bough of cherries some officious fool
Broke in the orchard for her, the white mule
She rode with round the terrace-all and each
Would draw from her alike the approving speech. 30
Or blush, at least, She thanked men good but thanked somehow ... I know not
how ... as if she ranked
My gift of a nine-hundred-years-old name
With anybodys gift. Whod stoop to blame
This sort of trifling ? Even had you skill
In speech (which I have not) to make your will
Quite clear to such an one, and say Just this
Or that in you disgusts me; here you miss,
Or there exceed the mark and if she let
Herself be lessoned so, nor plainly set 40
Her wits to yours. forsooth and made excuse,
- Een then would be some stooping, and I chose
Never to stoop. Oh, Sir, she smiled no doubt,
Wheneer I passed her; but who passed without
Much the same smile? This grew; I gave commands;
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Then all smiles stopped together. There she stands
As if alive. Willt please you rise? Well meet
The company below, then. I repeat,
The Count your Masters known munificence
Is ample warrant that no just pretence 50
Of mine for dowry will be disallowed;
Thought his fair daughters self as I avowed
At starting, is my object. Nay, well go
Together down, Sir! Notice Neptune, though,
Taming a sea-horse, thought a rarity,
which Claus of Innsbruck cast in bronze for me! 56
12.3.2Glossary
1-10 looking : appearance of the pointing
a wonder : a wonderful work of art
worked busily a day : the portrait was painted in one day
look at her : to admire the pointing of Duchess
piece : portrait
Fra Pandolf : the name of the painter who painted the portrait
Fra : from, friar, a monk
earnest : in good sense
By design : intentionally
read : examined carefully
pictured conntenance : the face of the last duchess as shown in portrait
puts by : removes
I : the Duke
You : the messenger
11-20 seemed : appeared, as if
they durst : if they had the courage to do so
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such a glance : you are not the first person to ask
spot of joy : a faint blush caused by pleasure
mantle : cloak
laps : covers
faint half blush : the reddish glow
such stuff : such remarks
were courtesy : they were merely courtesy
21-30 calling up : taking meaningless remarks seriously
it was all one : she has no sense of discrimination
too soon made glad : easily pleased
my favour : ornaments given by me
dropping of day light : hour of sunset
officious fool : some foolish admirer of hers
terrace : a raised walk or drive
the approving speech : a few words of appreciation
31-40 ranked : considered of the same value
stoop to blame : loss of dignity by criticism foolish conduct
trifling : foolish, childish conduct
your will : your desires
to such an one : to a frivolous childish person like the Duchess
set her wits to yours : at once began discussing
forsooth : at once
41-50 made excuses : try to justify her conduct
chuse : choose
passed her : came across her
commands : ordered the duchess not to smile an everyone
than all smiles stopped together : this indicates the tragedy
please you rise : will you please get up
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the company : meeting
munificance : generosity, liberality
ample warrant : sufficient guarantee
just pretence : reasonable expectation or claim
disallowed : rejected
avowed : said, declared
51-56 fair : beautiful
starting : in the beginning
object : purpose, desire
Neptune : the sea-god in classical my thology
a rairly : a rare statue
claus of innsbruck : an imaginary sculptor
cast : produced
bronze : a metal compounded out of copper and brass
12.3.3 Summary
In the palance of an Italian Duke, who is the speaker in this short but vivid piece, had
come the envoy of a count whose daughter he was negotiating to marry. The Duke was a
widower, and taking his guest round the family protrait gallery, he paused before the protrait of
his last Duchess and drew aside the curtain. He began to comment on the picture.
It was a fine portrait, so beautifully executed, that the form of his wife came to life in it.
Friar Pandolf who painted it, had spent a lot of time and labour over that masterpiece.
At once, the Duke turned to inform his guest that he had deliberately named a Friar as
the artist. This was because the look of deep and intense passion on the Duchesss face always
intrigued onlookers. It was clear that they sensed something behind that look other than love
for her husband; they would have asked questions about it if only they had the courage. The
mention of a Friars name helped to check fancies about an affair between the Duchess and
the painter.
It was obvious to anyone that the look on her counternance was caused by something
more than the mere presence of her husband in the studio. Its joy was so clear and bright. But
it might have been caused by a casual remark from the painter; either a suggestion that her
mantle should not cover her wrist so much or that it was impossible to reproduce on canvas
the faint, evanescent flush that suffused her face. In her case even such a formal, courteous
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remark was sufificnet to call forth a bush of happiness.
She had an innocent, happy nature that could be pleased easily. Her earnest, impas-
sioned, and yet smiling glance went alike to everyone. She who sent it knew no distinction of
things or persons. Everything pleased her; everyone could arouse her gratitude. The same
smile lighted her face again when he, her husband, showed her a special favour as when some
over-zealous fool plucked a branch of the cherry-tree rich with leaves and fruits and presented
it to her. The bright sky at sunset or the white mule she rode seemed to arouse the same smile
of pleasure too. It seemed to him from her manner of showing her gratitude for such simple
things that she ranked his gift the gift of a nine hundred years old name, with that of every
one else.
Naturally, this outlook filled him with anger that turned soon to disgust. It was beneath
his dignity to complain about such things. He could have admonished her and corrected her,
and perhaps she would have submitted willingly to his wishes. But this would have meant
lowering himself from his wonted dignity. All the time her attitude grew increasingly disgusting.
So he decided to act. He gave the necessary orders, and she never smiled again. He put her in
a state where she could worry or insult him no more. In plain words he got her killed.
Thus, having told the story of his last Duchess, the Duke turned to more immediate
things. First, there was the dowry that his prospective bride was to fetch him : he knew that it
would be adequate, coming as it did from such a munificent man as the count. Anyway, his
main attraction was the beautiful lady and not the fortune she would bring.
With that, he turned to more down his guest. As a gesture of carelessness, intended to
suggest his indifference to such things, he pointed in passing to a rare statute in bronze, the
figure of Neptune taming his sea-horse.

Choose the correct answer from the three alternatives given below each question :
1. My Last Duchess is:
(a) a dramatic monologue
(b) an autobiographical poem
(c) a dramatic lyric
2. My Last Duchess was published in :
(a) 1863
(b) 1860
(c) 1842
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3. The Speaker in the poem is
(a) Duke of Ferrara
(b) Claus of Innsbruck
(c) Duchess
4. The story of the poem belongs to :
(a) Nineteenth Century
(b) Sixteenth Century
(c) Twentieth Century
5. The Duke, in the poem, is talking to :
(a) the Count
(b) a court official
(c) a messenger
6. The portrait has :
(a) smile on the lips
(b) deep passionate look in the eyes
(c) glow on her face
7. The Duke :
(a) discards the portrait
(b) hates the portrait
(c) is justly proud of it
8. The Duke had :
(a) graceful nature
(b) royal nature
(c) childish and foolish nature
9. The Duchess was :
(a) unfaithful to her husband
(b) overpowered by her husband
(c) free to enjoy her life
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10. The portrait was painted by :
(a) Fra Pandolf
(b) Claus of lunsbruck
(c) Neptune
12.3.5 Answers SAQs

1. (a) dramatic monologue
2. (c) 1842
3. (a) Duke of Ferrara
4. (b) sixteenth century
5. (c) a messenger
6. (b) deep passionate look in the eyes
7. (c) is justly proud of it
8. (c) childish and foolish nature
9. (b) overpowered by her husband
10. (a) Fra Pandolf
12.4 Analysis
In this section we will let you practice to analyse and appreciate a given text and also
to understand poetic devices

My Last Duchess was published in Dramatic Lyrics in late November, 1842. In the
collection of 1849, it was made one of the Dramatic Romances and Lyrics, and in the rear-
rangement of the poems in 1863 it was put under Dramatic Romances. In the first publica-
tions it was entitled Italy, and it was in the 1849 edition that the present title My Last Duchess
was given.
Browning has represented the Duchess as a pathetic, stifled figure, rendered inca-
pable by circumstances of giving expression to her talents and feelings. It has been suggested
that it is based somewhat on the life that Elizabeth Barrett, later Mrs. Browning, lived in Wimpole
Street. Her talents and passions were stifled by the tyranny of her father.
The Duke is addressing the envoy of a Count whose daughter he is going to marry. He
draws his attention to the portrait of his last Duchess, now dead. He calls it a portrait done by
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Friar Pandolf, and then qualifies his statement with the remarks that he did so by design,
because he had noticed that visitors were intrigued by the expression on the Duchesss face,
and almost wanted to ask what caused it. Most of them restrained that curiosity because they
dared not wound his feelings.
The Duke means that often people, observing the expressions of passion on the
Duchesss face, were suspicious of an affair between her and the painter. He generally, there-
fore, attributed the painting to one Friar Pandolf, since a clergymans name would remove all
suspicion. He was also particular that no one but he drew the curtain to display the portrait.
He remarks on her nature. Instead of understanding her amiable nature, he says that
she was a silly childish woman who was readily impressed and pleased. She treated all favours
alike with a smile ready for everyone. The Duke tells the envoy that the sweet smiles on the
ladys face were not for her husband alone. The bright redness visible on the ladys cheeks
was very unique. The Duke explains why the portrait of the Duchess has a blush on her
cheeks. Many people think that the blush appeared on her cheeks because her husband the
Duke was present there when the portrait was being made. The Duke tells the envoy that the
blush on her face was not because he was present there. There was some other reason of it,
perhaps some compliment by the artist occasioned that happy spot on her face. The artist
might have complimented her on her dress. He might have said that her loose cloak covered
her wrist too much.
The poem shows us the inside of a typical Renaissance character typified by an un-
scrupulous and proud Duke. Talking to the envoy of a Count whose daughter he wishes to
marry, the Duke shows him the portrait of his previous wife who is dead. He remarks on her
nature. Instead of understanding her amiable nature, he says that she was a silly childish woman
who was readily impressed and pleased, who treated all favours alike with a smile ready for
everyone.
The Duke was annoyed with the Duchess because she did not feel thankful to him for
the honour he bestowed on her by marrying her. Even the gifts to her by other people and
those given by him made her equally happy. She thanked both with equal warmth. The Duke
failed to understand how she could equate his gifts with everybodys gifts. The Duchess was
graceful for the least kindness done to her and when she thanked the people, the Duke, though
he did not get angry at that, did not however feel happy. Being absolutely unaffected by such
feelings of gratitude towards others, the Duke naturally could not understand or appreciate her
attitude.
The Duke did not mind that she thanked people for their good acts. But she did not
give him a special treatment while thanking others. He was her husband and belonged to a
family of 900 years standing and reputation. He was shocked that she treated him at par with
other people. Thus she disgraced his royal name and lineage. It was a mean act by the Duch-
ess. He could have pointed it to the Duchess who might have corrected if she thought it fit. But
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then he did not like to do that. It would have been his insult had he done so.
The Duke tells the Counts envoy that the reputation which the Count has for splendid
generosity is enough guarantee that all his claims regarding dowry will be granted. The Duke
further clarifies his remarks lest he should be misunderstood. He tells the envoy that even
though his first and foremost attraction is the charming daughter of the Count, still he has
mentioned about the dowry because he has great faith in the generosity of the Count. While
going down he draws the envoys attention to a bronze-statue of Neptune-the sea-god. He
tells the envoy that this pose of Neptune taming a sea-horse is a rare one. He also informs the
envoy that the bronze-statue was made for the Duke by Claus of Innsbruck. The Duke wants
the dowry to be worthy of his status, or at least what he considers it to be. It is significant that
Browning makes him speak first of the dowry and then of the lady. That shows which is more
important to him. Obviously, love has no place in such contracts entered into by him. We
expect that in a sort while he would treat his second wife in the way he treated the first. The
same fate awaits her.
12.4.2 Dramatic Monologue

The Dramatic Monologue was used by Browning with amazing skill and success.
Browning did not invent the dramatic monologue, but he made it specially his own, and no one
else has every put such rich and varied material into it.
In other words, he could dispense with all, external machinery of action and plot, and
concentrate his attention on, the incidents in the development of a soul. Unhampered by the
limitations of the stage, he could now depict, the phenomena of the mind. Browning made
this form entirely his own, because it suited his genius, and also because it had a number of
other advantages. It is an oblique or indirect mode of expression, and so the poet could freely
express his views without fear of hostile criticism. The views were expressed by other charac-
ters, and so they could not be imputed to him. Moreover, he knew that advice given directly,
glances off athwart the mind, while truths expressed indirectly set men thinking and so have
their due effect. The form enabled him to exercise his dramatic bent freely, as well as to play
effectively his role as a teacher.
The Dramatic Monologue is, dramatic, because it is the utterance of imaginary char-
acters and not of the poet himself, and because in it character is developed not through any
description on the part of the poet, but through a conflict between the opposite thoughts and
emotions of the character himself. It is a monologue, because it is a conversation of a single
individual with himself (Mono means one, and logue means conversation). The form is
also referred to as monodrama.
The salient features of the dramatic monologue are best brought out through a com-
parison and contrast both with the drama proper and the soliloquy. The dramatic monologue
differs widely from the drama in its purpose and its method. In the drama the action is external;
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in the monologue the action is entirely internal. The thoughts and emotions of the individual
character are the actors, and his soul is the stage. The monologue develops character not
through outward action and conflict as in the drama, but through the clash of motives in the soul
of the speaker, and with this end in view a moment of crisis is chosen, a movement when his
personality is most active.
In each monologue, the speaker is placed in the most momentous or critical situation
of his life, and the monologue embodies his reactions to this situation. Unlike a dramatist,
Browning does not begin slowly with an action leading to the crisis, rather he plunges headlong
into the crisis. For this reason, his monologues have an abrupt, but very arresting opening, and
at the same time, what has gone before is suggested clearly or brought out through retrospec-
tive meditation and reflection. Thus My Last Duchess opens with a reference to a picture of
the dead Duchess, with clear indications that it is being shown to some one. Similarly, Fra
Lippo Lippi has a very dramatic beginning. This abrupt beginning is followed by self intro-
spection on the part of the speaker, and the whole gamut of his moods, emotions, reflections
and meditations is given. The speakers thoughts range freely over the past and the future and
so there is no logical and chronological development. The past and the future are fused and
focused in the present, and the unity is emotional rather than logical.
12.4.3 Form and Style

Browning was always weaving and modelling and inventing new forms. Among all his
two hundred to three hundred poems, it would scarcely be an exaggeration to say that there
are half as many different verse forms as there are different poems. As soon as a new idea
entered his head, he tried to invent a new form to express it, and in this way he created a large
number of quite novel and quite admirable artistic forms. His business was, soul-dissection,
and for this purpose he developed and perfected the dramatic monologue, and used it most
effectively.
The poet who invents such forms is a, maker, in the true sense ; he makes other
poets. Browning was not indifferent to technical beauty, or beauty of form ; he invented new
forms, lovely in their own way, and it is an entirely different matter that others did not like the
kind of beauty he created.
He always has a noble end in view, and attains it completely. There is no characteristic
of his work more admirable or more rare than the unity, the compactness and completeness,
the skill and care in construction and definiteness in the impression of each poem. For ex-
ample, almost all the poems in the volume Men and Women are designed, constructed and
finished with the skill of an architect. There is no doubt, as that often his composition is broken
up and over-crowded. Too many side-issue are introduced, everything that he imagines is cast
upon the canvas, there is too little of artistic selecting and ordering of material. But all this
seeming lack of selection and restraint is not the result of carelessness, rather such details and
digressions are perfectly appropriate in their place and contribute to the perfection of the
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whole. More often than not, they are integral to the purpose of Browning. They result from the
richness of his thought, and not from faulty craftmanship. There is a marvellous sense of pro-
portion in the importance assigned to various features in his dramatic monologues; every ele-
ment plays a significant but not over-emphasised part : hence the unity of atmosphere and
effect.
Beauty of form in poetry also depends on the style and diction of a poet. Browning
was a highly original genius, his style is entirely individual, and so for want of a better name it is
called Browning-esque.
He uses the smallest number of words that his meaning allows. In the very beginning of
his career, he was once charged with verbosity, and since then, he contended himself with the
use of two words where he would rather have used ten. This dread of being diffuse resulted in
compression and condensation.

Answer the following questions in 6 to 10 sentences :
1. Browning did not invent the Monologue, but he perfected it? Elucidate.
2. Write a note on Brownings art of characterisation.
3. Comment on Brownings style.
4. Discuss Brownings diction and versification.
5. Comment on the distinctive features of Brownings poetry.

1. Dramatic Monologue was not very popular and known to everyone before. Browning
used it with intricate skill and perfection. He used this poetic form in critical situations
in the life of a character. The reactions of the character are analysed and modified so
as to reveal the real worth of the character.
2. Browning is basically a poet of situations. His poetic characters are varied and wide.
His characters are as humane as that of Shakespeare. They belong not only to England
but Italy, France, Germany and Spain. The men and women who live and move in the
new world of his creation are life like.
3. The poems of Browning show sparing use of adjectives. He uses mono-syllabic words
wherever possible. His style is condense with the use of abbreviations and omissions.
For example, in, on and of become i, o in his poetry. His style can be termed
as telegraphic style. He uses Latin expressions and allusions to little known sources.
4. Browning always seems rugged and fantastic. His ruggedness is justified sometimes by
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the subject, whereas sometimes the use of a broken. varying, irregular verse is essen-
tial to convey the particular emotion or the impression which the poet wants to convey.
Browning had a very keen ear for a particular kind of staccate music, for a kind of
galloping rhythm. Often his verse sprawls like the trees, dances like the dust, it is top
heavy like the toad-stool. He uses double rhymes to create grotesque effects.
5. Browning is a very original and skilful poet. He treats consonants as the backbone of
his language, and hence, as the essential feature of his rhymes. He uses double and
often triple rhymes to create humorous and satirical effects. He uses the measures
most appropriate to his subject, whether it be blank verse, or the heroic rhyme verse.
12.5 Let Us Sum Up

In this unit you have acquired practice in
understanding the trends and movements of literature in the Victorian Age.
analysing and appreciating a poetic text; and
understanding literary devices used by Robert Browning

1. The Last Duchess is a perfect example of Brownings poetic acumen of writing a
dramatic monologue.
2. Comment of the style and form of The Last Duchess
12.7 Bibliography
1. Ford, Boris. The New Pelican Guide to English Literature, Vol. VI. London, Penquin
Books, 1982.
2. Hyaword, John, The Penguin Book of English Verse, New York, Penguin Books,
1986.
3. Herford, C.H., Robert Browning
4. Humphrey, Milford, Robert Browning : Poetry and Prose.
5. Levis, F.R., New Bearings in English Poetry, New York, Penguin Inc., 1982.
6. Orr., Suthernland, Handbook of Brownings Works.
7. Reeves, James, Teaching Poetry, London, Heinemann, 1963
___________________
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UNIT 13
ROBERT BROWNING :THE LAST RIDE TOGETHER ,
PROSPICE
Structure
13.0 Objectives
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Age and Author
13.3 Reading Text (Browning : The Last Ride Together)
13.3.1 Text
13.3.2 Glossary
13.3.3 Summary
13.3.5 Style and Versification
13.3.6 Optimism
13.4 Reading Text (Browning : Prospice)
13.4.1 Text
13.4.2 Glossary
13.4.3 Summary
13.4.4. Critical Analysis
13.4.5 Theme
13.4.6 Love Poetry
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13.5 Let Us Sum Up
13.7 Bibliography
13.0 Objectives
In this unit we will make you familiar with the poetry of Robert Browning. He is a poet
with rare qualities and very humane in his attitude. We will let you study the two poems of
Browning in this unit. We will give you practice by :
giving texts of two poems of Robert Browning,
giving you the meanings of difficult words and phrases,
giving you the summary of both the poems,
critically analysing the poems and explaining the literary devices used in the poems;
comparing both the poems, and
giving you practice to answer the questions.
We will describe the literary scenario of the Victorian Age and see into the life and
works of Robert Borwning, after giving an introduction about the age and the author. We will
then discuss both the texts in detail and critically appreciate them. The unit will have exercises
to help you evaluate your understanding of the poems. You can check your answer with the
answers of the exercises given by us. Try to read and consult other related books as suggested
by us here.
13.1 Introduction
It happens very rarely in the history of literature that a craftsman who has acquired
perfect control of the medium and masterly ease in handling the techniques and conventions of
his day is also a universal genius of the highest order, combining wit his technical proficiency a
unique ability to render experience in poetic language and an uncanny intuitive understanding
of human psychology.
Robert Browning (1812-1889) has a remarkable combination of all qualities and has
been praised for his deep insight of human psyche. There is no nineteenth century poet of the
first rank whose ultimate position in the hierarchy is so doubtful as Brownings. He is at once
astonishingly great and astonishingly faulty; and only time can determine how far the faults will
blur and obscure the greatness. The chief difficulty in reading Browning is the obscurity of his
192
style. A few colonial wars that broke out during the reign of Queen Victoria, didnt seriously
disturb the life of England. There was one continental war that directly affected Britain, and
one that affected her indirectly though strongly, yet neither of these caused any profound alter-
ation in social life.
Poetry at the beginning of this period had been refreshed as well as sometimes muddled
by two generation of Romantic innovation. The legacy which Romantics handed over to the
Victorians did not prove to be Wordsworths simplicity or his autobiographical self examina-
tion in quietly probing blank-verse. Like so many nineteenth century initiations of the Elizabe-
thans and Jacobeans, it indicates an era habituated of following the seventeenth century ca-
dences.
13.2 The Age And The Author

In this section we will discuss the most prominent age of literature in English, i.e. the
Victorian Age and the life, ideals and works of Robert Browning, prominent figure in Victorian
poetry.

The whole age may be described as one of the peaceful ages. In the earlier stages the
lessening surges of the French Revolution were still felt; but by the middle of the century they
had almost completely died down, and other hopes and ideals, largely pacific, were gradually
taking their place.
It was an age alive with new activities. There was a revolution in commercial enter-
prise, due to the great increase of available markets, and, as a result of this, an immense
advance in the use of mechanical devices. The new commercial energy was reflected in the
Great Exhibition of 1851, which was greeted as the inauguration of a new era of progress and
prosperity. On the other side of this picture of commercial expansion we see the appalling
social conditions of the new industrial cities, the squalid slums, and the exploitation of cheap
labour (often of children), the painful fight by the enlightened few to introduce social legislation
and the slow extension of the franchise. The evils of the Industrial Revolution were vividly
painted by such writers as Dickens and Mrs Gaskell and they called forth the missionary
efforts of men like Kingsley.
There can be little doubt that in many cases material wealth produced a hardness of
temper and an impatience of projects and ideas that brought no return in hard cash ; yet it is to
the credit of this age that intellectual activities were so numerous. There was quite a revolution
in scientific thought following upon the works of Darwin and his school, and an immense
outburst of social and political theorizing which was represented in this country by the writings
of men like Herbert Spencer and John Stuart Mill. In addition, popular education became a
193
practical thing. This in its turn produced a new hunger for intellectual food, and resulted in a
great increase in the productions of the Press and of other more durable species of literature.
The sixty years (1830-90) commonly included under the name of the Victorian age
present many dissimilar features; yet in several respects we can safely generalize then.
1. Its Morlaity. Nearly all observers of the Victorian age are struck by its extreme
deference to the conventions. To a later age these seem ludicrous. It was thought indecorous
for a man to smoke in the public and (much later in the century) for a lady to ride a bicycle. To
a great extent the new morality was a natural revolt against the grossness of the earlier Re-
gency, and the influence of the Victorian Court was all in its favour. In literature it is amply
reflected. Tennyson is the most conspicuous example in poetry, creating the priggishly compla-
cent Sir Galahad and King Arthur, Dickens, perhaps the most representative of the Victorian
novelists, took for his model the old picaresque novel; but it is almost laughable to observe his
anxiety to be a moralist.
The literary product was inevitably affected by the new ideas in science, religion, and
politics. The Origin of Species (1859) of Darwin shook the foundations of scientific thought.
We can perceive the influence of such a work in Tennysons In Memoriam, in Matthew
Arnolds meditative poetry, and in the works of Carlyle. In religious and ethical thought the
Oxford Movement, as it was called, was the most noteworthy advance. This movement had
its source among the young and eager thinkers of the old university, and was headed by the
great Newman, who ultimately (1845) joined the Church of Rome. As a religious portent it
marked the widespread discontent with the existing beliefs of the Church of England; as a
literary influence it affected many writers of note, including Newman himself, Freud, Maurice,
Kingsley, and Gladstone.
The Education Acts, making a certain measure of education compulsory, rapidly pro-
duced the enormous reading public. The cheapening of printing and paper increased the de-
mand for books, so that the production was multiplied. The most popular form of literature
was the novel, and the novelists responded with a will. Much of their work was of a high
standard, so much so that it had been asserted by competent critics that the middle years of the
nineteenth century were the richest in the whole history of the novel.
During the nineteenth century the interaction among American and European writers
was remarkably fresh and strong. In Britain the influence of the great German writers was
continuous, and it was championed by Carlyle and Matthew Arnold. Subject nations, in par-
ticular the Italians, were a sympathetic theme for prose and verse. The Brownings, Swinburne,
Morris and Meredith were deeply absorbed in the long struggle of the followers of Garibaldi
and Cavour; and when the Italian freedom was gained the rejoicings were genuine.
With all its immense production, the age produced no supreme writer. It revealed no
Shakespeare, no Shelley, nor (in the international sense) a Byron or a Scott. The general
194
literary level was, however, very high ; and it was an age, moreover, of spacious intellectual
horizons, noble endeavour and bright aspirations.

Robert Browning was born at Camberwell, his father being connected with the Bank
of England. The future poet was educated semi-privately, and from an early age he was free to
follow his inclination toward studying unusual subjects. As a child he was precocious, and
began to write poetry at the age of twelve. Of his predecessors Shelley in particular influenced
his mind, which was unformed and turbulent at this time with the growing power within. After
a brief course at the University College Browning for a short period travelled to Russia (1833)
; then he lived in London, where he became acquainted with some of the leaders of the literary
and theatrical worlds. In 1834 he paid his first visit to Italy, a country which was for him a fitful
kind of home. In 1845 he visited Elizabeth Barrett, the poetess, whose works had strongly
attracted him. A mutual liking ensured, and then, after a private marriage, a sort of elopement
followed, to escape the anger of the wifes stern parent. The remainder of Brownings life was
occupied with journeys between England and France and Italy, and with much poetical activ-
ity. His wife died at Florence in 1861, leaving one son. Browning thereupon left the city for
good and returned to England, though in 1878 he went back once more to Italy. His works,
after suffering much neglect, were now being appreciated, and in 1882 Oxford conferred
upon him the degree of D.C.L. He died in Italy, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
His first work of any importance is Pauline (1833), an introspective poem, which
shows very strongly the influence of Shelley, whom, at this period, Browning held in great
reverence. Paracelsus (1835), the story of the heros unquenchable thirst for that breadth of
knowledge which is beyond the grasp of one man, brings to the fore Brownings predominant
ideas that a life without love must be a failure, and that God is working all things to an end
beyond human livining.
His next work was the play Strafford (1837), which was produced by the actor
Macready, and which achieved real pathos toward the close. Sordello (1840), an attempt to
decide the relationship between art and life, is Brownings most obscure work. The story of
the hero, a Mantuan troubadour, is cumbered with a mass of detailed historical allusions, and
the style, in spite of occasional passages of descriptive beauty, is too compressed ant too
ornate.
It is convenient next to deal with the entire group of eight volumes, which, published
separately from 1841 onward, were collected in one volume as Bells and Pomegranates in
1846. In addition to two collections of lyrical and narrative poems, this series included six
plays, Pippa Passes (1841), King Victor and King Charles (1842), The Return of the
Druses (1842). A Blot on the Scutcheon (1843), Colombes Birthday (1844), Luria; and
a Souls Tragedy (1846). None of these is without its moments of drama, and they all show
considerable spirit in their style. Pippa Passes, which was not intended for the stage, has an
195
idyllic charm, and it contains fine songs. But Browning lacks the fundamental qualities of the
dramatist. His amazingly subtle analysis of character and motive is not adequate for true drama
because he cannot reveal character in action. His method is to take a character at a moment of
crisis and, by allowing him to talk to reveal not only his present thoughts and feelings but his
past history. Dramatic Lyrics (1842) and Dramatic Romances and Lyrics (1845) show this
faculty being directed into the channel in which it was to achieve perfection that of the
dramatic monologue.
Now at the height of his powers, Browning produced some of his best work in Men
and Women (1855), which, with the exception of the dedicatory One Word More, addressed
to his wife, consists entirely of dramatic monologues. Here are to be found the famous Fra
Lippo Lippi, An Epistle containing the strange Medical Experience of Karshish, the Arab
Physician, Andrea del Sarto, Cleon. Most of them are written in blank verse. The year 1864
saw the publication of his last really great volume, Dramatis Personae, again a collection of
dramatic monologues. To illustrate their quality mention be made of only such works as Caliban
upon Setebos, A Death in the Desert, Rabbi Ben Ezra, and Abt Vogler. In style the poems
have much of the rugged, elliptical quality which was an occasion of the poets downfall, but
here it is used with a skill and a power which show him at the very pinnacle of his achievement.
The Ring and the Book (1868-69) is the story of the murder of a young wife, Pompilia,
by her worthless husband, in the year 1698, and the same story is told by nine different people,
and continues for twelve books. The result is a monument of masterly discursiveness.
The remaining years of Brownings long life saw the production of numerous further
volumes of verse,a few of which add greatly to his fame. To-day they are read by none but his
most confirmed admirers. Balaustions Adventure (1871), Fifine at the Fair (1872), Red
Cotton Night-Cap Country (1873), The Inn Album (1875), La Saisiaz, The Two Poets of
Croisic (1978), Jocoseria (1883), Ferishtahs Fancies (1884), and Parleyings with Cer-
tain People of Importance in their Day (1887), all suffer from the writers obsession with
thought content, and the psychologizing of his characters at the expense of poetry. In too
many of them the style betrays a wilful exaggeration of the eccentricities which he had once
turned to such great account, but always the reader is liable to stumble across the passages
which, in striking landscape or lovely lyric, show that the true poetic gift is not completely
absent.
His long lifes work has a powerful close in Asolando (1889), which , along with much
of the tired disillusion of the old man, has, in places, the firmness and enthusiasm of his prime.

We give you here some questions to evaluate your understanding of the Victorian age
and the life of Robert Browning.
196
Choose the correct answer from amongst the three alternatives given below each
question.
1. The Victorian age can be termed as an age :
alive with new activities
full of surges of revolution
of stagnation
2. Material wealth produced :
inflation
The Industrial Revolution
hardness of temper
3. The evils of the Industrial Revolution are presented by ::
Browning
Arnold
Dickens
4. Smoking in the public was thought as :
respectful
fashionable
ludicrous
5. Interaction amongst American and European writers was :
fresh and strong
antagonistic
cordial
6. Robert Browning was born in:
Italy
Camberwell
Ireland
7. The first poem of Browning is :
Pauline (1833)
197
Paracelsus (1835)
Strafford (1837)
8. Browning lacks the fundamental qualities of the :
dramatist
poet
educator
9. Browning says that :
life without love is a failure
one must do ones duty
honesty is the best policy
10. Brownings view of human life is full of :
dullness
cheerfulness
optimism

(a) alive with new activities
(c) hardness of temper
(c) Dickens
(c) ludicrous
(a) fresh and strong
(b) Camberwell
(a) Pauline (1833)
(a) dramatist
(a) life without love is a failure
(c) optimism
198
13.3 Reading Text (Browning : The Last Ride Together)
13.3.1 Text
I
I said Then, dearest, since its so,
Since now at length my fate I know,
Since nothing all my love avails,
Since all, my life seemed meant for, fails,
Since this was written and needs must be
My whole heart rises up to bless
Your name in pride and thankfulness!
Take back the hope you gave, - I claim
Only a memory of the same,
- And this beside, if you will not blame,
Your leave for one more last ride with me.
II
My mistress bent that brow of hers;
Those deep dark eyes where pride demurs
When pity would be softening through,
Fixed me a breathing-while or two
With life or death in the balance : right!
The blood preplenished me again;
My last thought was at least not vain:
I and my mistress, said by side
Shall be together, breathe and ride,
So, one day more am I deified,
Who knows but the world may end to-night?
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III
Hush! if you saw some western cloud
All billowy-bosomed, over-bowed
By many benedictions-suns
And moons and evening-stars at once
And so, you, looking and loving best,
Conscious grew, your passion drew
Cloud, sunset, moonrise, star-shine too,
Down on you, near and yet more near,
Till flesh must face for heaven was here!
Thus leant she and lingered-joy and fear!
Thus lay she a moment on my breast.
IV
Then we began to ride. By soul
Smoothed itself out a long-cramped scroll
Freshening and fluttering in the wind.
Past hopes already lay behind.
What need to strive with a life awry?
Had I said that, had I done this,
So might I gain, so might I miss.
Might she have loved me? Just as well
She might have hated, who can tell!
Where had I been now if the worst befell?
And here we are riding, she and I
V
Fail I alone, in words and deeds?
Why, all men strive and who succeeds?
We rode; it seemed my spirit flew,
200
Saw other regions, cities new,
As the world rushed by on either side,
I thought, - All labour, yet no less
Bear up beneath their unsuccess.
Look at the end of work, contrast
The petty done, the undone vast,
This present of theirs with the hopeful past!
I hoped she would love me; here we ride.
VI
What hand and brain went ever paired?
What heart alike conceived and dared?
What act proved all its thought had been?
What will but felt the fleshly screen?
We ride and I see her bosom heaven.
Theres many a crown for who can reach!
Ten lines, a statesmans life in each!
The flag stuck on a heap of bones,
A soldiers doing! what atones?
They scratch his name on the Abbey-stones.
My riding is better, by their leave.
VII
What does it all mean, poet? well,
Your brains beat into rhythm, you tell
What we felt only; you expressed
You hold things beautiful the best,
and pace them in rhyme so, said by side.
Tis something, naytis much : but then,
Have you yourself whats best for men?
201
are you-poor, sick, old ere your time
Nearer one whit your own sublime
Than we who never have turned a rhyme?
Sing, ridings a joy! For me, I ride.
VIII
And you, great sculptor so, you gave
A score of years to Art, her slave,
And thats your Venus, whence we turn
To yonder girl that fords the burn!
You acquiesce, and shall I repine?
What, man of music, you, grown grey
With notes and nothing else to say,
Is this your sole praise from a friend,
Greatly his operas strains intend,
But in music we know how fashions end!
I gave my youth-but we ride, in fine.
IX
Who knows whats fit for us? Had fate
Proposed bliss here should sublimate
My being had I signed the bond
Still one must lead some life beyond,
- Have a bliss to die with dim-descried,
This foot once planted on the goal,
This glory-garland round my soul,
Boule I descry such? Try and test!
I sink back shuddering from the quest.
Earth being so good, would heaven seem best?
Now, heaven and she are beyond this ride.
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X
And yet-she has not spoke so long!
What if heaven be that, fair and strong
At lifes best, with our eyes upturned
Whither lifes flower is first discerned,
We, fixed so, ever should so abide?
What if we still ride on, we two,
With life for ever old yet new,
Changed not in kind but in degree,
The instant made eternity, -
And heaven just prove that I and she
Ride, ride together, for ever ride?
13.3.2 Glossary
I I : the speaker of the monologue
since it is so : since you cannot love me
dearest : the lady love
at length : at last
avails : accepts
life seemed : the only desire of life
failed : to be unsuccessful
pride : privilege
thankfulness : to be thankful to his lover for her company
hope : promise to love
blame : to consider improper
leave : permission
II bent : looked down
that brow : the beautiful brow on her face
demurs : lingers
203
pity would be : the lady pitied her lover
softening through: wished to grant his request
fixed me : to be notionless in anxiety
for a breathing : for a moment
balance : to be dependent on her reply
right : the lady granted his request
replenished : re-filled, got new lease of life
not in vain : did not go waste
side by side : with one another
deified : enjoy the great happiness
may end : it may be the dooms day
III hush : to be silent
western cloud : a cloud in the western sky
billowy bosomed: well developed bosom
over bowed : enjoying in abundance
benediction : blessings
best : more than anything else
conscious grew : felt, experienced
passion drew : intensity of your love attracted
down on you : to feel heaven coming to you
lingered : remained near
IV soul : heart
smoothed out : expanded with joy
long cramped scroll: a sheet of paper which has been kept rolled up for a long
time
freshing : to be happy
fluttering : to flutter in wind with joy
past hope : desires which could not be fulfilled
204
strife : to be worried, to regret
a life awy : a life that has been a failure
had I said that : had he expressed his love differently
had I done this : had he acted differently
I gain : to get her love
who can tell : nobody can be sure
befell : happened
V fail I alone : the lover is not the only person in the world who has been
unsuccessful
strive : to struggle to achieve success
seemed : felt experienced as though
spirit flew : soul was soaring high to heaven
saw other regions, cities new: the entire landscape appeared to him entirely new
and joyous
rushed by : passed by
either side : both the sides
vast : big, enormous
VI hand : action, achievement
brain : ideas
ever : all the time
paired : matched together
alike : in the same way
conceived : thought, formed plans
dared : had the courage to act upon his plans
will : determination
fleshy screen : limitations of the human body
leave : to swell
crown : success
heap of bones : the grave
205
what atones :
scratch : engrave on stone
Abbey stones : raised engraved tone on the tomb
leave : permission
VII brains : thought
beat into rhythm : express in rhythmical language
felt : to feel in heart
expressed : to put feelings in writing
pace them rhyme : put them in poetical form
have you : did you achieve the best goals
ere : prematurely
one whit : even a little
sublime : lofty ideals
turned a rhyme : composed even a line of poetry
joy : source of pleasure
VIII score of years : a number of years
your Venus : the statue of Venus sculptured by him
whence : from where
yonder : that
fords : wades through
Burn : stream of water
acquiesce : accept
repine : to feel sorry
grown gray : to become old
sole : only
opera : musical drama
strains : songs
gave my youth : devoted his youth in courting his beloved
206
in fine : in short
IX fit : desirable
bliss : happiness
sublimate : reach its perfection
sign the bond : enter into an agreement
bliss to die with : to die with some of his desires unfulfilled
dim descried : faintly visioned
planted : achieved
glory garland : having won success
could I decry such : had I achieved such success
try and test : views to be tested by actual experience
quest : search
Heaven : the life after death in Heaven
X at lifes best : the successful life
eyes upturned : looking up towards sky
lifes hower : the best the life can offer
discerned : seen
abide : to be able to see
made eternity : to become everlasting
13.3.3 Summary
The Last Ride Together is a poem of unrequited love. The lover is rejected. But he
does not blame his mistress. He is magnanimous and accepts the position in a brave and noble
way. In order to show that he can control himself and make the situation easier for her he
requests her for a last ride together. After a little hesitation the lady grants his request. The lover
is happy that he is not banished from her sight. He imagines that the world may perhaps end to-
night and the happy moment may turn into eternity. This is a remarkable reaction.
The two ride together. The lady lays her head on the lovers breast. He feels that he
has gained all the wealth of the world. Once he was sad but now he is full of joy. He wants to
forget the past. He is not sorry for his failures. All make attempts but very few succeed.
Success and failures are not important. Our achievements never match our expectations. He
207
has been successful as his beloved is with him. There is always a difference between planning
and acheivements. Man fails to do according to his planning. Great men earn name and fame
but in the end they all meet death. After they are dead they are remembered only in a few lines.
The poet describes the achievements of brave soldiers, a poet, a sculptor and a musi-
cian in the sixth, seventh, eighth and nineth and stanzas shows that the achievements of all these
are not everlasting. In the final tenth Stanza Brownings protanogist concludes that the life of
the lover is the best. He is absorbed in the present life in love and joy with his beloved. The
poem ends with optimism that this happiness of the lover with his beloved would be everlasting
in his life after death in Heaven.

Last Ride Together is a dramatic monologue and it shows Browning at his best in the
handling of this poetic form. It has also been called a dramatic lyric because it is not an expres-
sion of his own personal emotions, but that of an imagined character. It is spoken by a lover
who loved his lady over a long period of time, and who, after making him wait for so long,
finally rejected him, and turned to another lover. The lover then prayed to her to grant two
requests of his. First, that she should remember his love of her, and secondly, that she should
come with him for a last ride together. To his great joy the lady consented.
Such is the love situation out of which the monologue grows. It is spoken by the lover
as he rides by the side of his beloved for the last time. As they commence their ride, the
beloved for a moment bends over him and places her head over his shoulders. It seems to him
as if heaven itself had descended over him, so great is the bliss he experiences at the moment.
As they ride along, the lover experiences a heavenly bliss. His soul which had lost its
happiness and on which grief had left its ugly marks and wringles, now smoothens itself out like
a crumpled sheet of paper, which opens out and flutters in the wind. All his hopes of success in
love, all hopes of a happy life with his beloved, were now dead and gone. His love was now a
matter of the past. But the lover does not despair. He shares Brownings optimism and says
that it is no use to regret or to feel sorry for life which has been ruined. What is ended cannot
be mended. It is no use speculating over his possible success, if he had acted and spoken
differently. It is just possible that had he acted differently, instead of loving him, she might have
hated him. Now she is only indifferent to him. Now at least she rides by his side. He derives
consolation from this fact, instead of brooding sadly over the dead past.
The lover then reflects over the lot of humanity in general and derives further consola-
tion from the fact that he is not the only one who has failed in life. Such is the lot of man that all
try, but none succeeds. All labour, but all fail ultimately to achieve their ends. How little of
success and achievement, and how much of failure does the whole world show! He is lucky in
the sense that at least he rides by the side of his beloved. Others do not get even that much of
success. There is always a wide disparity between conception and execution, between ambi-
208
tion and achievement.
The only reward, even of the most successful statesman, is a short obitury notice and
that of a heroic warrior only an epitaph over his grave in the Westminster Abbey. The poet, no
doubt, achieves much. He expresses human thoughts and emotions in a sweet, melodious
language, but he does not neglect any of the good things of life. He lives and dies in poverty.
The great sculptor and musician, too, are failures. From even the most beautiful piece of
sculpture, says a statue of the goddess, virus, one turns to an ordinary, but a living, breathing,
girl ; and fashions in music are quick to change. Comparatively, he is more successful, for he
has, at least, been rewarded with the company of his beloved. At least, he has the pleasure of
riding with her by his side.
It is difficult to say what is good and what is not good for man in this world. Achieve-
ment of perfect happiness in this world means that one would have no hopes left for life in the
other world. Failure in this world is essential for success and achievement in the life to come.
He has failed in this life, but this is a blessing in disguise. It means that he would be successful
in the life to come. He can now hope for happiness in the other world. Because he did not get
his beloved here, he is sure to enjoy the bliss of her love in the life after death. Now for him,
both Heaven and she are beyond this ride. Failure in this world is best. Further, so hopes the
lover, the instant may become eternity and they may ride together for ever and ever. Who
knows that the world may end that very moment? In that case, they will be together in the other
world, and will be together for ever.
13.3.5 Style and Versification

Brownings style is a pictorial style ; it is also rich in the use of imagery, similies, meta-
phors, etc. His images are usually starting in their originality and daring. Often they are drawn
from the grotesque in nature. Nature is constantly used to illustrate the facts of human life.
Often the concrete is used to clarify and bring home to the readers the spiritual and the ab-
stract.
Beauty of form in poetry also depends on the style and diction of a poet. Browning
was a highly original genius, his style is entirely individual, and so far want of a better name it is
called Browning esque.
He uses the smallest number of words that his meaning allows. In the very beginning of
his career, he was once charged with verbosity, and since then, he contended himself with the
use of two words where he would rather have used ten. This dread of being diffuse resulted
in compression and condensation which made him often, if not actually, obscure, at least diffi-
cult to understand.
Just as in his style, so also in his versification, Browning is often rugged and fantastic.
Sometimes, this ruggedness is justified by the subject; sometimes the use of a broken, varying,
irregular verse is essential to convey the particular emotion or the impression which the poet
209
wants to convey. Browning had a peculiarly keen ear for a particular kind of staccato music,
for a kind of galloping rhythm.
Often he uses double or even triple rhymes to create grotesque effects. The real fault
does not lie with such artistic use of the rugged and the fantastic ; the real fault arises when such
a use is not necessary, when it is not artistically justified. And Brownings search for novelty
frequently betrays him into using such clumsy and irritating metres, and this clouds his intrinsic
merits as a metrical artist.
He is the greatest master in our language, in the use of rhyme, in the amazing variety
of his versification and stanza forms, and in the vitality both of his blank verse and rhymed
verse. Browning is far indeed from paying no attention, or little, to metre and verisification.
Except in some of his late blank verse, and in a few other cases, his very errors are just as often
the result of hazardous experiments as of carelessness and inattention. In one very important
matter, that of rhyme, he is perhaps the greatest master in our language ; in single and double,
in simple and grotesque alike, he succeeds in fitting rhyme to rhyme with a perfection which I
have never found in any other poet of any age. His lyrical poems contain more structural
varieties of form than those of any other preceding English poet.
13.3.6 Optimism
Brownings philosophy of life is characterised by robust optimism. The universe and
the beauty of Nature, is an expression of the creative joy of God and so he finds the principal
of Joy at the very Centre of Creation. This does not mean that he is blind to human imperfec-
tions ; rather he builds hope for the future on these very imperfections. His is a philosophy of
strenuous endeavour ; true joy lies in effort, and not in success or achievement. Rather failure
here means success in the life to come. Faith in God, faith in the immortality of the soul, faith in
earnest endeavour are the cardinal points of Brownings philosophy of human life.
The monologue lays bare before us the soul of the lovers he muses over his past failure
in love, his bliss in the present, and his hopes for the future, we get a peep into his soul. He is
a heroic soul who is not discouraged by his failure in love. He derives consolation from failure
itself. He shares the poets cheerful optimism, his faith in the immortality of the soul, and be-
lieves, like him, that, God creates the love to grant the love. It is better to die, without a
glory garland round ones neck, for there is a life beyond and one should have some hope left
for it, dim-descried.

Choose the correct answer from amongst the three alternatives given below each
question :
The poem has :
210
(a) Eleven Stanzas
(b) Six Stanzas
(c) Ten Stanzas
The poem ends with :
(a) frustration
(b) love
(c) optimism
The speaker in the poem is :
(a) the lover
(b) the poet
(c) the listener
The lover rides with his beloved for :
(a) the first time
(b) the last time
(c) the eternity
The lover prays to his beloved to grant him :
(a) one request
(b) two requests
(c) nothing
The lover says that there is no need to:
(a) repent for a life that has been ruined
(b) wait for his beloved
(c) request his beloved
It is a poem of :
(a) frustration in love
(b) happy ending
(c) unrequited love
The lover in the poem is :
211
(a) not discouraged by failure in love
(b) encouraged by success
(c) discouraged by failure in love
The best reward according to the lover is :
(a) riding with his beloved
(b) an inscription on the tomb
(c) an award given by the King
The lover concludes that he is :
(a) unfortunate
(b) a hero
(c) fortunate

(c) ten stanzas
(c) optimism
(a) the lover
(b) the last time
(b) two requests
(a) to repent for a life that has been ruined
(c) unrequited love
(a) not discouraged by failure in love
(a) riding with his beloved
(c) fortunate
13.4 Reading Text (Browning : Prospice)
13.4.1 The Text : Prospice

Fear death? to feel the fog in my throat,
The mist in my face,
When the snows begin, and the blasts denote,
212
I am nearing the place,
The power of the night, the press of the storm, 5
The post of the foe,
Where he stands, the Arch Fear in a visible form,
Yet the strong man must go,
For the journey is done and the summit attained,
And the barriers fall; 10
Though a battles to fight ere the guerdon be gained,
The reward of it all,
I was ever a fighter, so-one fight more.
The best and the last!
I would hate that death bandaged my eyes, and forbore, 15
And bade me creep past,
No! let me taste the whole of it, if, fare like my peers,
The heroes of old
Bear the brunt, in a minute pay glad lifes arrears,
Of pain, darkness and cold. 20
For sudden the worst turns the best to the brave,
The black minutes at end.
And the elements rage, the fiend-voices that rave,
Shell dwindle, shall blend.
Shall change, shall become first a peace out of pain, 25
Then a light, then thy breast,
O thou soul of my soul! I shall clasp thee again
And with God be the rest! 28
13.4.2 Glossary
1-5 Fear death : the poet asks this question which implies a negative
answer
213
Feel the fog in my throat: feeling of suffocation in throat at the time of death
mist in my face : the blurred vision at the time of death

snows begin : when winter season begins; when body begins to
become cold as death approaches
blasts : stormy weather; to face difficulty in breathing at the
time of death
denotes : informs
hearing : approaching
the place : refers to death
power of the night : increase of invisibility
press of the storm : increase of difficulty in breathing
6-10 the post : the place where death is waiting
foe : the death, the enemy of life
he : the death
Arch fear : the fear of death
visible form : death becomes visible in the shape of the dying man
strong man : a healthy man
must go : must die
journey : the life span
done : completed
summit attained : the final point of life is reached
barriers : difficulties of life
fall : come to an end
11-15 battle : struggle of life
ere : before
guerdon : reward, place in the kingdom of God
ever a fighter : a brave person in life
one fight more : the final fight with death
214
hate : dislike
bandaged my eyes : closed his eyes
forbore : prevented from moving about
16-20 bade : ordered
creep past : go away
taste : to bear sufferings
heroes : great men
bear : to sustain
brunt : fury of death
in a minute pay : life ends suddenly
arrears : miseries of life
21-25 elements rage : difficulties faced by a person
worst turns the best : a strong person dies
friend voices : voices of devils of death
rare : cry
dwindle : disappear
blend : loose intensity of life
26-28 light : light of Heaven
breast : wife
soul of my soul : refers to his wife, E.B. Browning
clasp : embrace
thee : you, refers to his wife
13.4.3 Summary
The poet is not at all afraid of the physical troubles that come at the time of death.
Though he may feel suffocation (fog) in his throat, a heaviness in his vision and a cold numb-
ness creeping over his body, all showing that death is very near, yet he is not at all afraid of
death. These symptoms of death cannot unnerve him. He may find it difficult to breathe and
hard to see because of his blurred vision, yet it is his duty as a strong man to go forward and
face with fortitude and courage the severities and pains at the time of death.
215
During the course of our lives, we engaged in various kinds of activities and have
achieved various kinds of honours and distinctions. We choose difficult adventures and take
pleasure in overcoming them. There we prove the unconquerable nature of our spirit. But all
the honours and glories which we acquire in life are only an introduction to our last fight with
death. Like competitors in a race who are awarded prizes at the end of the struggle, the
rewards that await, come to us only after death has been overcome.
The poet says that death cannot treat him as a coward. He does not want any mercy
at the hands of death. He will face death like a bold man and not like a coward.
The poet says that throughout his life he has struggled with the numerous odds and
difficulties of life. He has been a fighter in his life. He will gladly fight the last battle of his life with
death. This battle against death would be the final battle of his life. It will also be the best battle
because soon after death he will reach the kingdom of God and meet his beloved wife.
Earthly life is completed by our going to Heaven where all the broken arcs are made
into perfect rounds The same idea is conveyed here in these lines in a somewhat different
way. Browning says that even the heroes of antiquity had to face death and fight it bravely. We
ordinary people should derive inspiration from them and be prepared to meet death bravely
and cheerfully like them. If we do so, we can overcome it in one minute. It is like our first
plunge into the cold of death water which is painful. Thereafter it is pleasant to be in the water.
Also, death squares up all human accounts.
Death appears to be frightening only when we are afraid of it. As a matter of fact, even
the worst moment of death becomes enjoyable and appears to be the best to those who have
got courage in them. After all through death we pass into another life and pass into Heaven if
we are brave. Shortly before death one feels as if a storm were blowing, it were raining and in
the mind of the man about to die it appears as if demons were standing ready to take him to
hell. But all this disturbance of the mind and heart gradually decreases. One feels a peace
pervading through his entire personality. This peace then gives place to the feelings of joy. Then
the dying man sees a light, the light of God and ultimately with the help of this light he is united
with the one he loves.

The poem Prospice first appeared in Dramatist Personace in 1864. His wife had
died in 1861. The poem is a tribute to her memory. It has been regarded as one of the most
inspiring and original poems on the subject of death.
Prospice, is a Latin word. It means to look forward. It is an apt title for the poem.
In this poem it is confident that he will conquer death. He looks forward joyfully to his
reunion with his wife.
The poet compares the experience of climbing up a lofty mountain. A mountain climber
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has to face fog, mist snow storms etc. during his ascent. Like the climber, a man in this world
has also to face physical and spiritual sufferings when he approaches death. To face death is
the final battle of a mans life in this world. And the man who puts up a heroic fight is fully
rewarded for his bravery.
Throughout his life, the poet has been a fighter. Therefore he is determined to fight
Death also bravely. He does not want any mercy or leniency from Death. He does not want to
die in a state of unconsciousness like some persons who die in a state of coma during their
illness. These people fear Death. In a state of coma they are sweetly unaware of what is
happening to them. The poet would like to be in a state of perfect awareness when death
comes to him. He wants to taste all the pain and suffering which Death brings with it. He is
ready to meet in Death all the pain and suffering which he has escaped in life through some
happy chance. In other words, he is ready to face any amount of suffering at the time of his
death. He thinks that in this way he will be able to pay off all his arrears of life.
The poet is a brave man. He is an optimist. He knows that the worst will soon be over.
All the pain, all the agony, all the torture will come to an end in no time. Within very short time,
he will find all his suffering vanished. He will be reunited with his beloved wife who is waiting
for him in heaven.
13.4.5 Theme
The poet looks forward to a battle with death. He expresses a heroic attitude towards
death which is mans arch-enemy, and he flings a challenge at it. This is justly regarded as one
of the most original poems in English on the subject of death. The poem is perfectly character-
istic of Brownings philosophy. He is not in the least afraid of death. He would like to experi-
ence all the pain and suffering of death. He does not wish to die in a state of coma or uncon-
sciousness because that would mean creeping past death in a cowardly manner.
On the contrary, he wants to taste all the grim horror of death. He would hear the
raving of the fiend-voices and be in the very thick of fight. In all references to death in his
poetry, Browning shows the same confident faith in the future. Death does not mean for him the
close of life ; it means the beginning of a new life. He believes in God and in heaven. He has a
Christian philosophy of life which finds a brief but unambiguous expression in the lines in which
he says that he will be re-united with his wife who is waiting for him in heaven. According to
Robert Browning death is only one stage in the unbroken, immoral life of the soul. Browning
was a firm believer in God, in the immorality of the soul and in heaven.
13.4.6 Love Poetry

In this poem we find Brownings philosophy that love endures even after death and
that we must be hopeful to meet our loved ones after death in the Kingdom of God. Brownings
poems on death possess the same note of confidence and love for the person concerned and
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the creator of this world. It is the love and faith in immortality of love, which enable the poet to
believe in life after death and reunion with his dead wife in the Kingdom of god.
In Brownings other poems related to God and death even his knaves and rogues have
faith in God and rely upon His perfection and mercy. They are in direct contact and are sure of
the ultimate union with the Absolute. Sympathetic communion between Man and God is pos-
sible because in addition to His attributes of power and knowledge he has the highest attribute
of love. It is love which kindles and exacts both knowledge and power and as love is common
both to God and man. It is love which harmonises and unites all living beings.
The language of the poem is very simple, while the sentiments contained are universal
and appeal to all. He reasserts his faith in God and not only forgets his sorrows, but looks
forward to meet his wife in Heaven.

Answer the following questions in your own words. (Word limit 200-250 words)
(i) Comment on imagery in Brownings poetry.
(ii) Write a note on pictorial quality of Browning.
(iii) Write about poets faith in Gods love and mercy.
(iv) Describe Brownings optimism.
(v) Write a note on Brownings style.

(i) The poem titled Prospice is organised round the image of a journey undertaken by a
knight in search of a guerdon-a reward-who has met many opponents on the way and
is now about to meet the last one the Arch Enemy. But this enemy may choose not to
fight. The end may be painless. He may be allowed to pass without a battle. That
would be a disappointment. Therefore the next line begins with No, let me.
(ii) Brownings pictorial quality is clearly indicated in Prospice. He compares the experi-
ence of meeting death with the experience of climbing up a high mountain with all the
dangers and hazards of the upward journey. The hardships of the ascent are vividly
pictured in the following lines :
- to feel the fog in my throat,
The mist in my face,
When the snows begin and the blasts denote
I am nearing the place,
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The power of the night, the press of the storm
(iii) Robert Browning was the poet of soul and in his poems he has attempted to see the
soul of man as created by God. He has firm faith in God, and immortality of the soul.
The body may die but the soul lives on in the infinite. It has an after life or lives. It has
experiences not only in the world and this life, but also in countless lives to come. The
world is beautiful for God created it out of the fullness of His Love. Life in this world
is worth living. For both life and the world are the expressions of Divine Love.
(iv) Browning is a cheerful optimist. Optimism is at the very core of his teaching and his
view of human life. Contrary to the views of some critics, his optimism is not blind. He
does not shut his eyes to the suffering and evil that is prevalent in life. His optimism is
founded on the Mercy of God and the realities of life.
(v) In form, the poem is a monologue in which the poet is speaking in his own person. The
style of the poem is simple. It does not suffer from Brownings usual defects of style.
There is no obscurity about it and it is easily comprehensible. It also shows Brownings
genius for consideration. He says, many of the words in the first few lines have an
explosive or a near-explosive sound (technically beginning with letters classified as
Plosives, Fricatives and Affricates) : power, press, place, post, death, blast, fear, fog
etc. The effect is a noticeable difficulty in reading corresponding to the sense which
too speaks of the difficulty of breathing experienced by a man climbing a mountain or
by a man gasping for breath in the last hours It also expresses the determination to face
the difficulty with courage. The last lines are similarly noticeable for the frequency of
the liquid l, m, n and the soft s sounds : dwindle, blend, elements, minutes,
end, breast, soul, clasp, rest, peace, the repeated shall etc. and as a result
the lines flow smoothly to the ecstasy. Thou soul of my soul I shall clasp thee again
whispered with the repeated s sound.
13.5 Let Us Sum Up

In this unit you have acquired knowledge about the poet and his poetry. Now you
practice to:
understand trends and main features of the Victorian Age,
know about life and works of Robert Browning,
understand the poetry of Browning,
know and understand various literary techniques used by Browning,
critically analyse the poems of Browning, and
answer the questions based on your text.
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1. Comment on the style and Optimism of Brownings poetry with suitable examples.
2. What philosophy of Browning is expressed in the poem Prospice. Explain in detail.
13.7 Bibliography
1. Abrams, M.H., A Glossary of Literary Terms, Bombay, MacMillan, 1986
2. Daiches, David, A Critical History of English Literature, New Delhi; Allen & Allied,
1984
3. Evans, Sir I, English Literature : Values and Traditions, London Unwin, 1962
4. Humphrey, Milford, Robert Browning : Poetry and Prose
5. Orr, Suthlerland, Handbook of Brownings Works
6. Rai, V., History of English Literature, Varanasi, Bhartiya Vidya Prakashan, 19
7. Reeves, J., Teaching Poetry, London, Heinemann, 1963
_________________
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UNIT-14
ALFRED LORD TENNYSON : 1. TEARS IDLE TEARS
2. THE CHARGE OF THE LIGHT BRIGADE
Structure
14.0 Objectives
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Alfred Lord Tennysons Life and Personality
14.3 Tears Idle Tears: Text
14.3.1 Glossary
14.3.2. Figures of speech and used in the poem
14.3.3 Summary
14.4 The Charge of the Light Brigade: Text
14.4.1 Glossary
14.4.2 Summary
14.4.3 Form
14.4.4 Background
14.4.5 Critical Notes/Analysis
14.5 Let us sum up
14.7 Bibliography
14.0 Objectives
This Unit will help you understand and appreciate:
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The Major Characteristics of the Victorian Age
Life and Personality of Tennyson and his Important Works
The Theme and Content of Tennysons well known Creations, Tears Idle Tears and
The Charge of the Light Brigade
Figures of speech / literary devices like simile, lyric, personification, allusion, oxymo-
ron, refrain, repetition, onomatopoeia, paradox, etc
14.1 Introduction
It is generally believed that literature reflects the life of the times in which it is created.
Following this premise it is essential to have a basic understanding of the era in which Tennyson
wrote. The Age of Tennyson coincides closely with the literary period generally known as the
Victorian Age.
The Victorian Age- The literature written during Queen Victorias reign (18371901)
has been given the name Victorian. Often considered a bridge between the romantic-era works
of the previous century and the literature of the newly industrialized world of the twentieth
century, Victorian literature is characterized by a strong sense of morality and is also known for
its attempts to combine imagination and emotion with the neoclassical ideal of art for the
common person.
14.2 Alfred Lord Tennysons Life and Personality

The reign of Queen Victoria (1819-1901) is the longest individual reign in British
history. The political, economic, cultural, industrial and scientific changes that occurred during
her rule were remarkable. When Victoria ascended the throne, Britain was mainly rural and
agriculturally oriented but by the time of her death, the country became highly industrialized
and well-connected by railway network. In fact, the Victorian Age was characterized by rapid
changes and developments in nearly every sphere - from advances in medical, scientific and
technological knowledge to changes in population growth and location. Over time, this rapid
transformation deeply affected the countrys mood: an age that began with confidence and
optimism leading to economic boom and prosperity eventually gave way to uncertainty and
doubts regarding Britains place in the world. Today we associate the nineteenth century with
the Protestant work ethics, family values, religious observation and institutional faith. The two
dominant movements of the times are the progress of democracy in political life and the progress
of Science in the intellectual sphere. The progress of Science kept pace with the progress of
democracy and in the sixty years with which we are here concerned ; men added far more to
their knowledge of themselves and the universe than their forefathers had done in all the pre-
ceding centuries.
The spread of popular education, newspapers, magazines and cheap books, the facts
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and speculations of the experts were no longer kept to the specialists only. Instead they were
passed on rapidly to the reading public at large. The doctrine of evolution which we generally
associate with the names of Darwin, Wallace and Herbert Spencer-completely revolutionized
all current ideas about nature, man and society. Rapid progress and popularization of knowl-
edge resulted in vast changes in thought, new theories came into conflict with old faiths and
the ancient intellectual order was shaken at its foundations. The Victorian Age was marked
throughout by the importance of the spirit of inquiry and criticism, by skepticism and religious
uncertainty and by spiritual struggle and unrest and these are among the most characteristic
notes of its higher literature. At the same time, the critical bent of mind which was fostered by
science profoundly affected literature in other ways and a marked development of realism was
one major result.
Finally, we must recognize the far reaching changes which were brought about by the
practical application of Science to life in the railway, the steamship, and the telegraph. By
breaking down the barriers which had till then separated town and country and nation by
facilitating travel and intercourse of different peoples, and by making the transmission of thought
easy and rapid, these mechanical agencies did much to destroy the old narrow view of life and
helped the progress of democracy, thereby fundamentally altering the spirit of the world.
They have therefore to be included among the chief social forces in the literature of Victorian
England.
Science affected literature as much by the opposition it created as by its direct influ-
ence. Scientific discoveries that seemed to refute certain religious beliefs inspired many writ-
ers to conquer the topics of faith and truth in their works. This era saw significant advances in
nonfiction works and the invention of the modern novel. The poetry of this period was a direct
reflection of the popular attitudes of the time. Lord Alfred Tennyson wrote poetry that dealt
with the burning topics of the era. His poems were both lyrical and mechanical in their struc-
ture. Conversely, Robert Browning was noted for his harsh style and intellectual subject
matter. Matthew Arnold composed deeply emotional poetry. He focused on his pessimistic
outlook on the fate of humanity. These three represent the major trends in Victorian poetry.
For the first time in the history of English Literature, poetry was not the most popular form of
writing. The novel had developed and become more popular than verse. At the forefront of
this literary revolution were Charles Dickens and William Thackeray. This format enabled
authors to create characters in much greater detail and allowed them to concentrate more on
content and less on form. Other authors who wrote in this tradition were George Eliot, Tho-
mas Hardy, Emily Bronte and Charlotte Bronte.
Another group of novelists concentrated their efforts on creating romantic and exotic
stories to excite their readers. Most notable in this field are Rudyard Kipling, Joseph Conrad
and Robert Louis Stevenson. Several authors used these fantasy situations to provide an indi-
rect social commentary. The most famous of these is H. G. Wells. George Bernard Shaw was
the driving force behind radically new dramatic works. He displayed a powerful capacity for
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satire in his plays. He expressed his dislike for the existing social order in his entertaining plays.
It was also his strong belief that the use of language was critical in establishing ones position
in society.
Victorian England was, in Tennysons phrase, an awful moment of transition. A
society based largely on agriculture, traditional values, and social hierarchies was transformed
into one that was both stimulated and unsettled by unprecedented growth in science, technol-
ogy, industry, urbanization and population, and profound questioning of politics, morality, and
religion.
Biography of Tennyson / Life and Personality of Tennyson
Alfred Tennyson (1809-1892) was born in Somersby, Lincolnshire. Often regarded
as the chief representative of Victorian poetry, Tennyson succeeded William Wordsworth as
Poet Laureate in 1850. Tennysons works were melancholic, and reflected the moral and
intellectual values of his time.
His father, George Clayton Tennyson, a clergyman and rector, suffered from depres-
sion and was highly absentminded. Tennyson began to write poetry at an early age in the style
of Lord Byron. After spending four unhappy years in school he was tutored at home. Tennyson
then studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he joined the literary club The Apostles
and met Arthur Hallam, who became his closest friend. The undergraduate society discussed
contemporary social, religious, scientific, and literary issues. Encouraged by The Apostles,
Tennyson published poems, chiefly lyrical in 1830, which included the popular Mariana. He
travelled with Hallam on the Continent. By 1830, Hallam had become engaged to Tennysons
sister Emily. After his fathers death in 1831 Tennyson returned to Somersby without a de-
gree.
His next book, Poems (1833) received harsh reviews and Tennyson ceased to pub-
lish for nearly ten years. In the same year, Hallam died suddenly in Vienna. It was a huge blow
to Tennyson who began writing In Memorian for his lost friend - the work which took seven-
teen years. In Memorian (1850), the elegy mourning Hallams death is his major poetic achieve-
ment. The personal sorrow led the poet to explore his thoughts on faith, immortality, and the
meaning of loss:
O life as futile, then, as frail!
O for thy voice to soothe and bless!
What hope of answer, or redress?
Behind the veil, behind the veil.
A revised volume of poems, which included the The Lady of Shalott , The Lotus-
Eaters, Morte dArthur and Ulysses established his reputation as a poet. In Ulysses
Tennyson portrayed the Greek after his travels, longing past days: How dull it is to pause, to
make an end, / To rust unburnished, not to shine in use! After marrying Emily Sellwood,
whom he met in 1836, the couple settled in Farringford, a house in Freshwater on the Isle of
224
Wight in 1853. From there the family moved in 1869 to Aldworth, Surrey. During these later
years he produced some of his best poems. In the 1870s Tennyson wrote several plays,
among them poetic dramas Queen Mary (1875) and Harold (1876). In 1884 he was created
a baron. Tennyson died at Aldwort on October 6,1892 and was buried in the Poets Corner in
Westminster Abbey. Soon he became the favorite target of attacks of many English and American
poets who saw him as a representative of narrow patriotism and sentimentality. Later critics
have again praised Tennyson. TS Eliot has called him the great master of metric as well as of
melancholia and has claimed that Tennyson possessed the finest ear of any English poet since
Milton. Since his death his critical reputation has had its ups and downs: W. H. Auden de-
scribed his genius as essentially lyrical and the general consensus has been that the longer
narrative poems he spent so much time on are less successful, though this view has begun to be
challenged.
14.3 Tears, Idle Tears

Tears, idle tears, I know not what they mean,
Tears from the depth of some divine despair
Rise in the heart, and gather to the eyes,
In looking on the happy autumn-fields,
And thinking of the days that are no more.
Fresh as the first beam glittering on a sail,
That brings our friends up from the underworld,
Sad as the last which reddens over one
That sinks with all we love below the verge;
So sad, so fresh, the days that are no more.
Ah, sad and strange as in dark summer dawns
The earliest pipe of half-awakend birds
To dying ears, when unto dying eyes
The casement slowly grows a glimmering square;
So sad, so strange, the days that are no more.
Dear as remembered kisses after death,
And sweet as those by hopeless fancy feignd
On lips that are for others; deep as love,
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Deep as first love, and wild with all regret;
O Death in Life, the days that are no more!
14.3.1 Glossary
1 .idle- useless, purposeless, baseless; the word idle can have many different meanings
(Tennyson revised it from Tears, Foolish Tears, for this reason). The word idle is
associated with laziness, but it can also mean empty, worthless or dead.
2. divine- of, from or like God
3. despair-the state of having lost all hope
4. gather-to come together or bring something together
5. happy autumn fields- autumn fields are personified here and suggest that they bear
the happy memories of spring and summer that have vanished, leaving the poet with
nothing to look forward to except the dark and cold of winter
6. the days that are no more-the bygone days
7. glittering-shining brightly
8. the underworld- The underworld is a term that could mean a criminal world, but in
this context (and due to the period in which the poem was written) it is obvious that he
is talking about the abode of the dead
9. reddens over one- the poet describing the last beam of the sun at the end of the day
that is cast over a boats sail; the use of reddens suggests this because sunset reflects
and endows the landscape with red colour
10. verge-edge, border, margin, threshold
11 Ah- The third stanza begins: Ah, sad and strange as in dark summer dawns The use
of Ah to begin the stanza emphasises the fact that the speaker is thinking and the
whole poem is a train of thought.
12. dawns- daybreak, sunrise
13. earliest pipe-early morning sounds
14 half-awakend birds-birds that have not fully awaken
15. casement-part of a window hinged to open like a door
16. glimmering- shine faintly or intermittently faint or wavering light
17. fancy- imagination
18. feigned- simulate, pretend
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19. regret- to feel sad, sorry or disappointed about something
20. Death in Life- The image of Death in Life recalls the dead friends of the second
stanza who are like submerged memories that rise to the surface only to sink down
once again. This Death in Life also recalls the experience of dying in the midst of the
rebirth of life in the morning, described in the third stanza. The poets climactic excla-
mation in the final line thus represents a culmination of the images developed in the
previous stanzas.
14.3.2 Figures of speech and used in the poem

Simile- a comparison between two distinctly different things by the words like or
as. In the second stanza, Tennyson says: Fresh as the first beam glittering on a sail, The
freshness of memories is what is being described here and Tennyson uses an image of the sun
shining on a boats sail to emphasize it.
Lyric poetry refers to either poetry that has the form and musical quality of a song, or
a usually short poem that expresses personal feelings, which may or may not be set to music.
Greek writers identified the lyric as a song rendered to the accompaniment of a lyre. The term
basically refers to any fairly short, non narrative poem presenting a single speaker who ex-
presses a state of mind or a process of thought and feeling.
Alliteration is the repetition of speech sounds in a sequence of nearby words; the
term is usually applied only to consonants, and only when the recurrent sound occurs in a
conspicuous position at the beginning of a word or of a stressed syllable within a word. The
alliteration of the consonant d in the phrase divine despair creates a very sombre and melan-
cholic tone, whilst also creating a sense of rhythm. The word divine has religious connota-
tions as it means heavenly or sacred, but despair seems opposite as it means to lose all hope;
the poet is describing very powerful emotions.
Personification- is a literary device in which either an inanimate object or an abstract
concept is spoken of as though it were endowed with life or with human attributes or feelings.
In the happy autumn fields the autumn fields is modified by the adjective happy which is a
human trait so autumn fields have been given the attributes of humans. By the use of personi-
fication, the poet makes it seem as if the fields themselves are happy, although it is just the
feeling they evoke in the speaker. Tennyson here also uses a paradox because he is describ-
ing emotions that contradict each other, despair and happiness.
Paradox: A Paradox is a statement which seems on its face to be self-contradictory
or absurd, yet turns out to have a valid meaning.The contrasting descriptions of the tears which
are idle and which yet come from deep within the narrator and the happy autumn-fields
inspiring sadness are examples of paradox. The paradox points towards the disparity and
contrast between the past and the present and add to the poignancy and immediacy of appeal.
Oxymoron- If the paradoxical utterance combines two terms that in ordinary usage
227
are contraries , it is called an oxymoron. O Death in life, the days that are no more, is an
example of oxymoron.
Refrain is a line, or part of a line, or a group of lines which is repeatedly used in the
course of the poem. In this poem we find the phrase the days that are no more being used
repetitively. All the four stanzas of the poem end with the days that are no more.
14.3.3 Summary
The speaker sings of the baseless and inexplicable tears that rise in his heart and pour
forth from his eyes when he looks out on the fields in autumn and thinks of the past. This past,
(the days that are no more) is described as fresh and strange. It is as fresh as the first beam
of sunlight that sparkles on the sail of a boat bringing the dead back from the underworld, and
it is sad as the last red beam of sunlight that shines on a boat that carries the dead down to this
underworld.
The speaker then refers to the past as not fresh, but sad and strange. As such, it
resembles the song of the birds on early summer mornings as it sounds to a dead person, who
lies watching the glimmering square of sunlight as it appears through a square window.
In the final stanza, the speaker declares the past to be dear, sweet, deep, and wild. It
is as dear as the memory of the kisses of one who is now dead, and it is as sweet as those
kisses that we imagine ourselves bestowing on lovers who actually have loyalties to others. So,
too, is the past as deep as first love and as wild as the regret that usually follows this expe-
rience. The speaker concludes that the past is a Death in Life.

One of his most famous lyrics, Tears, Idle Tears was published as one of the three
songs in Tennysons The Princess in 1847.Although the poem is written in blank verse ,
one does not really notices the absence of rhyme. Readers tend not to feel the lack of rhyme
probably because of the richness and variety of the vowel sounds Tennyson employs.
Tennyson was inspired to write Tears, Idle Tears upon a visit to Tintern Abbey in
Monmouthshire, Wales, an abbey that was abandoned in 1536. Tennyson explained that the
idea for this poem came to him when he was at Tintern Abbey, not far from Hallams burial
place. Tintern Abbey is also the title and subject of a famous poem by William Wordsworth.
Wordsworths poem, too, reflects on the passage of time and the loss of the joys of youth.
However, whereas Tennyson laments the days that are no more and describes the past as a
Death in Life, Wordsworth explicitly states that although the past is no more, he has been
compensated for its loss with other gifts:
That time is past,
And all its aching joys are now no more
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And all its dizzy raptures. Not for this
Faint I, nor mourn nor murmur; other gifts
Have followed; for such loss, I would believe,
Abundant recompense.
The present poem like many of the other Tennysons poems , evokes complex emo-
tions and moods through a mastery of language. In the opening stanza, the poet describes his
tears as idle, suggesting that they are caused by no immediate, identifiable grief. However,
his tears are simultaneously the product of a divine despair, suggesting that they do indeed
have a source: they rise in the heart and stem from a profoundly deep and universal cause.
Tennyson is obviously very passionate about what he is writing about. He has himself
said of the poem: This song came to me on the yellowing autumn-tide at Tintern Abbey, full for
me of its bygone memories ... It is what I have always felt even from a boy, and what as a boy
I called the `passion of the past.And it is so always with me now; it is the distance that charms
me in the landscape, the picture and the past, and not the immediate today in which I move.
(A. Tennyson, taken from http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Delphi/9712/poetry.htm)
Tears, Idle Tears is very effective in the way in which it describes emotions. The fact
that it is written in blank verse helps because it is the only verse form that is able to convey the
natural rhythm of spoken English, therefore making the poem more realistic. The images are
described very vividly and are used to represent the feelings of the speaker. The following lines
aptly describe the significant characteristics of the poem: the melody, the vision and the
passionate wail of Tears, idle Tears the most moving and finely wrought lyric Tennyson ever
wrote. (The Cambridge History of English and American Literature). The speaker is
saying that as well as he being sad, he finds it strange not to be able to go back to the days that
are no more. He says that the days that are now gone are as dear to him as the kisses of loved
ones that are now dead. There is a sense of deep regret about the past in the last two lines:
deep as love, Deep as first love, and wild with all regret; O Death in Life, the days that are no
more. Tennyson is talking about the emotion of love here, and firstly says deep as love but
then extends it to deep as first love to suggest that first love is even deeper. The word wild
is a very powerful one that Tennyson uses to describe the regret that the speaker feels. The last
line is powerful because he compares life and death and says that his memories of the past feel
like a death to him. There is a sense of mystery in the poem as it seems that the speaker knows
more than what he is telling us. It seems as if he has deep regrets about the past that are
haunting him. Also, Tennyson does not make it clear who the speaker is as regards the gender.
The speaker is sentimentalising about the past, and Tennyson sentimentalises in the way that he
writes the poem. He deals with many different emotions such as despair, sadness, happiness,
love and regret, which he qualifies with images to help the reader understand them. It is the last
stanza of the poem where there is most emotion and sentimentality; a great yearning for
something that will never happen again and about lost time. Dear as remembered kisses after
229
death, the speaker is saying that the memories of dead loved ones are both sad, and fresh in
his memory, and remind him of the days that are gone.

1. Where did Tennyson get the idea for Tears, Idle Tears?
(A) Somersby
(B) Cambridge
(C) Tintern Abbey
(D) Westminster Bridge
2. Tears Idle Tears is the part of a larger poem. What is the name of that poem and also
state its basic theme.
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
3. Why does the sight of happy autumn fields evoke sadness in the poets heart?
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
4. Describe the mood of the poem.
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
5. Why does the poet refer to the tears as idle?
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
6. Comment on the form of the poem.
..............................................................................................................................
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7. Point out the significance of refrain in this poem by giving sa uitable example?
..............................................................................................................................
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8. What do you understand by divine despair?
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
9. Which other poet has written a poem on the same location and how is his treatment of
the subject different?
..............................................................................................................................
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10. Point out the portion of the poem where the poet seems to be a little hopeful/ Is there
any part of the poem which suggests that the poet believes in re-incarnation.
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1. (C) Tintern Abbey
2. Tears Idle Tears is the part of larger poem called The Princess. Tennyson wrote
The Princess to discuss the relationship between the sexes and to provide an argu-
ment for womens rights in higher education.
3. The speaker states that he cries while looking on the happy autumn-fields. At first,
it seems strange that looking at something happy would elicit tears, but the fact that
these very fields would have to face harsh severe winters is in itself very depressing
and hence make the poet sad and gloomy.
4. Tennysons, Tears, Idle Tears, has many references to symbols and images that
reflect the mood of the poem. Gloom controls the atmosphere the author is describing
to the audience. These images better the understanding of this poem and give the
reader a vivid sense of what the author is trying to portray. Images of sadness are
throughout the poem and they contrast with early memories of happiness the author
once had. Idle tears caused the authors world to stop as he thinks about how the
world was still moving at the time of the tragedy.
5. The poet describes the tears as idle suggesting that they are caused by no immedi-
ate identifiable grief.
6. This poem is written in blank verse, or unrhymed iambic pentameter. It consists of four
five-line stanzas, each of which closes with the refrain the days that are no more.
The poem is set out into four stanzas of equal length, and is written in blank verse,
meaning that it has no rhyme scheme.
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7. Since all the four stanzas culminate with the phrase the days that are no more- this
phrase can be referred to as a refrain. The repetition of this phrase emphasizes the
contrast between the past and the present. This creates a pattern in the poem and also
acts as a summary to each stanza, and to the poem as a whole, because the speaker
discovers that the reasons for his tears are his thoughts about the days that are no
more. This could mean death, or just simply moments in the past that you cant get
back again
8. The phrase is a paradox. This paradox is complicated by the difficulty of interpretation
of the phrase divine despair in two different ways: Is it God who is despairing, or is
the despair itself divine?
9. William Wordsworth also wrote a poem Tintern Abbey inspired by this location in
1798, which developed a similar theme although both Wordsworth and Tennyson
write poems set at Tintern Abbey about the passage of time, Wordsworths poem
takes on a tone of contentment, whereas Tennysons languishes in a tone of lament.
10. The poet says that the beam on the sail will bring our friends up from the under-
world, which suggests that he believes in spirits, or re-incarnation. The beam is like a
symbol of hope, as the first two lines of this stanza are hopeful.
14.4 Charge of the Light Brigade

Half a league, half a league,
Half a league onward,
All in the valley of Death
Rode the six hundred.
Forward, the Light Brigade!
Charge for the guns! he said:
Into the valley of Death
Forward, the Light Brigade!
Was there a man dismayd?
Not tho the soldier knew
Someone had blunderd:
Theirs not to make reply,
Theirs not to reason why,
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Theirs but to do and die:
Into the valley of Death
Cannon to right of them,
Cannon to left of them,
Cannon in front of them
Volleyd and thunderd;
Stormd at with shot and shell,
Boldly they rode and well,
Into the jaws of Death,
Into the mouth of Hell
Flashd all their sabres bare,
Flashd as they turnd in air,
Sabring the gunners there,
Charging an army, while
All the world wonderd:
Plunged in the battery-smoke
Right thro the line they broke;
Cossack and Russian
Reeld from the sabre stroke
Shatterd and sunderd.
Then they rode back, but not
Not the six hundred.
Cannon behind them
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Stormd at with shot and shell,
While horse and hero fell,
They that had fought so well
Came thro the jaws of Death
Back from the mouth of Hell,
All that was left of them,
Left of six hundred.
When can their glory fade?
O the wild charge they made!
All the world wondered.
Honor the charge they made,
Honor the Light Brigade,
Noble six hundred.
14.4.1 Glossary & Notes

1. Charge- sudden rush or violent attack by soldiers, a task, duty ,power to excite feel-
ings
2. the light Brigade-cavalry carrying light arms
3. Half a league-one and a half miles
4. onward-directed or moving forward
5. valley of Death-
6. Rode the six hundred
7. the commander
8. valley of death-
9. none of the soldiers were discouraged
10. they knew that someone had committed a serious mistake
11. the soldiers duty is to simply follow the commands of the General and not question
even
12. Cannon-an old type of large heavy gun that fired solid metal balls
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13. volleyd-a number of bullets etc. fired at the same time
14. thunderd-a loud deep noise
15. shot-firing of bullet from a gun
16. shell-metal case filled with explosives to be fired from a large gun
17. Boldly-without any fear of death
18. Death and Hell are being personified possessing jaws and mouth
19. Flashd-a sudden brief bright light or flame
20. sabres bare-uncovered swords
21. sabring the gunners there-
22. Plunged-to move suddenly and violently forwards
23. Cossack-People dwelling in the northern hinterlands of the Black and Caspian seas
24. Reeld-move in an unsteady way
25. sabre stroke-movement of the sword
26. shattered to break or make something break into small pieces
27. sunderd-to separate something by force
28. Not the six hundred- they were no more six hundred as many of them had lost their
lives
14.4.2 Summary
The poem tells the story of a brigade consisting of 600 soldiers who rode on horse-
back into the valley of death for about one and a half miles. The soldiers were obeying a
command to charge the enemy forces that had been seizing their guns.
Not a single soldier was discouraged or distressed by the command to charge for-
ward, even though all the soldiers realized that their commander had made a terrible mistake:
Someone had blundered. The role of the soldier is to obey and not to make reply...not to
reason why, so they followed orders and rode into the valley of death.
The 600 soldiers were attacked violently by the shots of shells of canons in front and
on both sides of them. Still, they rode courageously forward toward their own deaths: Into
the jaws of Death / Into the mouth of hell / Rode the six hundred.
The soldiers struck the enemy gunners with their bare swords and charged at the
enemy army while the rest of the world looked on in wonder. They rode into the artillery
smoke and broke through the enemy line, destroying their Cossack and Russian opponents.
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Then they rode back from the offensive, but they had lost many men so they were not the six
hundred any more.
Canons behind and on both sides of the soldiers now attacked them with shots and
shells. As the brigade rode back from the mouth of hell, soldiers and horses collapsed; few
remained to make the backward journey.
The world marvelled at the courage of the soldiers; indeed, their glory is undying: the
poem states these noble 600 men remain worthy of honour and tribute today.
14.4.3 Form
This poem comprises six stanzas varying in length from six to twelve lines. Each line
has two stressed syllables; moreover, each stressed syllable is followed by two unstressed
syllables, making the rhythm dactylic. The use of falling rhythm, in which the stress is on the
first beat of each metrical unit, and then falls off for the rest of the length of the meter, is
appropriate in a poem describing the fall of the British brigade.
The rhyme scheme varies with each stanza. Often, Tennyson uses the same rhyme
(and occasionally even the same final word) for several consecutive lines: Flashed all their
sabres bare / Flashed as they turned in air / Sabring the gunners there. The poem also makes
use of anaphora, in which the same word is repeated at the beginning of several consecutive
lines: Cannon to right of them / Cannon to left of them / Cannon in front of them. Here the
method creates a sense of harsh and intense attack; at each line our eyes meet the word
cannon, just as the soldiers meet their flying shells at each turn.
This poem is effective largely because of the way it conveys the movement and sound
of the charge via a strong, repetitive falling meter: Half a league, half a league / Half a league
onward. The plodding pace of the repetitions seems to subsume all individual impulsiveness in
ponderous collective action. The poem does not speak of individual troops but rather of the
six hundred and then all that was left of them. Even Lord Raglan, who played such an
important role in the battle, is only vaguely referred to in the line someone had blundered.
Interestingly, Tennyson omitted this critical and somewhat subversive line in the 1855 version
of this poem, but the writer John Ruskin later convinced him to restore it for the sake of the
poems artistry. Although it underwent several revisions following its initial publication in 1854,
the poem as it stands today is a moving tribute to courage and heroism in the face of devastat-
ing defeat.
14.4.4 Background
The Charge of the Light Brigade recalls a disastrous historical military engagement
that took place during the initial phase of the Crimean War fought between Turkey and Russia
(1854-56). Under the command of Lord Raglan, British forces entered the war in September
1854 to prevent the Russians from obtaining control of the important sea routes through the
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Dardanelles. From the beginning, the war was plagued by a series of misunderstandings and
tactical blunders, one of which serves as the subject of this poem: on October 25, 1854, as the
Russians were seizing guns from British soldiers, Lord Raglan sent desperate orders to his
Light Cavalry Brigade to fend off the Russians. Finally, one of his orders was acted upon, and
the brigade began chargingbut in the wrong direction! Over 650 men rushed forward, and
well over 100 died within the next few minutes. As a result of the battle, Britain lost possession
of the majority of its forward defenses and the only metalled road in the area.
14.4.5 Critical Notes/Analysis

In the 21st century, the British involvement in the Crimean War is dismissed as an
instance of military incompetence; we remember it only for the heroism displayed in it by
Florence Nightingale, the famous nurse. However, for Tennyson and most of his contemporar-
ies, the war seemed necessary and just. He wrote this poem as a celebration of the heroic
soldiers in the Light Brigade who fell in service to their commander and their cause. The poem
glorifies war and courage, even in cases of complete inefficiency and waste.
Unlike the deeply personal grief of Tears Idle Tears this poem deals with an impor-
tant political development in Tennysons day. As such, it is the part of a sequence of political
and military poems that Tennyson wrote after he became the Poet Laureate of England in
1850, including Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington (1852) and Riflemen, Form
(1859). These poems reflect Tennysons emerging national consciousness and his sense of
compulsion to express his political views.
In his poem Charge of the Light Brigade Tennyson describes the valiant charge of
the light brigade into the jaws of death. He makes use of repetition, allusion, and personifica-
tion to paint a vivid picture of the charge, and, at the same time, he gives the reader a glimpse
into the psyche of the valiant soldiers.
The literary device Tennyson most commonly employs in this poem is repetition, but
he also makes use of allusion and personification. In the first stanza he repeats the phrase half
a league three times in order to convey the arduousness of the charge. It relates the fact that
each league gained was a separate feat for the brigade. In the fist stanza he also begins the
repetition of rode the six hundred, a phrase which emphasizes the small number of valiant
soldiers riding against the mouth of hell itself. Tennyson also includes the first reference to the
valley of Death in the first stanza. This reference is continued throughout the poem. It func-
tions as an allusion to the valley of the shadow of death in the twenty-third Psalm of the Bible
and describes the charge. The allusion to the twenty-third Psalm serves to instil in the reader
the sense of fearlessness that the brigade has because the psalm speaks of how evil in not to be
feared, not even in the shadow of death itself. The reference to the valley also paints in the
readers mind an image of being enclosed by greater things on all sides, a feeling no doubt
shared by the soldiers. Canon to the right of them,/ Cannon to the left of them,/ Cannon in
front of them is another repeated phrase in the poem that is found in the third and fifth stanzas
237
of the poem. The repetition of the phrase serves to add to the claustrophobic feeling in the
reader that began with the mention of the charge into the valley. It also reminds the reader that
the cannon of the enemy are all that can be seen no matter where the valiant soldiers look.
Death also becomes personified in the third stanza when Tennyson gives it jaws. The personi-
fication of death is meant to shift the poems tone to a more carnal tone. The brigade is now
pitted against the ultimate beast that threatens devour them. They must now kill or be killed.
The jaws of death and mouth of hell are also repeated images in the poem. They paint a
picture of soldiers starring into a black abyss that is about to consume them.
In his poem Tennyson also provides the reader with some insight into the psyche of the
men of the brigade. The first glimpse of the soldiers state of mind given in the poem comes in
the form of the valley of death. The reader is told that the soldiers face certain death, but the
phrase, through its biblical allusion, demonstrates to the reader that the evil is face without fear.
Tennyson also gives a more direct insight into the psyche of the brigade when he writes that the
soldiers knew Some one had blunderd, and that they knew their place was not to question
orders but to do and die. The reader then knows that these men are blindly motivated by
loyalty and a sense of duty. Cannon to the right of them,/ Cannon to the left of them,/ Cannon
in front of them is another description Tennyson uses to take the reader in to minds of sol-
diers. This description allows the reader to see the battle as the soldier saw it. No matter
where you looked, all that could be seen was certain death. No safety could be found. After
being taken into the psyche of the brigade and seeing a vivid picture of the valiant charge the
reader cannot hope to do anything but admire the valour of the soldiers and Honour the Light
Brigade.
Tennysons use of literary devices to paint a mental picture of a heroic charge and the
insight he gives the reader into the minds of the valiant men who made it make his Charge of
the Light Brigade a powerful poem. It is a fitting tribute to the soldiers who fought the war that
elicited the worlds highest military honour: the Victoria Cross.
It has already been mentioned in the previous section that Tennyson is a defining poet
of the Victorian era, nowhere more so than in his famous Archive-featured poem The Charge
of the Light Brigade (1864) which commemorates an infamous incident from the Crimean
War. In the course of this action, undertaken in error due to misinterpreted orders, the Light
Brigade attempted to capture the Russian gun redoubts at Balaclava with disastrous results.
Of the six hundred and seventy three men who charged down The Valley of Death only a
hundred and ninety five survived unwounded. News of the charge and its bloody conse-
quences reached London three weeks later and there was an immediate public outcry. The
news affected Tennyson who wrote his poem in commemoration of their courage only a few
minutes after reading an account in The Times. It was immediately popular, even reaching the
troops back in the Crimea where it was distributed in pamphlet form.
Less well-known is Tennysons celebration of a more successful action during the
same battle, The Charge of the Heavy Brigade. This was written much later in 1882 at the
238
prompting of a friend which is perhaps why it fails to capture the creative burst of the first
poem. The three hundred mentioned are the men of the Heavy Brigade and their com-
mander, Sir James Yorke Scarlett, but the poem never caught the publics imagination. Never-
theless, it is of historical interest to hear the two poems side by side which were able to do
thanks to a remarkable recording made in 1890. These poems and eight others were recorded
on a set of twenty three soft wax cylinders. Although their age and the primitive technology
sometimes renders a word inaudible, Tennysons voice comes through clearly, intoning the
pounding dactylic rhythms of the verse which gives it a breathless momentum. The patriotic
poem Charge of the Light Brigadepublished in MAUD (1855), is one of Tennysons best
known works, although first Maud was found obscure or morbid by critics ranging from George
Eliot to Gladstone. Later the poem about the Light Brigade inspired Michael Curtizs film from
1936, starring Errol Flynn. Historically the fight during the Crimean war brought to light the
incompetent organization of the English army. However, the stupid mistake described in the
poem honored the soldiers courage and heroic action.

1. Which of the following historical events does The Charge of the Light Brigade de-
scribe?
(i) D- Day
(ii) The Battle of Waterloo
(iii)The Battle of Bull Run
(iv) The Crimean War
2. Why is the cavalry referred to as light brigade?
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3. What is onomatopoeia? Can you find an example of onomatopoeia in the fourth stanza?
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4. What is an alliteration? Point out the use of alliteration in the fourth stanza?
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5. How does Tennyson make use of repetition in this poem?
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1. (iv)The Crimean War
2. The cavalry is referred to as light brigade because the cavalry was bearing only
light arms- swords and sabres.
3. Onomatopoeia is a device applied to a word, or a combination of words, whose
sound seems to resemble the sound it denotes; hiss, thud, buzz are some common
examples. The seeming similarity of the verbal sounds to the nonverbal ones is due to
the meaning and to the feel of uttering the words. In the fourth stanza, the word flashd
imitates the sound of a sabre, or sword, being pulled from its scabbard, or whistling
through the air.
4. Alliteration is the repetition of the first consonant sound in a phrase or a sentence. The
matching or repetition of these sounds create a special effect..from the sabre stroke/
Shatterd and sunderd is an example of alliteration.
5. Tennyson uses the same lines to open both stanzas three and stanza five:
Cannon behind them
Stormd at with shot and shell
He repeats these lines, particularly the word cannon to create a special effect of the
warfare being conducted by the light cavalry. The rhythmic use of these words suc-
cessfully capture the action of the war.
14.5 Let Us Sum Up

This unit has given you a glimpse of literary trends of the Victorian Age as Tennyson
is a representative poet of that age and you have also got a basic idea of Tennysons poetry, its
content and style. Hopefully, this section has also helped you grasp the thematic intricacies
of his poetry and enabled you to appreciate Tennysons contribution in the field of poetry. The
section also gives you an exposure to some of the figures of speech and literary devices giving
you a broad understanding of them.
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1. What an essay on Tennysons usage of literary devices with suitable example.
2. Discuss Tennysons poem Tear Idle Tears as a realistic and emotional poem.
14.7 Bibliography
Isobel Armstrong, Victorian Poetry: Poetry, Poetics, and Politics (Routledge, 1993)
Marilyn Butler, Romantics, rebels and reactionaries (Oxford UP, 1982)
Joseph Bristow, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Victorian Poetry (Cambridge UP, 2002)
Richard Cronin et al, ed. A Companion to Victorian Poetry
B.Prasad: A Short History of English Literature, Macmillan, 1971
The Cambridge History of English and American Literature in 18 Volumes (1907 V21). Vol-
ume XIII. The Victorian Age, Part One.
Cuddon, J.A. The Penguin Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory. Third Ed. Lon-
don: Penguin Books, 1991. (taken from http://www.bartleby.com/223/0202.html)
Abrams, M.H., (ed). The Norton Anthology of English Literature, Vol. 2, 6th Edition. New
York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1993.
Bloom, Harold, (ed.) Alfred Lord Tennyson. Pennsylvania: Chelsea House Publishers, 1999.
Hill, Robert W. Jr., (ed) Tennysons Poetry: A Norton Critical Edition. New York: W.W.
Norton & Co., 1971.
Killham, John, (ed) Critical Essays on the Poetry of Tennyson. London: Routledge & Kegan
Paul, 1960.
Kincaid, James R. Tennysons Major Poems: The Comic and Ironic Patterns. New Haven:
Yale University Press, 1975.
McKay, Kenneth. Many Glancing Colors: An Essay in Reading Tennyson, 1809-1850. Toronto:
University of Toronto Press, 1988.
Thomson, Alastair W. The Poetry of Tennyson. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986.
Turner, Paul. Tennyson. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1976.
Vendler, Helen. Poems, Poets, Poetry: An Introduction and Anthology. Boston: Bedford Books,
1997.
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UNIT-15
MATTHEW ARNOLD: DOVER BEACH
Structure
15.0 Objectives
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Text : Dover Beach
15.3 About The Poet
15.4 Summary of Dover Beach
15.8 Let Us Sum Up
15.10 Bibliography
15.0 Objectives
After going through this unit you will be able to:
understand the Age of the poet and his idea about the poem and its creativity,
know about a literary metrical piece of study,
develop a critical analysis about the theory and the poetic ideology, and
use the word as referred to in the context of the study.
15.1 Introduction
In this unit, you are going to study about the poem and the poet along with the age that
he belongs to. In a way, you will reinforce your study of poetic evaluation various theories and
concepts of the poet have been made simple to enhance your knowledge and understanding.
Also remember to make use of dictionary so as to understand the words and their meanings
according to the context.
15.2 Text : Dover Beach

The sea is calm to-night
242
The tide is full, the moon lies fair
Upon the straits; - on the French coast the light
Gleams and is gone; the cliffs of England stand.
Glimmering and vast; out in the tranquil bay.
Come to the window, sweet is the night-air!
Only, from the long line of spray
Where the sea meets the moon-blanchd land
Listen ! you hear the grating roar
Of pebbles which the waves draw back, and fling,
At their return, up the high strand.
Begin, and cease, andthen again begin,
With tremulous candence slow, and bring
The eternal note of sadness in.
Sophocles long ago
Heard it on the Aegaean, and it brought
Into his mind the turbid ebb and flow
Of human misery; we
Find also in the sound a thought,
Hearing it by this distant northern sea.
The sea of faith
Was once, too, at the full, and round earths shore
Lay like the folds of a bright girdle furled:
But now I only hear
Its melancholy, long, withdrawing roar,
Retreating, to the breath
Of the night-wind down the vast edges drear
And naked shingles of the world
Ah, love, let us be true
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To one another ! for the world, which seems
To lie before us like a land of dreams,
So various, so beautiful, so new,
Hath really neither joy, nor love nor light,
Nor certitude, nor peace, nor help for pain;
And we are here as on a darkling plain
Swept with confused alarms of struggle and flight
Where ignorant armies clash by night.
15.3 About the Poet

Life of the Poet Matthew Arnold was born at Laleham near Staines on 24,
December, 1822. His father Thomas Arnold was the famous headmaster of Rugby School.
He was himself educated at Rugby. In 1840 he won the school prize in English verse. In 1843
he won the Newdingate Proze for writing a poem on Cromwell at Ballol College, Oxford. In
1845 he was elected Fellow of Oriel College.
He worked as a master at Rugby for some years. In 1851 he was made Inspector of
Schools. That year he married the daughter of Justice Wightman. From 1857 to 1867 he was
professor of poetry at Oxford. He died at Liverpool 10, May, 1888.
His Works His first volume of poems, The Strayed, Reveller and other poems
appeared in 1849. In 1852 was published. Empedocles on Etna and other Poems in 1853
appeared a volume of Poems are in 1855 Poems, School Series was published. In 1858
Merope, a Tragedy was published and New Poem in 1868.
As a Poet We find clarity of expression, gravity and dignity of thought in his poems.
He has classical sense of proportion and harmony. He cannot tolerate exaggeration of sentiment
or passion, or emphasis either in description or in epithets and imagery. He writes with a
purpose and a definite aim in his mind, and his writings and free from the clouds of passion and
imagination, that hang upon and obscure the expression in Keats and other romantic poets.
As a Poet of Nature. Arnold bears some resemblance to Wordsworth. He also
possesses penetrating and sympathetic insight in nature and believes in its healing power, but
is not a nature worshipper like Wordsworth. Neither does he find perpetual joy in it nor does
he recognise any mystic union with it, but takes only a detached view of it.
Comparing Arnold with Tennyson, Lord-de-Tabley says that the latter occasionally
goes wrong but Arnold is always accurate.
Introduction to the Poem The poem was published in 1867. The poet has expressed
244
pessimism in this poem. The world is full of misery. Even the Greek poet Sophocles sang it.
But in olden times men had faith and love for each other, but that they have now lost and
instead fight with each other. The poet is reminded of it by ebb and flow of the sea at the Dover
beach
15.4 Summary of Dover Beach

In the first stanza the poet sees the calm sea in full tide at the Dover beach.
In the second stanza the roar of the ebbing sea strikes a note of sadness in his mind.
In the third stanza, he says that Sophocles was reminded of human misery as he heard
the roar of the sea-waves at the Greek coast.
In the fourth stanza, the poet talks, that once the sea of faith girdled this earth, but it is
now retreating.
In the last stanza, he asks us to love each other as this world is really a joyless place.

1. Theme :
Matthew Arnolds Dover Beach captures beautifully the poets deep dissatisfaction
with his age and its loss of faith. He puts for the idea that the root cause of the miseries of men
in the modern world is lack of faith. This is an idea prevalent in both the prose and verse of
Arnold.
2. Expression :
The idea is expressed in the form of a beautiful metaphor. Humanity is presented as a
sea-shore, faith as the sea. In the past ages, the heart of man was full of faith like a beach
covered with sea-water at the time of the flow of the tide. Today the human heart is dry, like a
beach at ebb-tide. Only the dry and soulless religious formulas, ceremonies and practices
remain in it like pebbles on sea beach.
3. Naturalness :
This metaphor is sustained throughout the later part of the poem, except in the last
three lines, where modern life is presented as a dark plain where a mad battle is on. The
metaphor of the sea emerges naturally out of the poem in gradual degrees. Nothing is forced.
The poem has all the suggestiveness associated with great poetry.
4. Pictorial Power:
Apart from the idea that this poem puts forth, it is remarkable for the beautiful and
effective picture of Dover Beach presented in it. With a few touches the poet succeeds in
245
presenting a picture of great beauty vivid and clear. The sound of the waves beating against the
shore is also beautifully captured.
5. A Note of Sadness:
The poem has sad music about it sad like the slow, mournful beat of the waves described
in it. It has that note of sadness and dissatisfaction that is so common in Arnolds writings. All
things considered, it is one of the most beautiful poems in the language simple and suggestive
weighed with a heavy sweetness, yet restrained in expression as well as sentiment.
D.S. Tatke makes the following comment on this poem- then heightens the meaning in
the next eight lines by using the images to express the last journey which every one must make,
so does Arnold in this poem build a beautiful picture of the calm sea and the moon-blanched
shore and makes us aware of the fact that though from the distance the picture is so calm and
peaceful yet those who live near enough always hear the grating roar of pebbles and the eternal
note of sadness and then deepens the meaning by giving it a philosophic content.
6. Transition to Philosophic Meditation:
The transition to philosophic meditation comes in the second stanza. The third uses the
image of the first stanza to express the present predicament the loss of faith and the consequent
gloom which is the most prominent note of Arnolds poems. The fourth stanza is an appeal to
a beloved woman to be true to each other for that alone can sustain them in this land of dreams
whose reality is very different from its appearance.
7. Need for a Positive Faith: The poem successfully expresses the fascination and
the need Arnold felt for a positive faith and the reluctance with which he must accept the
painful, unavoidable reality.
Note the perfect picture of the age with all its complexity in the last three lines of the
poem
And we are here as on a darkling plain
Swept with confused alarms of struggle and flight
Where ignorant armies clash by night.
His poems are marked by a restraint and, a conscious control. Neither excessively
musical nor deliberately rugged the expression diction, imagery, rhythm is marked by a
perfect clearness, competence and precision. He is far too meditative a poet to be lyrical. His
best poetry is reflective, always burdened by thoughts of the predicament of his generation. In
a letter written in 1869 Arnold claimed that his poems represent the main movement of the
mind of the last quarter of a century.
Dover Beachis one of Arnolds most famous poems. It is one of his most characteristic
poems too. It has a sad tone and it expresses Arnolds sorrow at the loss of faith in the modern
246
world.
When we analyse the epithets used in the poem, we find that Arnold does not use
colour epithets anywhere in this poem. Even in the first stanza where he describes the landscape,
no colour epithet is used. But this deficiency does not in any way mar the literary merit of the
poem. Arnold describes the landscape in a way that the reader is easily able to visualize the
landscape, and its varied colour. On the French coast, the light / Gleams, and is gone. We
can very easily visualize the colour here. Where he speaks of the moon-blanchd sand he
makes us see the sandy place shining white in the moon-lit night without using the colour
epithet.
Another way in which he makes up the deficiency of colour epithets is by making us
hear the sound of the waves striking the shore and then returning. He says:
Listen ! you hear the granting roar
Of pebbles which the waves such back, and fling
At their return, up the high strand,
Begin, and cese, and then again begin,
With tremulous cadence slow, and bring
The eternal note of sadness in.
He again says :-
But now I only hear
Its melancholy, long, withdrawing roar,
Retreating to the beath
Of the night-wind down the vast edges drear
And naked shingles of the world.

(A) Short Questions
1. What do you appreciate in this poem?
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2. When was the poem published ?
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3. What does the poet express in the poem ?
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4. What classic reference does the poem display ?
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5. What great lectures did the people of old age have ?
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6. What is the poet reminded of in the poem Dover Beach ?
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7. What kind of faith does Arnold refer to?
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8. Is Arnold a poet of Nature?
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9. What does Nature mean to Arnold?
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10. Arnold has a sad note in his writings. Why ?
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1. Clarity of expression gravity, dignity of thought, proportion and harmony.
2. 1867.
3. The poet has expressed pessimism in the poem.
4. Even the Greek poet Sophocles (classic) sang it.
5. They had faith and love for each other.
6. The poet recalls the old age of faith and leave by the ebb and flow of the sea which the
modern man does not have.
7. Religious faith.
8. No, he is not a worshipper of nature like words worth.
9. To Arnold nature is quite indifferent to man. It is mans love for each other that helps
15.8 Let Us Sum Up

1. By now you must have underdtood the poem and the poets intention of his creative
impulse
2. Written in 1867.
3. A classical poem with a pessimistic or tragic appeal.
4. Compares the olden times the modern times etc.

1. Write a critical appreciation of the poem Dover Beach.
2. Who was Sophocles ? How could he have heard in ancient Greece the same note of
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sadness in the sea as Arnold observed in the Victorian England ?
3. How are the ignorant armies, according to Arnold, clashing by night ?
4. Where is the battle being fought ?
5. Arnold employs no epithet of colour in Dover Beach. How does he make up for his
deficiency ?
6. What are the main characteristics of the Victorian Age to Which Matthew Arnold
belonged?
7. What does the concluding stanza portray in the poem Dover Beach?
8. What kind of mental frame did Matthew Arnold have ? Why ?.
9. Can you identify some chief pessimistic poets of the Victorian Age ?
10. Write down the summary of the poem Dover Beach.
11. What were the circumstances that forced Arnold to criticize the modern man?
15.10 Bibliography
1. Comton, A History of English Literature, Nelson, 1950.
2. Hugh Walker, The Literature of the Victorian Era, New Delhi: Asia Publishing, Jhansi,
1962
3. Jasbir Jain, Strings of Gold, (For Part III) Macmillen.
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UNIT - 16
OLIVER GOLDSMITH: A VERSATILE GENIUS
Structure
16.0 Objectives
16.1 Introduction
16.1.1 Introduction to the life of Oliver Goldsmith
16.1.2 Goldsmith and his Age: His Career and Character
16.2 Socio-political Ethos of Goldsmiths Time
16.2.1 Socio-political Ethos of Goldsmiths Time
16.2.2 Literary Trends in the Eighteenth Century England
16.2.3 Goldsmith and the Contemporary Drama and Fiction
16.2.4 The Sentimental Comedy and Goldsmiths Reaction Against it
16.3 A Pointwise Summary of the Contents of this unit
16.4 Glossary
16.6 Answers SAQs
16.7 Let Us Sum Up
16.9 Bibliography
16.0 Objectives
The very objective of this study is to place Oliver Goldsmith in the proper perspective
as a writer in the eighteenth century- the age of enlightenment and reason. He was a great
genius and tried his hand at fiction, prose, drama and poetry. His contribution to the English
comedy is not negligible. He reacted sharply to the Sentimental comedy which was under the
spell of French playwriters of the period. The objective is to highlight how dexterously he
revived the spirit of Shakespearean comedy and recreated the atmosphere of Farquhars
Beaus Strategem on the English stage. He brought the genre of comedy on the right track
because it had deviated from the norms of depicting genuine humanity and humour, and had
degraded itself into maudlin and lachrymose sentimentality.
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16.1 Introduction
16.1.1 Introduction to the Life of Oliver Goldsmith
Oliver Goldsmith had very humble origins. He spent his childhood in the little village
Lissoy in the rural surroundings of Longford, Ireland. His father was a poor Protestant curate.
He went to the village school. He also studied at Trinity college, Dublin. He became the
postmaster of the arts of dissipation and practical joking. After his fathers death, his mother
lived in object penury. Goldsmiths relatives helped him thrice to emigrate to find work for a
living. He was sent to Edinburgh to study medicine. He spent two years there, ostensibly
engaged in study, but his heart was in tramping about the countryside and the streets with his
flute to support him. He travelled various countries on the contenent of Europe depending for
food and lodging on humble cottagers. He had nothing to pay except to play upon his flute.
For sometime he worked as a booksellers hack. He took to teaching and acting but he didnt
succeed in either of them.
He was in such straits that he ran errands and slept with professional beggers. He
failed in the examination for surgeons mate at a hospital and reverted to hack-writing. He was
not an expert of anyspecific discipline but he did try his hands on natural history, English
history, and Roman history forwriting. During this period, he developed a graceful picturesque
style of writing. Surely a great writer was in the making. His work Letters of a Citizen of the
World appeared anonymously in The Public Ledger in 1762. These letters were professed to
be from the hand of a Chinese philosophers visiting England. The contents consisted of a
critique of contemporary genteel English manners.
Goldsmith made acquaintance with Dr. Samuel Johnson and was admitted to his liter-
ary circle which included Blake, Sir Joshua Reynolds, Garrick etc. The publication of The
Traveller established his reputation as a man of letters. It was a reflective poem which nar-
rated his early experience. He came out with a short novel The Vicar of Wakefuld : regarded
as a classic of the period. He wrote a lengthy poem The Deserted Village (1770). It was
haphazardly planned but it was full of exquisite passages. Credit goes to him for having written
such comedies as- The Good Naturd Man (1768) and She Stoops to Conquer (1774). In
spite of his recurring income obtained from various book sellers for hack compilations, his
debts amounted to 2000 pounds. He died of nervous fever in 1774 and was buried at the
Temple. Dr. Samuel Johnsons epitaph on Goldsmith reads- He touched nothing that he did
not adorn- was the most correct and concise estimate of Goldsmiths genius. Grace was a
salient feature of his style. Goldsmith was duly admired as a poet by his contemporaries.
Unfortunately The Traveller is hardly read today but his poem The Deserted Village is more
widely known. Both of these poems are products of his genuinely poetical and imaginative
genius. These poems anticipate the Lyrical Ballads (1798)
The Vicar of Wakefield, a novel by Goldsmith was a landmark in the history of the
England novel. Its characterization is very skilful. There was nearly always an undercurrent of
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decent humour. His play The Good Naturd Man was like a gust of fresh air in a sickroom.
Critics regarded it a dramatic failure on the ground that the people were not ready to abandon
lachrymosity for laughter. His play, She Stoops to Conquer was a grand success. It had all the
elements which constituted the perfect farce and sentimental comedy. This was the kind of
comedy that Goldsmith desired on the stage.
16.1.2 Goldsmith and his Age: His Career and Character

It was the fag end of the reign of George II. Thanks to Dr. Samuel Johnson, the pursuit
of literature was becoming an independent profession. A man of letters was getting free from
the patronase of the aristocracy. Whitehead was the Poet Laureate of England. Griffiths- a
bookseller of Paternoster Row- engaged Goldsmith as a hack upon his Monthly Review. For
boars, lodging and a little sum of pocket money, he wrote stray articles and reviews. When his
landlord was carried off to prison for debt, Goldsmith, being very compassionate by nature,
could not endure the distress of the mans wife. He pawned his new clothes and handed her
the money. Hearing this, Griffiths- thought of Glodsmith as a villain and threatened him with
extreme measures. Goldsmith began to write articles for the Bee, The Busybody and The
Ladys Magazine and made literary reputation for himself: His book An Inquiry into The
State of Polite Learning in Europe appeared in Europe. In course of time Bishop Percy,
Garrick, Smollett, Sir Joshua Reynolds and Dr. Samuel Johnson became his acquaintances.
He was given a guinea an article in the Public Ledger. His Chinese Essays were first pub-
lished in it. He would have prospered if his extravagance had not kept him nearly always in
debt. He was fond of hosting suppers and had developed a taste for fine clothes. He liked
colored events. He was sponged upon for guineas and half-geineas by some rascals who
knew that he was a man of kind disposition. A guinea could never remain for a single day in his
pocket. He was in the employment of Newsbery (a bookseller). He worked very hard
throughtout the day and spent his evening in the company of Dr. Samuel Johnson at Sir Joshuas,
or at the Literary Club. When he left Newbery, he landed in trouble. James Boswell record in
his Life of Dr. Johnson: I received one morning said Dr. Johnson a message from poor
Goldsmith that he was in great distress and as it was not in his power to come to me- begging
that I could come to him as soon as possible. I sent him a guinea and promised to come to him
directly. I accordingly went as soon as I was dressed and found that his landlady had him
arrested for his rent at which he was in a great passion. I perceived that he had already
changed my guinea and had got a bottle of Madeira and a glass before him. I put the cork into
the bottle, desired he would be calm, and began to talk to him of the means by which he might
be extrecated. He then told me that he had a novel ready for the press, which he produced to
me. I looked into it, and saw its merits; told the landlady I would soon return; and having gone
to a bookseller, sold it for 60. I brought Goldsmith the money, and he discharged his rent, not
without rating his landlady in a hightone for having used him so ill.
This novel was The Vicar of Wakefield and its publisher was the younger Newbery.
The novel proved to be the turning point in Goldsmiths literary career. He presented the
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credentials of his creative genius in the form of this novel. Oliver Glodsmith was a man of
infinite good humour: Where he had aroused the scorn of the Club by foolish attempts at wise
discourse, his simplicity would in a moment transform contempt into friendship. Though he
was guilty of vanity, recklessness, and obstinacy, he was entirely free from the sins of the
spirit. He was essentially as lovable a person as his own Vicar of Wakefield. In his physical
appearance, he was a shrewd-looking, low-statured man with five feet five inches, with a big
round head, a pale scarred face with a bulging forehead and large pouting lips. His friend Dr.
Samuel Johnson was a giant figure over six feet. Let me imagine when the two writers met in
Fleet Street London, Goldsmith in his gaudy-coloured velvet and gold lace must have looked
a curious personality. He was known as Nall or Nolly or Goldy or Poor Little Gold-
smith Beauclerk writes about him: We were entertained as usual by Goldsmiths absurdi-
ties. Masson remarks, He is a positive idiot except when he has pen in his hand. His friend
Garrick commented upon Goldsmiths grave: Here lies Nolly Goldsmith, for shortness called
Noll, Who wrote like an angel but talked like poor Poll.
16.2 Socio-political Ethos of Goldsmiths Time
16.2.1 Socio-Political Ethos of Goldsmiths Time

As has been refered to earlier, literary patronage of the artist by aristocrats was com-
ing to an end. Writers began to depend now more on their own resources and on the reasing
public, and no less on the booksellers as we have seen in the case of Goldsmith. He was
aware of all the hard grind and drudgery of literary activities. The social content, therefore
dominated literary themes. Goldsmith was highly conscious of his audience and reading public.
In the last decades of the seventeenth century and the first decades of the eighteenth century
the writers did thrive under certain patronage. Some one supported the writers directly and
even appointed them to some civil or ecclesiastical office. The writer did not make a living
professionally by writing books. Goldsmith was one of those eminent writers who challenged
and revolted against such patronage. Dr. Samuel Johnson famous letter to Lord Chesterfield in
February 1755 was a declaration of the writers independence. Goldsmith had no patron and
therefore, he had to face abject penury though the popular market was expanding. Alexander
Pope in The Dunciad speaks of caves of poverty and poetry. Henry Fielding records the
hand-to-mouth existence of a hack writer in Authors Farce. Thomas Amory in his novel
John Buncle tells us how Edmond Curil- the bookseller and his hacks sleep in relays- three in
a bed. Dr. Samuel Johnson in his Life of Savage paints the sordid poverty and relentless
struggle of writers. But soon the profession was on the way to independence. The writer could
earn his bread and butter by writing in prestigious journals, newspapers and magazines. The
Spectator extended the circle of readers. Addison took upon himself the task of educating the
public morality and healthy criticism and amused his readers by satire and curious chapter-
sketches. A.Popes translations of The Iliad and The Odyssey were sold like hot cakes. They
were not dedicated to any aristocrat or a prime but to Congreve. The Gentlemans Maga-
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zine was founded in 1731 and several other periodicals reviewing and popularizing contem-
porary literature were started. The eighteenth century fiction had large number of readers.
Richardsons success with Pamela and Clarissa, Sternes with Tristram Shandy and A
Sentimental Journey< Macphersons Ossian were portents of an epoch of popular literary
taste and sentiment.
The political and economic conditions of England fostered the growth of social con-
sciousness along with literary proliferation. This was the trend of practical humanism. This
period was known as the age of prose and reason. A general desire for social harmony pre-
vailed as a sequel to the Civil War and the persecution of dissenters after Lord Monmouths
rise in 1685. The remarkable feature of the period was the evolving social order with reason
being the key attribute. Economic progress was certainly responsible for the growth of social
consciousness. Daniel Defoe speaks admiringly of the adundance of things, rising buildings,
and new discoveries during this period. The organic conception of society linking together the
high and the low, the illustrious and the obscure, emerged though the class distinctions had not
entirely disappeared. More and more attention was given to the management of public affairs.
John Locke desired that men should seek knowledge of material causes and eggects of things
and that they should develop such arts, engines and inventions which could contribute to a
happier state of society. The Bank of England was well established now. Traders, merchants,
bankers, industrialists, etc preoccuped themselves with a new sophisticated economic order.
They were as respectable in society as in the domain of literature. Sir Andrew Freeport in The
Spectator is a remarkable character in the context. He is admired for indefatigable industry,
strong reason, and great experience. James Boswell writes: In this great commercial coun-
try, it is natural that a situatuon which produces much wealth should be considered very re-
spectable.
This was The strongest assertion of the Middle class which has emerged very strongly.
The men of all sects and creeds were infact, now willing to take up business as the very
philosophy of life. England was heading for industrial property. The commercial prosperity got
centred in London. It became an unfailing object of literary reflection. We find it in Alexander
Popes The Rape of the Lock, Belindas dressing table, loaded with All Arabia breathing
from perfume boxes; tortoise-shell and ivory stuck in combs, the various offerings of the world
have been assembled for her make-up. Commercial prosperity in the Royal Exchange is well
reflected in Addisons Spectator (Paper No. 9). Ken interest began to be evinced in foreign
lands as one notices in Jonathan Swifts Gullivers Travels. Throughout the eighteenth cen-
tury, interest in the East was mounting: The South Sea Company was launched in 1711 and
The South Sea Bubble burst in 1720. Commodore Anson Circumnavigated the globe during
(1740-44), Byrons grandfather commodore John Byron did it i n (1764-66) Captain Wallis
did it in 1775-78. Captain Cook made his several expeditions in 1768-71, 1772-75 and
1776-79. Eastern trade constituted a small part of British economy. Burkes brilliant speeches
refer admiringly to Englands Eastern trade and its brighter prospects. This trade was the
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channel for a wave of Oriental interest which spread in entire Europe. The European came to
know of oriental wisdom and virtue and enlightened moral values.
16.2.2 Literary Trends in the Eighteenth Century England
From the imaginative and literary writings of the period we get a glowing perspective
of the countryside. Daniel Defoe painted it rosy in his Tour; Thomsons Seasons, Gays Rural
Sports, Dyers Fleece,.......all breathe an atmosphere of growing prosperity. We may con-
trast it with Oliver Goldsmiths The Deserted Village mourning the lost happy peasantry of his
youthful days: Under the enclosure system, the private estates replaced the old communally
formed open fields and a large number of the laborious were dispossessed.
It would be a blunder to forget that the evolving social order in the eighteenth century
was accompanied by violence. It is worthwhile to refer to Anti-Roman Catholic Popish Plot,
and sttempts to block James IIs succession and also Lord Shaftsburys plot against James II
in favour of Lord Monmouth. Dryden has dexterously exposed it in his satires- The Medal
and Absalom and Achitophel. Then came Lord Monmouths revolt, the anti-Dissenter riots,
provoked by the Tory Occasional Conformity Bill, of which the literary offshoot was Daniel
Defoes parody- The Shortest Way with the Dissenters and the bitter Tory campaign against
Marlborough in which Jonathan Swifts Condust of The Allies accetrated his fall. Intrigues of
parties, on the verge of Civil War in the Whig Replacement of the Stuart line by the Hanoverian
one in 1714, personal animosities during the Prime Ministership of Walpole, John Wilkess
disputed election to the Parliament and lastly the American War of Independence followed.
The French Revolution in 1789 was a great event in Frence: The fort of Bastille was stormed
by the masses. Queen Antoniette was guillotined. The age of Oliver Goldsmith was ripe for
socio-political unheavals and drastic changes.
The literature of the period, therefore, reflects the irresistible desire of the people to
maintain law and order. Reason was the very basis of desirable social order. Saint Evremond
tells us: We love plain truth; good sense has gained ground upon the illusions of fancy and
nothing satisfies us now-a-days but solid reason.: Dryden thought of wit as propriety of
words and thoughts adapted to the subjects. Pope defined it as what oft was thought but
beer so well expressed. Hume, harping upon the Aristotelian idea of the constant universals
of human nature, sought to explore it further. Therefore, wit in the eighteenth century meant
not only stating and formulating the familiar truths but it was also impressing upon mankind
with fresh ways of thinking and discovering new truths. We can understand why propriety,
perspicuity, elegance, and cadence came to he highly valued both in poetry and prose: The
discourse or content was to be happily-worded. Haraces Art Poetica and Boileaus Lirt
Poetique ruled the day. Jonathan Swift in his Treatise on Good Manners and Good Breed-
ing emphasized the value of good conversation and etiquette. Oliver Goldsmith in his Acount
of the Augustan Age bears witness to the accomplishment of these values: A happy union of
literature and polite society marked the salient feature of the age.
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These Augustans debt to the past cannot be underestimated. Though they lived their
own lives, had their moral ideas, and developed their life style. They showed deep respect for
the way the things had been done in the glorious classical past. They regard their lives collec-
tive as an integral part of a majestic ideal of humanity. They tried their best to emulate the great
masters. Dryden quotes Longinus in his Preface to Troilus and Cressida (1669): Those
great men whom we propose to ourselves as patterns of our limitation serve us as a torch
which if lifted up before us, to enlighten our passage and often elevate our thoughts as high as
the conception we have of our authors genius. It is stated in the 86th Guardian: The ancient
were fountains of good sense and eloquence. Burkes letter to a member of National Assem-
bly(1791) speaks volumes of Englands disdain of Rousseauesque anarchy.
16.2.3 Goldsmith and his Contemporarily Drama and Fiction

Oliver Goldsmith was a playwright of no little importance. In his play She Stoops to
Conquer, there is an under current of hemour and satire. It marks a sort of relief from the
turgidity of the heroic drama to lighter stuff.
The gaeity, cynicism and the strain of immorality of the Restoration period are fully
reflected in this witty play. It satirizes the social behaviour of a certain class of English society.
It is a sentimental comedy which reacts against Restoration wit and licence. Goldsmiths play
She Stoops to Conquer incorporates a genuine spirit of comedy.
Satire came very handy to the Restoration playwrights and which was the legitimate
element of drama had degenerated into farce. A new impulse now came to sustain the drama:
it was sentimentalism. Sentimentality and bourgeois respectability went hand in hand. The
desire to attack licencious morality of the period, the finer intelligence of Henry Fielding got
deviated from the stage to the novel. He came out with Joseph Andrews and Tom Jones.
Tom, the bastard, he sats the natural impules of genuine humanity against hypocritical and
calculating vartue. While determining the grow of the sentimental movement we should take
into account the bourgeois concept respectability and a stiff calculating commercialism. It is to
be noted that a counter movement began at the same time. It is crystal clear in Richardsons
Pamela and Henry Fieldings Tom Jones. Sentimentalism which encroached upon the drama
and the fiction of the day expressed decadent morals. A weaker form of sentimentality implies
unmanly pity, lack of moral strength, and puritanical hypocrisy. Jean Jaqucs Rousseau is sen-
timental but his sentimentalism is saturated with humanitatiansm. Sentimentalism, which pen-
etrated the comedy of the period, banished murth and laughter from the stage. Etherege,
Wycherley, Farquhar, Congreve might be rather lax in their moral tone but they did catch the
genuine spirit of comedy. They not only provoked mirth and laughter but they also recognised
the social problems of the days.
It was hyporisy masquerading as sentimentalism. The sentimental movement may be
traced back to the early eighties of the seventeenth century. The political interest of the public
during the last phase of Charles II, the reign of James II and the Rebellion contributed to the
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dramatic literature as the people had become highly aware of religious, political and moral
forces interacting in society. The Puritan ascendancy and commercialism went side by side
and the net outcome was hypocriticd and calculating virtue. Henry Fielding with his unclouded
reason was the first writer to react against it.
16.2.4 The Sentimental Comedy and Goldsmiths Reaction

Against it
The recurring theme of the sentimental comedy is that their licentious characters get
reformed in course of time. Sir Richard Steele started the vogue of the Sentimental comedy.
He threw all his weight on the side of morality as he believed in domestic happiness, in faithful
love and in the goodness of the human heart. His play The Tender Husband emphasizes
honorable love as the very basis of domestic happiness. The Sentimental comedy as a brand
of drama was saturated with emotional sense and sentimental platitudes: it was divorced from
realism. It was centred primarily on the middle class of society. It depicted the world of fops
and dandies and fashionable ladies and exposed all follies and vices of society. Sentimental
comedy was, thus, a degenerated mode of drama. In it, we had tears in place of laughter,
melodramatic situations instead of intrigue, heart-breaking heroines and passionate lovers,
and honest servants instead of rogues, gallants and witty damsels. The role purpose of the
sentimental comedy, it seemed, was to make men and women charitablg honourable. Sheridan
and Oliver Goldsmith were the pioneers of anti-sentimental movement and reached sharply
against the sentimental comedy. As early as 1759, Goldsmith condemned it in The Present
State of Polite Learning She Stoops to Conquer(1773) stormed the sentimental comedy
more successfully than The Good Natured Man(1768) did Sheridans play The School for
Scandal is it equally brilliantly. Oliver Goldsmith rightly conceived amusement to be the pri-
mary objective of comedy. Sheridan comments the humour- guaint and sly gay invention and
satire should be the proper stuff comedy. The Sentimental comedy which substituted emo-
tional tension and tears for mirth and laughter, and trotted forth mawkish sentiments was called
into being by bourgeois pseuso-morality, humbug, and horror of vulgarity. It was called gen-
teel comedy as it rejected the absurdities of the vulgar, the follies and vices as low. Goldsmith
reacted against this mode of spurious comedy in which the virtues of private life are exhibited
rather than vices exposed, and the distresses rather than faults of mankind make our interest.
In these plays the characters were good and exceedingly generous and extravagant.
If they happened to have faults of foibles, they were applauded. Thus follies instead of
being ridiculed, were commended. Goldsmith reacted against this genteel comedy. He pro-
posed to restore humour and nature to comedy. He regarded humour and comic situations as
the very sine que non of comedy. Lachrymose and Maudlin sentimentality was no substitute
for humour and character. She Stoops to Conquer by Goldsmith revived the spirit of
Shakespeares Twelfth Night with Sheridans play The School for Scandal the English drama
reached the culmination of anti-sentimental movement.
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16.3 A Pointwise Summary of the Contents of this unit
1. Oliver Goldsmith was an eighteenth century writer. He had a versatile literary genius.
2. He was an Irish by birth. He started from scratch, as he had very humble origins.
3. He worked as a booksellers hack as a young man.
4. He contributed his articles to the newspapers and journals.
5. He tried his hand at writing poems, plays, fiction, essays etc.
6. He came in close contact with Dr. Johnson and his circle of scholars.
7. Goldsmith had an extraordinary sense of humour.
8. He was a man of sweet disposition and remained in debt in spite of lucrative income.
He hosted suppers to his friends and spent rather extravagantly.
9. He was called Nolly or Goldy among his chums.
10. Dr. Johnson admired his literary genius and sense of humour.
11. Goldsmith was not patronised by any prince or nobleman.
12. The eighteenth century was a period of developing trade and commerce. It was also a
period of political and religious upheavals.
13. The Sentimental comedy, which excluded mirth and laughter, depended largely on
lachrymose and maudlin emotion. It did not depict geniune humanity and nature. The
French influence was rather morbid on the English drama.
14. Goldsmith and Sheridan reacted sharply against the Sentimental Comedy.
15. Goldsmith revived the spirit of Elizabethan/Shakespearean comedy with humour and
depicted genuine human reality.
16. His play She Stoops to Conquer was a brilliant success.
17. Goldsmith had wonderful potentialies as a novelist. His novel The Vicar of Wakefield
speaks volumes of his mind.
16.4 Glossary
Penury: Abject poverty. For example, Goldsmith lived in penury in his early days.
Lsd: Pound shilling and penny. (Please note that LSD is a drug)
genteel:Polite in an exaggerated manner.
hack:A hack was the helper who performed odd jobs in offices. Goldsmith was himself a
booksellers hack.
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lachrymosity:A tendency or instinct to be moved to tears. For example, women become
lachrymose in emotional moments.
disposition: nature or temperament. For example, Goldsmith was a man of kindly disposition.
Guinea: a glod coin.
sentimental:emotional.
licentious: sexually immoral.
Curate:An assistant to a Vicar.
Vicar: A church priest.
Protestantism: A Chritian sect which came into existence in protest of the corrupt oractices
of Roman Catholic church in the sixteenth century.
Guillotin: A French device of execution: The person to be executed was made to stand on a
platform and a sharp blade operated with a liver and chopped off his head like a fruit.

1. Who was the booksellers hack ? What was his work ?
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2. Tell us the titles of at least two plays by Goldsmith.
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3. Why was Goldsmith in debt ?
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4. Name a few renowned friends of Goldsmith in London.
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5. Who was called Noll or Nolly or Goldy
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6. Who wrote the famous biography of Dr. Samuel Johnson ?
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7. Who was Dr. Samuel Johnson ?
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8. Refer to a few socio-political events of the eighteenth century in England.
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9. What is Goldsmiths grievance in The Deserted Village ?
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10. What do you mean by genteel comedy ?
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11. Why is Sheridan associated with Goldsmith ?
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262
12. Was his acquaintance and a great admirer of his genius.
16.6 Answers SAQs

1. Oliver Goldsmith.
2. The Good Naturd Man and She stoops to conquer.
3. He was a man of sweet disposition and remained in debt in spite of lucrative income.
He hosted suppers to his friends and spent rather extravagantly.
4. Bishop Percy, Garrick, Smollett, Sir Joshua Reynolds and Dr. Samuel Johnson.
5. Oliver Goldsmith.
6. James Boswell.
7.
8.
9. Growth of social consciousness along with literary proliferation well establishment of
Bank and trade propered.
10. The Deserted Village mourning the lost happy peasantry of his youthful days: Under
the enclosure system, the private estates replaced the old communally formed open
fields and a large number of the laborious were dispossessed.
11. The Sentimental comedy which substituted emotional tension and tears for mirth and
laughter, and trotted forth mawkish sentiments was called into being by bourgeois
pseuso-morality, humbug, and horror of vulgarity. It was called genteel comedy as it
rejected the absurdities of the vulgar, the follies and vices as low
12. She Stoops to Conquer by Goldsmith revived the spirit of Shakespeares Twelfth
Night with Sheridans play The School for Scandal the English drama reached the
culmination of anti-sentimental movement.
16.7 Let Us Sum Up

Goldsmith recorded his ideals against the Sentimental comedy in his Essay on the
Theatre: or A Comparison Between Laughing and Sentimental Comedy 1772. He at-
tacked the Sentimental comedy in his preface to The Good Naturd Man and placed his
cards plainly upon the table.
He was a versatile genius: He tried his hand poetry. He wrote The Deserted Village
and The Traveller. He wrote a novel The Vicar of Wakefield and a number of essays; and
plays- The Good Nautrd Man and She Stoops to Conquer. He would have achieved
greater success if he had devoted himself entirely to drama. However his achievement as
263
writer of comedies is remarkable. In the play She Stoops to Conquer he recreates the atmo-
sphere of Farquhars Beaux Strategem and revitalises a breath of genuine humanity to drama
stifled with excesive emotions.

1. Describe the life of Oliver Goldsmith as a Booksellers hack.
2. Write a note on Goldsmiths friendship with Dr.Samuel Johnson..
3. What were the personal qualities of Goldsmith ?
4. Comment upon the socio-political conditions in the eighteenth century England
5. Write an essay on the eighteenth century Drama with reference to comedy.
6. Why did Goldsmith react to the Sentimental Comedy.
7. Make an assessment of Goldsmith as a writer.
16.9 Bibliography
1. Goldsmith,Oliver: The Deserted Village.
2. Goldsmith,Oliver:The Vicar of Wakefield.
3. Goldsmith,Oliver:She Stoops to Conquer.
4. Goldsmith,Oliver:The Good Naturd Man.
5. Addison;Joseph: Coverly Papers
6. Boswell, James: The Life of Dr.Johnson.
7. Dryden, John: Absalom and Achitophel.
8. Feilding, Henry: Tom Jones.
9. Johnson,Dr.Samuel: Lives of The Poets.
10. Pope,Alexander: The Rape of the Lock.
11. Pope,Alexander: The Dunciad.
12. Pope,Alexander: The Iliad(Trans.)
13. Pope,Alexander: The Odyssey(Trans.)
14. Hudson: A History of English Literature.
15. Trevelyan: A Social History of England.
16. Balderston: The Collected Letters of Oliver Goldsmith.
264
17. Robert Burns:Poems.
18. Boswell,James:The Life of Samuel Johnson.
19. Chaucer,Geoffrey:The Prologue to Canterbury Tales.
20. Galsworthys shortstory : Quality.
21. Goldsmith,Oliver : The Deserted Village.The Fourteen Press:Toronto.1965)
22. Goldsmith,Oliver : The Deserted Village (London.W.Griffin.1770)
23. Goldsmith,Oliver :Animated Nature (1774)
24. Grays Thomas: Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard.
25. Hodek,B.The Complete Works of Works of Shakespeare.
26. Johnson,Dr.S.: Vanity of Human Wishes.
_________________
265
UNIT-17
OLIVER GOLDSMITH: THE DESERTED VILLAGE
Structure
17.0 Objectives
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Substance of The Deserted Village
17.2.1 The Scenery of Auburn Prior to Modernization
17.2.2 The Pen-Portrait of The Village
17.2.3 The Portrayal of the Village Master
17.3 The Tyrants Hand
17.4 References and Explanatory Annotations
17.7 Let Us Sum Up
17.9 Bibliography
17.0 Objectives
The study of Goldsmiths The Deserted Village has its extraordinary significance with
reference to the current phase of burgeoning and urbanizing villages and small lawns in India,
though it is written in the specific context of the latter half of the eighteen century in England.
In common parlance, India is a developing country. It simply means that rural scenario is
being replaced by urban scenario. Deforestation,mining,exhausting natureal resources,conversion
of agricultural land into residential blocks,etc. mark the pace of burgeoning development. A
hamlet is becoming an overgrown village, and village, in turn, is becoming an ugly town with
industrialization. There is water pollution due to chemical waste; sound pollution due to honking
horns; and air pollution due to smoking factory chemicals and vehicles running upon the roads.
There is a hiatus between the affluent class and the paupers- The Haves and Have-nots. The
economic disparity and inequality cannot be bridged by the welfare state policies and the acts
of Parliament.
The very purpose of the in-depth study The Deserted Village is to expose the indif-
ference of the capitalist class to the working classes. Where wealth accumulates, men decay
266
is the moral message of Goldsmith to be grasped by the modern man,.particularly the Indians.
The so called development is taking place at the cost of finer values, healthy environment and
natural sources and resources. Oliver Goldsmith advocates serene, calm, beautiful and happy
living environment as in rural areas where Nature is benign. The concrete jungles- the residen-
tial colonies built on the land meant for agricultural produce are destroying something infinitely
fine in human existence. Deforestation is very much like massacre and genocide as it amounts
to destroying the ecological environmental conditions of healthy and happy living. It is like
expelling Adam and Eve from Paradise once again. Goldsmith lamented as peasantry was
dispossessed of the land and the villages were depopulated. The hamlets stood desolate and
delapidated in the vogue of urbanization. The purpose of this study is to underline how Gold-
smith cautioned his contemporaries against the systematic destruction of the land and the
depopulation of the peasantry without thinking of their rehabilitation and healthy living. He
regarded the heartless capitalists- tyrants and usurpers and noted the rich mans joys in-
crease, the poors decay.
The theme of the The Deserted Village inevitably relevant to current Indian phase of
development which means the requisition of agricultural land by the affluent at throw away
prices. They erect the jungles of concrete for residential and commercial purposes. They are
quite indifferent to the small farmers and their existence. It is high time The Deserted Village
was prescribed in all the Indian Universities at the under-graduate or post graduate level to
impress upon the students that haphazard aggressive and inordinate destruction of the rural
area in the vogue of sophisticated modernization and urbanization was a bane rather than a
blessing. It meant starvation, penury and misery for the millions of native peasants who are
being dispossessed of their lands under the strategy of the heartless commercial and market
policies. Even felling a green tree is a greater crime than murdering an individual.
17.1 Introduction
In the famous poem, The Deserted Village, which was published in 1770, Oliver
Goldsmith revisits Auburn 1 a village of which he had fond memories. It marks the depopula-
tion brought about through the emigration of its peasant community and the influx of monopolising
capitalists. Goldsmith mourns over the unfortunate and morbid state of society in which wealth
accumulates and men decay. Using images of the land in the poem, he conveyed the sense of
what it was like to live in the country during the phase of burgeoning and modernization and
how it had systematically grabbed the land of the native inhabitants. Their industrious efforts to
maintain it had gone waste.
During the period when The Deserted Village was written, the labouring classes
were in a very unfortunate situation: Changes in land ownership had led to shortages in labour
and abject poverty had become the inevitable destiny of the working class. Small farmers
were forced out of their possessions in the countryside. The big landowners rolled in riches
and lived ostensibly in luxury. They caused bitter heart burning, moral indignation and povertyto
267
the working class. The poet and social reformers were not unaware of this stark reality and
thus a larger fraction of poetry made a choice of the suffering labouring class and the excessive
growth of luxuries and wealth of the bourgeois as its major themes. Therefore Oliver Goldsmiths
poem The Deserted Village is a critique of luxury, or alternatively an engagement with the
reality of miserable life of the labouring class. Oliver Goldsmith dedicated this poem to Sir
Joshua Reynolds 2 and conveyed to him his personal reasons for writing it about the depopu-
lation of the English countryside. He was sure that the poetic fraternity would disagree with his
depiction of the countryside as a God-forsaken place of misfortune, desolation and adversity:
He justified his motive in the following lines:
I know you all will object (and indeed several of our best and wisest friends concur
in the opinion) that the depopulation it deplores is no where to be seen, and the disorders it
laments are only to be found in the poets own imagination. To this I can scareely make any
other answer than that I sincerely believe what I have written; that I have taken all possible
pains, in my country excursions, for these four or five years past,to be certain of what I allege,
and that all my views and enquiries have led me to believe those miseries real, which I here
attempt to display. This asseration underlines Oliver Goldsmiths attachment and an unfailing
sense of belonging to the natives of the countryside. He believes that it is vital that their lives
were portrayed truthfully and lucidly, perhaps without the characteristic frills of pastoral po-
etry. However, in the same letter, he goes on to write, In regretting the depopulation of the
country, I inveigh against the increase of our luxuries....... For twenty or thirty years past, it has
been the fashion to consider luxury as one of the greatest national advantages.......... Still,
however, I.......... continue to think those luxuries- prejudicial to states- by which so many
vices are introduced and so many kingdoms have been undone. This second and the more
strongly worded argument indicates that Oliver Goldsmith was morally indignant by the sinis-
ter spell of the luxury in England. Surprisingly enough James Boswell- the biographer of Dr.
Johnson- records in his Life of Samuel Johnson that it was Dr. Johnson himself who wrote
the last four lines of The Deserted Village. Dr. Johnson........ favoured me by marking the
lines which he furnished to Oliver Goldsmiths Deserted Village, which are only the last four.
These lines are the following:
That Trades proud empire hastes to swift decay
As ocean sweeps the labourd mole away,.
While self-development power can time defy
As rocks resist the billows and the sky. 3
(ll. 427-430)
Goldsmith had his grand-nephew who also had his Christian name Oliver. He wrote
a poem by way of response to his grand-uncle- Oliver Goldsmith. The title of his poem reads
The Rising Village in which younger Oliver elaborates the rise of communities in Acadia
268
(the area covers Nova Scotia and New Bronswick in Canada 4now) His response is sugges-
tive of newer opportunities in the world. The Rising Village was published in 1825.
17.2 The Substance of The Deserted Village
17.2.1 The Scenerio of Auburn Prior to Modernization

The poet feels rather nostalgic as he falls into reminiscences of early years. He had
preoccupied himself with boyish sports in those days and loitered in the verderous and charming
countryside. He had noticed the shelterd cot, the cultivated farm, and the hawthorn
bushHe relished being under the shadowy sprawling trees and idled away his time. There was
a church on the top of the neighbouring hill overlooking the village. The countryside was a
familiar resort for old and young alike. It was a veritable arcadia for young lovers clandes-
tine rendezvous.
The hawthorn bush, with seats beneath the shade,
For talking age and whispering lovers made !
..........
And all the village train, from labour free
Led up their sports beneath the spreading tree!
.........
And still, as each repeated pleasure tired
Suceeding sports the mirthful band inspired
.........
The swain mistrustless* of his smutted face,
While secret laughter litterd round the place,
The bashful virgins side-long looks of love,
The matrons glance that would looks reprove.5
5
These were thy charms, sweet village/ sports like these.
ll (13-31)
Goldsmith recreats the atmosphere of the Forest of Arden in Shakespearea As You
Like It. The poet seems to record the bucolic paradisal scenario of the charming countryside
before the process of urbanization/ modernization would destroy it. But the charms as de-
picted (in the lines quoted above) fled away:
269
These were the charms- but all these charms are fled.
Sweet smiling village, loveliest of the lawn,
Thy sports are fled, and thy charms wuithdrawn; 6
But the charms of the rural scenario were evenescent. The tyrants hand ransacks
everything-
Amidst thy bowers the tyrants hand* is seen,
And Desolation saddens the green:
One only master grasps the whole domain,
And half a tillage stints thy smiling plain. 7
L 8(37-40)
A change for the worse takes place. Small peasants are the losers of their farms as one
big landlord usurps them all. The tyrants hand is The spoilers hand
Sunk are thy bowers in shapeless ruin all
And the long grass oertops the mouldering wall
And trembling, shrinking from the spoilers hand
Far, far away thy children leave the land 8
( ll 47-50)
The veritable paradise that countryside was, was ruined. The sweet village became
desolate as the natives left it for good.Depopulation of peasants,thus led to the desolation of
the village. It surely doesnt augur well:
Ill fares the land, to hasting ills a prey,
Where wealth accumulates, and men decay.
9
Princes and Lords may flourish, or may fade;
A breath can make them,as a breath has made:
But a bold peasantry, their countrys pride,
When once destroyed, can never be supplied.10
Goldsmith believes that tampering with tillage and peasantry will incur permanent na-
tional loss. Peasanty, therefore, should not be destroyed or displaced at any cost. The poet
regets that capitalists/ haves who have come into money by trade, buy the land for purpose of
pleasure and display by dispossession peasantry.
270
But times are altered; trades unfeeling train
Usurp the land, and dispossess the swain;
Along the lawn, where scatterd hamlets rose,
unweildy wealth and cumbrous pomp repose;11
The bucolic scenario has undergone a drastic change! The rural spectacle has turned
rurarban and would be urban very soon. The peasants before the process burgeoning be-
gan, were very complacent and innocent people. They were ignorant of mercinary motives.
They lived apparently calm and quiet lives like the village as described in Grays Elegy Writ-
ten in a Country Churchyard:
Far from the madding crowds ignoble strife
Their sober wishes never learnd to stray;
Along the cool sequesterd vale of life
They kept the noiseless tenor of their way. 12
Goldsmith describes the peasants of Auburn-
A time there was,..........................
When every rood of ground maintaind its man,
For him light Labour spread her wholesome store,
Just gave what life required, but gave no more;
And his best riches, ignorance of wealth. 13
The villagers of Auburn and those of the countryside as described in Grays Elegy are
more or less the same. It is not unusual that Gray and Goldsmith as brilliant contemporaries
strike similar notes. The English peasantry,apparently , with its calm desiresand peaceful
life-style was not demanding by nature. It was self-satisfied by rural mirth and manners. But
the change has destroyed all that was happy, innocent and healthy.
These, far departing, seek a kinder shore,
and rural mirth and manners are no more,
Sweet Auburn ! parent of the blissful hour
Thy glades forlorn confess the tyrants power, .................14
When the poet revisited the village, he remembered the place where Once the col-
lage stood, the hawthorn grew- and his nostalgic memories turned the past to pain.
The earlier rural perspectives of greenery, cottages, hawthorn bushes, humble bow-
271
ers, were inpiring enough to husband out lifes taper and keep the flame from wasting, by
repose. 15 The poet felt like a hare whom hounds and horns pursued. The very environ-
ment seem rather hostile and the poet as visitor experienced a sense of resignation.
Sweet sounds at evenings close, the village murmur, The swain reponsive as the
milk-maid sung, the noisy geese that gobbled oer the pool, the playful children just let
loose from school; the watch-dogs voice that bayd the whispering wind............... all this
sweet confusion has disappeared for ever and for ever. What remains is desolation and
ruined hamlet.
But now the sounds of population fail.
No cheerful murmurs fluctuate in the gale,
No busy steps the grass-grown footway tread
But all the bloomy flush of life is fled-
All but yon widowd, solitary thing,
That feebly bends beside the plashy spring,
She, wretched matron,- forced, in age, for bread,
To strip the brook with mantling cresses spread,
To pick her wintry faggot from the thorn,
To seek her nightly shed, weep till morn,-
She only left of all the harmless train,
The sad historian of the pensive plain. 16
ll. 125-136
It is a pathetic scene of desolation, ruin and depopulation. It is no exaggeration to state
that it is in such lines that Goldsmiths pen acquires the quality of the brush. The poet becomes
the painter of human suffering caused by penury. Picturesqueness is an invevitable character-
istic of Goldsmiths poetry. It has been amply illustrated in The Deserted Village.
17.2.2 The Pen-Portrait of The Village

The poet introduces the village preacher. Geoffrey Chaucer introduced the Parson in
his Prologue to the Canterbury Tales. He follows Chaucers method of character portrai-
ture in the following lines:
Near Yonder copse, where once the garden smiled,
And still where many garden-flower grows wild,
272
There, where a few torn shrubs the place disclose,
The village preachers modest mansion rose
A man he was to all the country dear,
And passing rich with forty pounds a year.
Remote from towns he ran his goldy race,
Nor eer had changed, nor wished to change, his place;
Unskilful he to fawn, or seek for power
By doctrines fashiond to the varying hour,
For other aims his heart had learnd to Prize.
More bent to raise the wretched than to rise,
His house was known to all the vagrant train;
He chid their wanderings, but relieved their pain;
The long-rememberd beggar was his guest,
Whose beard descending swept his aged breast;
The ruind spendthrift, now no longer proud
Claimed kindred there, and had his claims allowd. 17
ll. (137-154)
This passage is reminiscent of Chaucers pen-portrait of the Parson in The Prologue
to the Canterbury Tales. Let me quote the relevant lines of Parsons description from
Chaucers Prologue.
A good man was ther of religioun,
And was poure Persoun of a toun;
But riche he was of hooly thoght and werk;
He was also a learned man, a clerk,
That Cristes gopel trewely wolde preche;
His parishens devoutly wolde he teche;
Benygne he was, and wonder dilight.
And in adversitee ful pacient;
................
273
He coude in litel thyng have suffiaunce:
...............
This noble ensample to his sheepe he yaf.
That firste he wroghte and afterward he taughte,
Out of the gospel he tho wordes caughte.
And this figure he added eek therto,
That if gold ruste what shal iren doo ?
..............
But dwelte at hoom and kepte wel his folde
So that the wolf ne made it not myscarie,
He was a shepherde, and nought a mercenarie,
And though he hooly were and virteous.
.............
But in his techyng discreet and benygne.
.............
A bettre preest I trowe that nowher noon ys:
He waited after no pomp and reverence,
Ne maked him a spiced conscience,
But Cristes loore, and his Apostles twelve,
He taughte, but first he folwed it hym-selve. 18
ll. (478-529)
The village preacher in The Deserted Village is portrayed in the manner of Chaucers
art of characterization and personal portraiture. It is really very surprising how perfectly Gold-
smith imitates Chaucer. The village preacher not only had the milk of human kindness19 but
he was the very cow. He shared the qualities of Chaucers Parson:
The broken soldier 20, kindly bid to stay,
Sat by his fire, and talkd the nightaway;
Wept oer his wounds, or, tales of sorrow done,
Shoulderd his crutch, and showd how fields were won.
274
Pleased with his guests, the good man learnd to glow,
And quite forgot their vices in their woe;
Careless their merits or their faults to scan,
His pity gave are charity began,
Thus to relieve the wretched was his pride,
And even his failings leand to virtues side;
But is his duty prompt at every call,
.........as a bird each fond endearment tries
To tempt its new-fledged offspring to the skies,...........21
ll.(155-168)
The village preacher of The Deserted Village is a true Christian. He has compassion,
mercy, the sentiment of self-less service. His heart goes out for the wretched, invalid and
unfortunate people. What Jesus Christ was to lepers, the village preacher was to the suffering
natives of the place. He went out the way to console and comfort them and enlightened them
as a paragon of virtues- his personality was ideally compatible with his religious and spiritual
preoccupations. The welfare of the suffering wretches pleased him beyond measure. The
poet, in his minds eye, saw an aura of divinity about the preacher though he was nearly always
surrounded by suffering and unfortunate villagers.
But all his serious thoughts had rest in heaven.
As some tall cliff that lifts its awful form.
Though round its breast the rolling clouds are spread,
The elernal sundhine settles on its head. 22
ll 182-192
17.2.3 The Portrayal of the Village Master

The portrayal of the village master follows immediately after that of the village preacher.
This teacher looked apparently very strict. Every truant knew his tough exterior and could
trace the days disasters in his morning face. Even if the students did not understand his jokes,
they giggled with artificial joy. At times he frowned but he was kind at heart.
A man severe he was, and stern to view;
I knew him well, and every truant knew:
Well had the boding tremblers learnd to trace
275
The days disasters in his morning face;
Full well they laughd with counterfieted glee,
At all his jokes, for many a joke had he;
Full well the busy whisper, circling round,
Conveyed the dismal tidings when he frownd.
Yet he was kind,...............23
ll. (196-205)
The natives of the village wondered at his seemingly encyclopaedic knowledge and
skill. He could make predictions about terms and tides, 24 he could measure lands, he could
even gauge 25 and he could argue very well. The rustics were amazed with his thundering
elocution and learned words. They wondered how his small head had such a vast fund of
knowledge:
.......For even though vanquishd he counld argue still,
While words of learned length and thundering sound
Amazed the gazing rustics ranged around;
And still they gazed, and still the wonder grew,
That one small head could carry all he knew.26
ll.212-216
The poet further describes that past is all fame The very spot where he triumphed
is forgotten. The poet describes nostalgically how the place gives a desolate and deserted
look. The parlour splendors of the festive place are gone for good. Goldsmith with his
camera-eye narrates the transitory splendors of Auburn:
Near yonder thorn, that lifts its head on high.
Where once the sign-post caught the passing eye.
Now lies that house where nut-brown draughts inspired,
Where gray-beard mirth and smiling toil retired,
Where village statesmen talked with looks profound,
And news much older than their ale went around.
.................
The white washd wall, the nicely sanded floor,
276
The varnishd clock that clickd behind the door,
The chest,.............
A bed by night, a chest of drawers by day,
The pictures placed for ornament and use,
The twelve good rules,27 royal game of goose,28
The hearth, except when winter chilld the day,
With aspens boughs, and flowers, and fennels gay;29
ll. (219-234)
The poet regards that the tottering mansion of the master might crumble down to
debris any time. This was the place when the villagers flocked to ease their tensions and
dissentions of their hundrum existence. They felt relieved of their daily care. This was the
place where the farmers news, the barbers tale, the woodmans ballad refreshed them.
The coy maid passed on to them a cup of foaming ale. This rural environment was very
congenial, salutary, charming, artless, and spontaneous. There was no affectation or undue
sophistication. There was mirthful and frolicsome life style- unenvied, unmolested, and uncon-
fined.
17.3 The Tyrants Hand

..........Could not all
Reprieve the tottering mansion from its fall ?
Obscure it sinks,.........
Thither no more the peasant shall repair,
To sweet oblivion of his daily care,
No more the farmers news, the barbers tale,
No more the woodmans balled shall prevail;
No more the smith his dusky brow shall clear,
Relax his ponderous strength, and lean to hear,
The host himself no longer shall,be found,
Careful to see the mantling bliss30 go round:
Nor the coy maid,...........,
Shall kiss the cup to pass it to the rest,
277
........let the rich deride, the proud disdain,
These simple blessings of the lowly train;
To me more dear, congenial to my heart,
One native charm, than all the glass of art.
Spontaneous joys, and owns their first born sway.
Lightly they frolic over.......
Unenvied, unmolested, unconfined. 31
The poet writes feelingly that the so called development or sophistication or burgeon-
ing or urbanization or modernization does no good. The toilintg pleasure has sickened into
pain: The rich mans joys increase, the poors decay. A splended and happy land has
been usurped by wanton wealth: capitalists and industrialist have begun to flock from all over
the world. The affluent one usurps the space for lake to extend his lawn, for his stabble,
equipage and his pack of hounds-
But the long pomp, the midnight masquerade
With all the freaks of wanton wealth arrayed.
And even while Fashions brighest arts decoy.
The heart distrusting asks, if this be joy ?
Ye friends to truth, Ye statesmen, who survey
The richmans joys increase, the poors decay.
...............
Proud swells the tide with loads of freighted ore,
And shouting Folly hails them from her shore:
Hoards,...........,abound
And richman flock form all the world around.
................The man of wealth and pride
Takes up a space that many poor supplied:
Space for lake, his parks extended bounds,
Space for horses, equipage, and hounds:
.............
278
Indignant spurns the cottage from the green:
Around the world eavh neeful product flies.32
ll.259-283
The poets grievance is that mounting import and export has changed the rural scnario.
In the vogue of industrialization and commercialization, the wealthy are taking possession of
the sprawling land and in its barren state, it like a maiden fleeced of all her charm, and from the
smiling land, the mournful peasant leads his humble band: The very garden has been reduced
to a vertitable graveyard.
............For all the luxuries the world supplies:
While thus the land, adornd for pleasure all,
In barren splendour feebly waits the fall.
As some fair female, unadorned and plain.
Secure to please while youth confirms her reign.
Slights every borrowed charm that dress suplies,
Nor shares the with art the triumph of eyes:
............In all the glaring impotence of dress
Thus fares the land by luxury betrayd
In natures simplest charm at first arrayd
..............
While, scourged by famine, from the smiling land
The mournful peasant leads the humble band:33
ll.286-296
Common land was undivided and unenclosed (fenceless) land upon which all the mem-
bers of a community had certain well-defined rights, as of cultivation, pasture, cutting-wood
etc. By Enclosure Acts (which were numerous after 1760 ),this land was often converted into
private property. The small farmers were getting dispossessed of their agricultural fields. Luxury
was pampered and mankind (peasantry) was thinned. The pleasures of the rich were ex-
torted from poor peasants grievance. The aristocrats, courtiers are dressed in rich imported
brocade while the artisans such as tailors are on the verge of starvation. The affluent ones
display their wealth with great pomp and show in mid night masquerades with glaring torches,
rattling chariots, gorgeous costumes. On the other hand, poor houseless women shivering with
cold or shrinking from the shower deplore the luckless hour
279
Where, then,Ah! where shall poverty reside,
Toscape the pressure of contiguous pride.
If to some common fenceless limits 34strayd,
He drives his flock to pick the scanty blade,
Those fenceless fields the sons of wealth divide,
And even the bare-worn common is denied.
..........ten thousand baneful arts combined
To pamper luxury and thin mankind:
To see each joy the sons of pleasure know
Extorted from his fellow-creatures woe:
Here while the courtier glitters in brocade,
There the pale artist plies the sickly trade;
Here while the proud their long-drawn pomp display,
There the black gibbet36 glooms beside the way:
The dome 37 where pleasure holds her midnight reign,
Here, richly decked, admits the gorgeous train:
Tumultous grandeur crowds the blazing square,
The rattling chariots 38 clash, the torches glare
.............Ah, turn thine eyes
Where the poor houseless shivering female lies:
She once,..........,in village plenty blessd.
............
Near her betrayers door she lays her head,
And pinched with cold, and, shinking from the shower,
With heavy heart deplores the luckless hour.40
ll.(304-334)
The small peasants of sweet Auburn are reduced to unendurable penury-suffering
from hunger and shivering with cold-are constrained to go abegging. Things produced in fac-
tories are exported to various European countries by Cargo ships. The age of trade and
280
commerce is in full swing.
Een now,.......,by cold and hunger led,
At proud mens doors they ask a little bread!
Ah,no. To distant climes, a dreary scene,
Where half the convex world intrudes between,
Through torrid with fainting steps they go.
Where wild Altama 41 murmurs to their woe.
The various terrors of the horrid shore,...........
Where crouching tigers 42 wait their hapless prey. 43
ll339-355
17.4 References and Explanatory Annotations

1. Auburn-It is a figment of Goldsmiths imagination only. The Deserted Village. Has
idealized reminiscences of Lissoy- the Irish village where Goldsmith spent a few years
of his boyhood. The perspective of the poem is undoubtedly more English than Irish.
2. Sir Joshua Reynolds was a distinguished member of Dr. Samuel Johnsons literary
circle. Garrick, Burke, Goldsmith, and many other scholars from various walks of life
assembled from time to time and discussed literary, socio-political, theological and
historical topics with great enthusiasm.
3. Oliver Goldsmith; The Deserted Village. (The Fountain Press Chicago.1965)
ll 427-430
4. See Canadian Poetry:From The Beginnings Through The First World War.
5. Oliver Goldsmith; The Deserted Village. (The Fountain Press C hi c a g o . 1 9 6 5 )
ll13-31
*Also, mistrustless (l-27) means unconscious here
6. Ibid,ll.34-36
7. Ibid, ll.37-40
*The tyrants hand (l.37) refers to the capitalist who requisitioned the agricultural
land at throw away prices.
8. Ibid, ll. 47-50
9. Ibid, ll. 53-54 Burns wrote in A Cotters Saturday Night: Princes and lords are but
281
the breath of kings l.165
10. Ibid, ll. 51-56
11. Ibid,ll. 63-66
12 Thomas Gray:The Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard. (stanza 19, ll. 73-76
13. Oliver Goldsmith; The Deserted Village. (The Fountain Press Chicago.1965) l l
.57-62
14. Ibid, ll. 73-76
15. Ibid, ll. 87-88
16. Ibid, ll. 125-136
17. Ibid, ll. 137-154. Oliver Goldsmith dedicated The Traveller to his brother Henry- a
clergyman. He was a man who, despising fame and fortune, had retired to happiness
and obscurity with an income of 40 a year. The preacher in The Deserted Village is
however,a s composite portrait of Oliver Goldsmiths father, his brother Henry and
others.
18. Geoffrey Chaucer:A Prologue to The Canterbury Tales. ll .478-529
19. This phrase occurs in Shakespeares Macbeth (Act I,Sc.V. l.15)
20. The broken soldier is a demobilized veteran of the Seven Years War.
21. Oliver Goldsmith; The Deserted Village. (The Fountain Press C hi c a g o . 1 9 6 5 )
ll.155-168
22. Ibid, ll.188-192
23. Ibid, ll. 196-205
24. The phrase Terms and tides means times. Term is the word in connection with
law courts and universities (as in Michaelmas term): and tide is used for church
festivals (as in Easter tide:)
25. Gauge means to measure the capicity of a barrel
26. Oliver Goldsmith; The Deserted Village. (The Fountain Press Chicago.1965) ll.
212-216
27. The Twelve Good Rules of conduct ascribed to King Charles I, were printed on a
broadside with a rude woodcut of the kings execution. The rules are the following:
1. Urge no healths.
2. Profane no divine ordinances.
282
3. Touch no state matters.
4. Reveal no secrets.
5. Pick no quarrels.
6. Make no comparisons.
7. Maintain no ill opinions.
8. Keep no bad company.
9. Encourage no vice.
10. Make no long meals.
11. Repeat no grievances.
12. Lay no wagers.
Queen Victoria kept a copy of these ruls in the servants hall, Windsor Castle.
28. Royal Game of Goose means a game of Parchcesi (pronounced-pasheezee) or
Ludo which is played by two persons with dice on a board divided into com-
partments on some of which a goose was painted. Royal is a complimentary
epithet often prefixed to the name of certain games, without any apparent significance.
29. Oliver Goldsmith; The Deserted Village. (The Fountain Press Chicago.1965)
ll.219-234
30. Ibid (l-248) The mantling bliss means a cup of foaming ale.
31. Ibid ll.237-256
32. Ibid ll. 259-283. The natural beauty of the countryside which has been forcibly
fleeced and pulled out. Metaphorically, it is Dropadis Cheerharan by Dushasan as
in The Mahabharata (by Vyas)
33. Ibid, ll.286-296
34. Ibid, ll. 305 Common land was the undivided and unenclosed land upon which all the
members of a community had certain rights, as of cultivation, pasture-wood cutting,
etc. This land was often converted into private property as per Enclosure Acts which
were numerous in the 1970s.
35. Ibid, l.316. In the vogue of industrialazation and factory production and im p o r t e d
goods, the indigenous artisans- such as weavers, tailors,shoe-makers, etc. suffered.
It became practically difficult for them to subsist. It would be quite relevant to make a
pointed reference to John Goldsmiths short story Quality. The story traces the
decline of a shoemakers occupation. In a commercial environment of booming indus-
283
try, mechanized production and shrewd market strategies, the craftman finds his sur-
vival threatened. The forces out to abolish his work are too overwhelning to resist.
In the story, Gessler is ruined. Galsworthy gives us a dignified and tender portrayal
of an artisan and his downfall. The story, like Goldsmiths Deserted Village, raises
larger issues. It refers to the decadence and decline of human manual skill and worth,
and a way of life which has succumbed to the irrestible forces of burgeoning and
urbanization along with the dictates of the capitalist class.
36. Ibid, l.318.Black gibbit means gallows. In Goldsmiths time, the crimes (such as
horse-stealing, forgery, shop- lifting, etc.)were numerous, and gallows were erected
in every important quarter of the city.
37. Ibid,L. 319. The word dome refers to such popular places of entertainment and
amusement as Ranelagh and Vauxhall.
38. Ibid,L322. Chariots are carriages/coaches.
39. Ibid,L322.In those days of darkstreets, the fashionable midnight masquerades went
about accompanied by link-boys bearing torches.
40. Ibid,L(304-334)
41. Ibid,L 344. Altama refers to the Altamaha river in Georia.
42. Ibid,L355. Talking about tigers is an example of poetic licence since there are no
tigers in the locale named in the poem. Goldsmith, however, has noted in his Animated
Nature [1774(iii0244] There is an animal of America which is usually called the Red
Tiger, but Mr Buffon calls it the cougar, which, no doubt, is very different from the tiger
of the east. Some, however, have thought proper to rank both together, and I will
take leave to follow their example.
43. Ibid, ll.339-355
44. Ibid, l.418.Tornos cliffs are near Como on the shore of Lake Como in Italy.
45. Ibid, l.418. Pambamarca is moutain Quito, Ecuador.
46. Ibid, ll.421-426

1. What does Goldsmith records in the Deserted Village?
.............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
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284
2. What is a locate in poem called.
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3. To whom is the poem dedicated.
.............................................................................................................................
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.............................................................................................................................
4. Who was Sir Joshua Reynold ?
.............................................................................................................................
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5. What does Goldsmith regrets ?
.............................................................................................................................
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6. Who wrote the last four lines of The Deserted Village ?
.............................................................................................................................
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7. Why is countryside depicted as Paradise ?
.............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
8. What are capitalists visualised as ?
.............................................................................................................................
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285
9. Which characters are realistically drawn and can be compared to whom ?
.............................................................................................................................
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10. Explain how the poet was in his true self ?
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11. What does the poet disapproves ?
.............................................................................................................................
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12. What is the usefulness of Goldsmiths Deserted Village in present India ?
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13. Who appreciated Oliver Goldsmith as a genius ?
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1. The Deserted Village records Oliver Goldsmiths deep grievance against aggressive
burgeoning and undesirable urbanization. He regards how the capitalists have requisi-
tioned and usurped the land of small peasants.
2. The locale is a village called Auburn.
3. The poet was dedicated the poem to Sir Joshua Reynolds,
4. Sir Joshua Reynolds was a distinguished member of Dr. Samuel Johnsons circle of
learned friends and associates.
286
5. Goldsmith regrets the phase of depopulation of the peasants and dispossession of
their lands. It caused object misery and poverty.
6. The last four lines of The Deserted Village were written by Dr. Samuel Johnson.
There is Boswells evidences availble about it.
7. The countryside as depicted by the poet is very much like Paradise as it was a tranquil
happy, beautiful, unpolluted place before modernization took place.
8. The capitalists are visualised as tyrants ransacking the charming countryside for
commercial gain.
9. The character sketches of the village preacher and the village master are realistically
workedout. The method, as resorted to by Goldsmith, reminds us of Chaucers style
of characterization in The Prologue to Canterbury Tales.
10. The feelings of the poet are genuine. His heart goes out for the peasantry of the
countryside.
11. The poet disapproves of luxury and pomp and show of the capitalist class.
12. Thematically, The Deserted Village has releavance in the present phaseof develop-
ment in India. In the private sector, the capitalists are requisitioning rather usurping the
agricultural lands of small peasants to build industrial or residental complexes in the
rural pockets.
13. Dr. Samuel Johnson appreciated Oliver Goldsmith as a genius.
17.7 Let Us Sum Up

Goldsmith winds up The Deserted Village with sadness. He feels a sense of loss. He
calls his period these degenerate times of shame. Goldsmith says that half the business of
destruction has been done and rural virtues have left the land. According to him sweet
poetry is first to fly where sensual joys invade. He makes an impassioned appeal to Poetry-
the loveliest maid and the nurse of every virtue to redress the miseries and adversities of the
inclement times. The poet has a sneaking notion that Poetry- source of all his bliss- might
depart and climb upon Tornos cliffs 44 or Pambramarcas 45 side,where equinoctial fervours
glow or winter wraps the polar world in snow. The poets idea is that where commercialization
or mercinary greed gains momentum, the nobler and finer arts dwindle, decline and perish
away. The poet hoping against hope invokes the Spirit of Poetry:
Still let thy voice prevailing over time,
Redress the rigours of th inclement clime;
Aid slighted Truth with thy persuasive strain;
Teach erring man to spurn the rage of gain;
287
Teach him that state of native strength possest,
Though very poor, may still be very blest;46

1. What were the causes which motivated Oliver Goldsmith to write The Deserted
Village ?
2. Present a full-length portraiture of the village preacher making pointed references to
his virtues.
3. Make an attempt to recreate the rural scenario before depopulation and modern-
ization took place in Auburn.
4. What does the poet mean by the tyrants hand.? Elaborate.
5. Write an introductory note on the village Master.
6. What is the relevance of Goldsmiths Deserted Village to India today ?
17.9 Bibliography
1. Balderston: The Collected Letters of Oliver Goldsmith.
2. Robert Burns:Poems.
3. Boswell,James:The Life of Samuel Johnson.
4. Chaucer,Geoffrey:The Prologue to Canterbury Tales.
5. Galsworthys shortstory : Quality.
6. Goldsmith,Oliver : The Deserted Village.The Fourteen Press:Toronto.1965)
7. Goldsmith,Oliver : The Deserted Village (London.W.Griffin.1770)
8. Goldsmith,Oliver :Animated Nature (1774)
9. Grays Thomas: Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard.
10. Hodek,B.The Complete Works of Works of Shakespeare.
11. Johnson,Dr.S.: Vanity of Human Wishes.
____________________
288
UNIT - 18
OSCAR WILDE:THE IMPORTANCE OF BEING EARNEST
Structure
18.0 Objectives
18.1 Introduction
18.2 About The Age
18.4 The gist of the play the importance of Being Earnest
18.5 Extracts from the play
18.8 Let us Sum up
18.10 Bibliography
18.0 Objectives
After going through this unit you will be able to understand the age :
The age of Oscar Wilde.
The story of the play the importance of Being Earnest.
Meaning of important words.
The style of Oscar Wilde.
18.1 Introduction
In this unit you are going to study the play The Importance of Being Earnest written
by Oscar Wilde. This unit will also make you familiar with the age of Oscar Wilde. The gist of
the play will enable you to understand the story/plot of the play. The extracts will make you
familiar with the style and wit of Oscar Wilde.
18.2 About the Age

Nineteenth century England was an age that saw a number of changes taking place in
society. Agriculture was giving way to industry in many cities of England. Industries were set up
289
in cities and these industries began employing men, women and children. In order to improve
the condition of the workers, a number of laws were passed.
Nineteenth century England also saw the rise of the Romantic poets. The first genera-
tion romantic poets were William Wordsworth, S.T. Coleridge and Robert southey. The sec-
ond generation poets were John Keats, P.B.Shelley and George Byron. These writers stressed
on values like friendship and freedom. They also praised nature and the magical effect of
nature on man.
In the first half of Nineteenth century the influence of the Romantic poets was remark-
able. This period also saw the arrival of humanist like Thomas Carlyle who felt that man should
not worship the machine. Important thinkers like Jereny Bentham, John Stuart Mill and James
Mill stressed on education of the masses. The utilitatian theory was formulated by Bentham
and James Mill supported it. They praised the industrial policy of England.
In 1850, England held the Grand Exhibition. England displayed her wealth before the
world. She was now a great and powerful country. Queen Victoria was ruling on the throne
and except for the cringer war, no other war was fought during. He time. A number of soldiers
died in the Crimean war (1856 - 58). The government decided to improve the medical and
health services offered to the people, Florence Nightingale was a young nurse who went to
crincea to treat the patients. The nursing profession gained popularity after this war.
During the time of Queen Victoria, there were two other well known people. These
were Lord Alfred Tennyson and Robert Browning. Tennysons poems were full of energy and
enthusiasm. Brownings poems recalled past splendor and dealt with death.
The important novelist of this age were: Jane Austin, Charles Dickens, George Eliot,
Charlotte Bronte, Emily Bronte, Thomas Hardy, Mrs. Gasket and George Gissing. These
writers, through their stories, wished to improve society. The common people or the working
class was focussed upon in the works of these writers. Two other important writers were
Harriet and Matthew Arnold and they also stressed on the importance of education. Arnold
was an Inspector of schools and he was keen to promote the learning of the masses.
The influence of Kevel Mory and Frederik Engels was felt in this age. These two
communist thinkers called for an overall unity on cought the working class. The communist
manifesto was written by Karl Marx in 1848.
The best known plays on two nineteenth century were all written towards the end of
the century. Dramatic activities gained importance after years of neglect. The first half of the
nineteenth century saw the rise of poetry, fiction and non-fiction prose. The reason why there
was a neglect of drama was because public taste seemed inclined towards weldors rather than
various plays. Moreover, the great popularity of Shakespeare prevented many aspiring play
wrights from experimenting with any thing new. Even Eminent writers like Wordsworth,
Shelley, Browning failed to write plays.
290
In mid-nineteenth century France well-made plays and realistic dramas were very
popular. The influence of the noruesian dramatist Henrik Ibsen was evident in the French plays
that were being written. The nineteenth century England drama was developed by T.W.
Robertson who wrote the play Caste in 1867. Two other dramatist were Henry the play
The Silver Key. Pinero wrote the play. The secondmrs Tanqueray in 1893. Both James
and Pinero contributed to make use of well dramatic or sentimental effects but with an under-
current of social significance.
Henrik Ibsen also influence nineteenth century British drama. Ibsens plays dealt with
Social problems. He focussed on the moral role in society in the play Pillars of Society
(1877) in Ibsens play A Dolls House (1879). Ibsen created the new Woman who had a
mind and intelligence of her own. In England, Ibsens most ardent admirer was George Ber-
nard Shaw. Shaw added his own rich wit and humour to the ideas derived from Ibsen.
Oscar Wildes plays were extremely well constructed (well - made plays). The plots
had elements of suspense and surprise. Wilde also focussed in his plays on the double stan-
dards of morality in society. The speech, manners and attitudes of the upper class are all very
well presented in Wildes plays. In Wildes plays there are influences of the comedy of man-
ners. The comedy of manners first become popular during the Restoration period in seven-
teenth century England. King Charles II had enjoyed these types of plays during his years of
exile in France. On his return to England he wanted these types of plays to be written. As its
name suggests, this form of comedy delights in holding up a mirrors to society and laughing at
the follies of humanity especially of the aristocracy. These plays revolve around certain basic
themes like sex (friendship, marriage, divorce, jealousy), money and the conflict between
generations. Wilde presented before the viewers a tiny cross - section of society and the
viewers could recognize their manners and customs. There is satire in these plays. Values and
social norms like propriety and respectability are uphold. Wildes plays are simple and easy to
understand.
18.3 About the Author

Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin in 1854. His father sir William Wilde was a reputed
eye and ear specialist. He was said to have invented the operation for Cataract. Dr. William
Wilde was awarded the title of Knighthood for his services to medicine. (The King or Queen
of England gives this honour of Kinghthood. After receiving that honour Sir is added before
the name of the person.)
Sir William Wildes wife Lady Jane Francisca Wilde was a very educated lady. She
wrote articles and poems for the Irish nationalist newspaper The Nation.
Until the age of nine, Oscar Wilde studied at go, me. There after he went to school.
Later he studied at Trinity College of Dublin where he won the Berkeley gold medal. He was
awarded a scholarship to Magadalen college, Oxford. He studied here from 1874 to 1878
291
and came under the influence of the Aesthetic movement. ( a movement that popularized the
theory art for arts sake. The movement was a reaction to John Stuart Mill and Jeremy
Benthams policy of utilitarianism. Bentham and Mill attached importance to things that were
useful and material.)
After graduate from Oxford. Here he fall in love with Florence Balicombe, but she
did not marry him. She got engaged to another person. On hearing of her engage, Wilde
decided to leave Ireland permanently. The next six years were spent in London, Paris and
United States where he travelled to deliver lectures.
In between Wildes lecture tours, Wilde found time to meet poets like Henry Long
fellow and Walt Whitman. In Wildes lectures the influence of John Ruskin (The British writer)
and Walter Pater (The British poet) was much noted. While lecturing at London, Wilde met
constancy Llyed, daughter of Horace Llyed, Queen Victorias council. In 1884, constancy
was visiting Dublin, when Oscar Wilde was in the city to give lectures, he proposed to her and
they got married on May 29, 1884. Constancy was an educated person. She spoke several
European language and was out spoken in her views. The couple had two sons, Cyril (born in
1885) and Vyuyan (born in 1886).
Oscar Wildes reputation as a writer made him aware of the importance of the year.
He used words with great care and his writings were full of wit. From 1887 to 1889 he served
as editor of The Womans world and became interested in the concept of the new woman
popularized by Hebrik Ibsen (Norwagian dramatist) and G.B. Dhaw (British dramatist).
In 1894, Oscar Wilde brought out Lord Arthur Samiles crime and other stories. A
house of Pomeranians as well as a collection of short stories.
In 1892, Oscar Wilde made an importance entry into Londons theatrical world with
the production of Lady windermeris fan, which he described as one of those modern
drawing room plays with pink lamp school.
Oscar Wildes next English play was titlesd A Woman of no importance. It was
stayed in London in 1893. In 1895 Oscar Wildes third major play. An Ideal Husband was
produced. The Importance of Being Ernest, the most famous of Wildes plays, was stayed
on 14 February 1895 in London.
At Oxford Wilde came into contact with Alfred Douglas. History records that Oscar
Wilde and Alfred Douglas had a very close friendship and close physical relationship. Alfreds
fallow John Sholto Douglas, 9th morgues of Queensberry did not approve of this friendship.
He tried to break up Wildes and Alfreds friendship. History records that Wilde forced a trial
for his relationship with Alfred. Wilde was sent to prison in 1895. He was sentenced to two
years hard labour. Prison was unkind to Wildes health. He was released on may 19, 1897.
He spent his last three years penniless, in self imposed exile from society and artiste cereals.
On his death bed in Paris, he was Baptised and made a member of the Roman Catholic
Church. He died of cerebral meningitis on 30 November, 1900.
292
Oscar Wilde was much influenced by John Ruskin and William Morris. The aesthetic
movement represented by William Morris and the poet Dante gabricl Rossetti was much
popularised by Wilde.
Wilde was a supporter of socialism. He and George Bernard Shaw both advocated
for socialism. Like Shaw, Wilde also was also was extremely witty. His quick repartees won
him a lot of admirers. Oscar Wildes rich and dramatic Portrayal of human condition during the
reckon with. Wilde wrote many short stories, plays and poems that continue to inspire millions
around the world.
18.4 The Gist of the Play the Importance of Being Ernest

The Importance of being Ernest is a play by Oscar Wilde. It was staged on February
14, 1895 at the St. James Theatre in London. It was Wildes most popular play.
Algernon, an aristocratic 1 young Londoner, pretends 2 to have a friend named Bunbury.
Bunbury loves in the country and is frequently 3 in ill health: Whenver Algernon wants to avoid
an unwelcome social obligation, 4 he makes an ostenible 5 visit to his sick friend. He calls this
practice Bunburying.
Algernons best friend Ernest Worthing lives in the country but makes frequent visits to
London. When his friend leaves his silver cigarette case in Algernons morning room, Algernon
finds and inception on it : From little Cecily, with her fondest love to her clear uncle Jack.
Algernons friend goes by the name of Jack while he lives in the country. Jack pre-
tends to have a brother by the name of Ernest. Ernest is supposed to reside 6 in London. Jack
gives the impression 7 that Ernest requires frequent attention. When Jack is in London, he
assumes 8 the name of Ernest. Jack is also a Bunburyist.
Jack wants to marry Algernons cousin Gwendolen, but he cannot do so for two
reasons. First, Gwendolen seems to love him merely for his name, Ernest, which she thinks to
be the most beautiful name in the world. Second, Gwendlens mother, the terrifying 9 Lady
Brachnell, does not approve 10 of Mr. Worthing. She is horrified 11 to learn that he Jack was
adopted 12 as a baby after being discovered in a handbag at a railway station.
Jacks description of Cecily appeals to Algernon and Algernon is keen to met her.
Jack opposes13 this. One day Algernon comes to Jacks house. Algernon pretends to be
Ernest because Cecily has imagined herself to be in love with Ernest. Cecily falls for Algernon
who is disguised 14 as Ernest.
Jack meanwhile, decides to do away with Bunburying, and returns to his country
estate with the news that his brother Ernest has reportedly 15 died is Paris. He (Jack) is forced
to abandon this claim by the presence of Ernest. Algernon who threatens16 to expose Jacks
double life 17 if the latter does not play along.18
Gwendolen runs away from London and her mother to be with her lower. When
293
gwendolen and Cecily meet for the first time each insists that she is the one engaged to Ernest.
Lady Bracknell arrives in pursuit of her daughter Gwendolen. She refuses to allow Jacks
marriage with Gwendolen (remember Jack pretends that his name is Ernest): Jack does not
agree to grant permission to Cecily to marry Algernon who also pretends that his name is
Ernest.
The situation is saved by the appearance of Cecilys governess, Miss Prism. As she
and Lady Bracknell recognise each other with horror it is revealed that, when working many
years priviously 22 as a nursemaid for Lady Bracknells sister, Prism had inadvertently 23 lost a
baby boy in a handbag. When Jack produces the identical handbag, it becomes clear that he
is Lady Bracknells nephew and Algernons older brother.
With Jacks identity proven, only one thing now stood in the way of the young couples
happiness: Gwendolen insistence that she could only love a man named Ernest. The question
is what is Jacks real first name ? Lady Bracknell informs him that he was named after his
father, a general, but cannot remember the generals name.
Jack looks eagerly in a military reference book and declares that the name is in fact
Ernest afterall. He has all along been telling the truth inadvertently.
The happy couple namely Gwendolen and Jack, Cecily and Algernon, Miss prism
and the Reverend Canon Chasuble embrace one another. Lady Bracknell complains to Ernest,
My nephew, you seem to be displaying signs of triviality. 24 Ernest replies to Aunt Augusta,
Ive now realized for the first time in my life the vital 25 importance of being Ernest. 26
18.5 Extracts from the play

The sub title of the play is A Trivial Comedy for serious people. There are eleven
characters in this play: These are-
(i) John Worthing, J.P. (J.P. means Justice of Peace)
(ii) Algernon Moncrieff
(iii) Reverend Canon Chasuble, D.D. (Reverend is a title for a member of the
clergy.) (D.D. means doctor of Divinity theology)
(iv) Mr. Gribsby, solicitor (Solicitor is a lawyer who does not actually appear in court,
except in the lower court, but acts as an agent in legal matters and prepares case for
trial)
(v) Merrimon, Butler (A male headservant whose duties in club general supervision of
the household, especially the serving of food and drinks)
(vi) Lane, Manservant
(vii) Moulton, gardener
294
(viii)Lady Bracknell
(ix) Honorable Gwendolen Fairfax
(x) Cecily Cardew
(xi) Miss Prism governess (governess is a lady who takes care of small children and
teaches them. In upper class private households it was a common practice to employ
governesses to teach children. Nineteenth century upper class Englishmen followed
this practice.)
Act I
The play opens in Algernons flat in Piccadily, London the room is very well furnished.
A piano is being played in the adjourning room. Lane is arranging afternoon tea on the table
and after the music has ceased, Algernon enters.
Algernon: Did you hear what I was playing Lane?
Lane: I didnt think it polite to listen, Sir.
Algernon:I am sorry for that, for your sake. I dont play accurately anyone can play accurately
but I play with wonderful expression. As far as the piano is concerned, sentiment is
my forte. I keep science for life.
Lane: Yes, sir.
Algernon: And speaking of the science of life, have you got the cucumber sandwiches cut for
Lady Brackwell?
Lane: Yes, sir.
(Algernon takes two sandwiches and begins to eat them. He then picks up the house
keeping record book and notes that eight bottles of champagne had been consumed
on Thursday night when Lord Shorenian and Mr. Worthing had come for dinner.
Algernon is a bachelor and serve superior quality of wine. The servant Lane remarks
that in married households the champagne is rarely of a superior quality)
( A little later Algernon receives Mr Ernest Worthing. Ernest Worthing is also called
Jack. Both Jack and Algernon talk about neighbor who can be very boring and in
whose company there is no amulement. Jack notices the cucumber sandwiches.)
Jack: .........why cucumber sandwiches?.......... who is coming to tea?
Algernon:Oh! Nearly Aunt Augusta and Gwendolen.
Jack: How perfectly delightful!
Algernon:Yes, that is all very well well. But I am afraid Aunt Augusta wont quite approve of
your being here.
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Jack: May I ask why?
Algernon:My dear fellow, the way you flirt with Gwendolen is perfectly disgraceful. It is almost
as bad as the way Gwendolen flirt with you.
Jack: I am in love with Gwendolen. I have come up to town expressly to propose to her.
Algernon:I thought you had come up for pleasure?..........I call that business.
Jack: How utterly unromantic you are!
Algernon:I really dont see anything romantic in proposing. It is very romantic to be in love.
But there is nothing romantic about a definite proposal. Why, one may be accepted.
One usually is, I believe. Then the excitement is all over. The very essence of romance
is uncertainty. If ever I get married. Ill certainly try to forget the fact.
Jack: I have no doubt about the, dear Algy. The Divorce Court was specially invented for
people whose memories are so seriously constituted.
Algernon:You behave as if you were married to her already. You are not married to her already
and I dont think you ever will be.
Jack: Why on earth do you say that?
Algernon:Well, in the first place girls never marry the men they flirt with. Girls dont think it
right.
Jack: Oh, that is nonsense!
Algernon:It isnt. It is a great truth. It accounts for the extraordinary number of bachelors that
one sees all over the place. In the second place, I dont give my consent.
Jack: Your consent!
Algernon:My dear fellow, Gwendolen is my first cousin. And before I allow you to marry her,
you will have to clear up the whole question of Cecily. (Rings bell.)
Jack: Cecily! What in earth do you mean? What do you mean, Algy, by Cecily? I dont
know anyone of the name of Cecily.
(Enter Lane)
Algernon:Bring me that cigarette case Mr Worthing left in the smoking-room the last time he
dined here.
Lane: Yes, sir. (Lane goes out.)
Jack: Do you mean to say you have had my cigarette case all this time? I wish to goodness
you had let me know. I have been writing frantic letters to Scotland Yard about it. I
was very nearly offering a large reward.
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Algernon:Well, I wish you would offer one. I happen to be more than usually hard up.
Jack: There is no good offering a large reward now that the thing is found.
(Enter Lane with the cigarette case on a salver. Algernon takes it at once. Lane goes
out.)
Jack: I simply want my cigarette case back.
Algernon:Yes; but this isnt your cigarette case. This cigarette case is a present from someone
of the name of Cecily, and you said didnt know anyone of that name.
Jack: Well if you want to know, Cecily happens to by my aunt.
Algernon:Your aunt !
Jack: Yes. Charming old lady she is too. Lives at Tunbridge Wells. Just give it back to me,
Algy.
Algernon:(retreating to back of sofa). But why does she call herself little Cecily if she is your
aunt and lives at Tunbridge Well ? (Reading.) From little Cecily with her fondest
love.
Jack: (moving to sofa and kneeling upon it). My dear fellow, what on earth is there in that ?
Some aunts are tall, some aunts are not tall. That is a matter that surely an aunt may be
allowed to decide for herself. You seem to think that every aunt should be exactly like
your aunt ! That is absurd! For Heavens sake give me back my cigarette case. (Fol-
lows Algernon round the room.)
Jack then tells Algernon that he Jack was adopted by Thomas Cardew, when Thomas
Cardew was on his deathbed he made Jack guardian of Cecily Cardew, the grand-
daughter of Thomas Cardew. Cecily lived in the country under the charge of her
admirable governess Miss Prism. Since Jack was Cecilys guardian he had to always
maintain a high moral standard. He found it difficult to maintain a high moral standard
all the time, so he pretended to have a younger brother by the name of Ernest and this
boy Ernest lived in the town called Albany. Ernest is supposed to get into the most bad
situations, Algernon then tells Jack that Jack is a Bunburyist because Jack has in-
vented a younger brother called Ernest. (Jack does not have any younger brother in
reality) Algernon has invented a friend called Bunbury who is an invented and lives in
the country Jack has invented a younger brother who lives in the town.)
Even though Algernon says that Jack is a bunburyist, Jack refreshes to accept the
term.
Jack: Im not a Bunburyist at all. If Gwendolen accepts me, I am going to kill my brother,
indeed I think Ill kill him in any case. Cecily is a little too much interested in him. It is
rather a bore. So I am going to get rid of Ernest. And I strongly advise you to do the
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same with Mr......... with your invalid friend who has the absurd name.
Algernon:Nothing will induce me to part with Bunbury, and if you ever get married, which
seems to be extremely problematic, you will be very glad to know Bunbury. A man
who marries without knowing Bunbury has a very tedious time of it.
Jack: That is nonsense. If I marry a charming girl like Gwendolen, and she is the only girl I
ever saw in my life that I would marry, I certainly wont want to know Bunbury.
Algernon:Then your wife will. You dont seem to realize, that in married life three is company
and two is none.
Jack(sententiously). That, my dear young friend, is the theory that the corrupt French Drama
has been propounding for the last fifty years.
(Shortly afterwards Lady Augusta discusses with Algernon Mr Bunburys health.)
Lady Bracknell: It is very strange. This Mr Bunbury seems to suffer from curiously bad health.
Algernon:Yes; poor Bunbury is a dreadful invalid.
Lady Bracknell: Well, I must say, Algernon, that I think it is high time that Mr Bunbury made up
his mind whether he was going to live or to die. This shilly-shallying with the question
is absurd. Nor do I in any way approve of the modern sympathy with invalids. I
consider it morbid. Illness of any kind is hardly a thing to be encouraged in others.
Health is the primary duty of life. I am always telling that to your poor uncle, but he
never seems to take much notice........ as far as any improvement in his ailments goes.
I should be much obliged if you would ask Mr Bunbury, from me, to be kind enough
not to have a relapse on Saturday, for I rely on you to arrange my music for me. It is
my last reception and one wants something that will encourage conversation, particu-
larly at the end of the season when everyone has practically said whatever they had to
say, which, in most cases, was probably not much.
Algernon: Ill speak to Bunbury, Aunt Augusta, if he is still conscious, and I think I can promise
you hell be all right by Saturday. You see, if one plays good music, people dont
listen, and over the programme Ive drawn out, if you will kindly come into the next
room for a moment.
(It is interesting to note that Algernon has taken a promise from Jack that Jack would
take him out for dinner in case Algernon arranges a meeting between Jack and
Gwendolen.
Algernon, therefore, as per his plans with Jack takes lady Bracknell to the music room
and Jack is left alone with Gwendolen. This gives them the opportunity to be together
and express their feelings for each other.)
Jack(nervously): Miss Fairfax, ever since I met you I have admired you more than any girl........I
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have ever met since........I met you.
Gwendolen:Yes, I am quite aware of the fact. And I often wish that in public, at any rate, you
had been more demonstrative. For me you have always had an irresistible fascination.
Even before I met you I was far from indifferent to you. (Jack looks at her in amaze-
ment.) We live, as I hope you know Mr Worthing, in an age of ideals. The fact is
constantly mentioned in the more expensive monthly magazines, and has reached the
provincial pulpits I am told: and my ideal has always been the love some one of the
name of Ernest. There is something in that name that inspires absolute confidence. The
moment Algernon first mentioned to that he had a friend called Ernest, I knew I was
destined to love you.
Jack: You really love, Gwendolen?
Gwendolen: Passionately !
Jack: Darling! You dont know how happy youve made me.
Gwendolen: It suits you perfectly. It is a divine name. It has a music of its own. It produces
vibrations.
Jack: Well, really, Gwendolen. I must say that I think there are lots of other much nicer
names. I think, Jack, for instance, a charming name.
Gowendolen: Yes, Mr Worthing, what have you got to say to me?
Jack: You know what I have got to say to you.
Gowendolen: Yes, but you dont say it.
Jack: Gowendolen, will you marry me? (Goes on his knees.)
Gowendolen: Of course I will, darling. How long you have been about it! I am afraid you have
had very little experience in how to propose.
Jack: My own one, I have never loved anyone in the world but you.
Gowendolen: Yes, but men often propose for practice. I know my brother Gerald does. All
my girl-friends tell me so. What wonderfully blue eyes you have, Ernest! They are
quite, quite blue. I hope you will always look at me just like that, especially when there
are other people present.
It is significant to note that Gowendolen loves the name Ernest and the finds names
like Jack and John merry due and boring. Jack (Ernest) proposes to her. He goes
down on his knees and requests her to marry him. Gowendolen is very happy and tells
him that she is equally eager to marry him. At this moment aunt Augusta (Lady Bracknell)
returns from the music room. She is surprised to see Jack kneeling and asks him to
rise. Gowendolen tells her mother that she intends to marry Jack (Ernest) and she has
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become engaged to him. Lady Bracknell then takes an interview of jack. She also
asks him about his income. She then asks him about his parents.
Jack: I have lost both my parents.
Lady Blacknell: Both? ..........that seems like carelessness. Who was you father? He was
evidently a man of some wealth. Was he born in what the Radical papers call the
purple of commerce, or did he rise from the ranks of the aristocracy?
Jack: I am afraid I really dont know. The fact is, Lady Bracknell, I said I had lost my
parents. It would be nearer the truth to say that my parents seem to have lost me
........I dont actually know who I am by birth. I was ..........well, I was found.
Lady Bracknell: found!
Jack: The late Mr Thomas Cardew, an old gentleman of a very charitable and kindly dispo-
sition, found me, and gave me the name of Worthing, because he happened to have a
first-class ticket for Worthing in his pocket at the time. Worthing is a place in Sussex.
It is a seaside resort.
Lady Blacknell: Where is the charitable gentleman who had a first-class ticket for this seaside
resort find you?
Jack (gravey): In a hand-bag.
Lady Bracknell: A hand bag?
Jack (very seriously): Yes. Lady Blacknell. I was in a hand-bag-a somewhat large, black
leather hand-bag with handles to it- an ordinary hand-bag in fact.
Lady Blacknell: In what locality did Mr James, or Thomas, Cardew come across this ordinary
hand-bag?
Jack: In the clack-room at Victoria Station. It was given to him in mistake for his own.
Lady Bracknell: The clack-room at Victoria Station?
Jack: Yes. The Brighton line.
Jack tells Lady Bracknell that he has no knowledge about his parents. He is an or-
phan. Lady Bracknell does not wish her daughter to marry an orphan. She and
Gwendolen then leave Algernons house. Algernon sympathises with Jack. He asks
Jack whether he has told Gowendolen that he is called Ernest in the town and Jack in
the country. Jack has a very simple solution to this problem. He tells Algernon that he,
jack, will tell Gwendolen that Ernest died in Paris due to a serve chill. Jack has also
not told Gwendolen that he is the guardian of a pretty eighteen years old girl by the
name of Cecily Cardew, Algernon is keen to meet Cecily, but Jack does not want that
his friend should meet Cecily. Algernon does not discuss this topic any further.
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Algernon and jack have decided to go out for dinner. As they get ready to go,
Gwendolen enter. She tells Jack that her mother may never agree to their marriage.
They are very attracted to eachother and she takes his postal address. Algernon also
notes down Jacks address. Algernon tells his servant Lane that he Algernon will be
out of town till Monday as he would be going bunburying. Algernon is happy that he
too has Jacks address in the country because Algernon is keen to meet Cecily.
Act II
The scene opens in Jacks house in the country. Cecily is with her governess Miss
Prism. Miss Prism tells Cecily to improve her German language. Cecily does not like
studying German. Cecily and Miss Prism discuss Jacks brother Ernest. They do not
know that in reality. Jack does not have any brother. Miss Prism also does not like
Cecilys habit of keeping a diary. Miss Prism feels that everything should be stored in
the mind. While they are talking, the reverend Dr. Canon chasuble arrives, Cecily tells
him that Miss Prism has a slight headache, but Miss Prism denies having any head-
ache. The Reverend Rector chasuble, Miss Prism and Cecily talk for a while and then
Miss Prism goes for a walk with the Rector. She tells Cecily to read the book on
political economy. As soon as they go, Cecily throws away her books. The butler
merriman enters with a card on a tray. The butler tells Cecily that Mr. Ernest Worthing
has come from the station with his luggage. On learning that Jack was not home, he
seemed disappointed, but he was anxious to speak to Cecily. Cecily tells the butler to
ask the housekeeper about a room for Ernest Worthing. Cecily is both anxious and
eager to meet Ernest. She has never met him before. Algernon is dressed very smartly.
He tells Cecily. Algernon has started on his mission of winning over Cecily. He praises
her beauty and feels that Miss Prism is not able to appreciate Cecilys beauty. He says
that he is hungry and Cecily takes him into the house. As Cecily enters the house. Miss
Prism and Dr. Chasuble return from their walk. They are discussing the doctors desire
to remain single. The doctor is not keen to get married. They then notice that Cecily is
not in the garden studying. As they prepare to enter are house, they meet Jack Worthing
who is wearing black clothes and black gloves. The black dress is worn when there
has been a death in the family and the family is in mourning. Both Dr. Chasuble and
Miss Prism greet Mr. Jack Worthing and ask him as to why he was wearing black. He
tells them that his brother Ernest died in Paris of a severe chill. He Jack had been
informed about it by the manage of the grand hotel who had sent him a telegram to this
effect. Jack then inform the Rector that he wishes to be christened since he does not
remember being christened before. (Christening is a religious practice where by an
infect is blessed and given a Christian name and admitted to the Christian Church.)
The Reactor expresses his willingness to Christine Jack and he consoles jack and tells
him to bear his grief bravely. Just then Cecily comes from the house. She is pleased to
see her uncle Jack and she tells him to change into better clothes. She does not like his
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black dress. She then talk uncle Jacks brother Ernest is in the house. Jack is taken
aback with this news. Cecily goes into the house and emerges with Algernon who is
pretending to be Ernest Worthing. Jack is shaked to see Algernon. Algernon in the
meantime has had an invalid friend by the name of Mr. Bunbury whom he goes so
often to list. With great difficulty Cecily manages the reconciliation of Jack and Ernest
(she thinks they are brothers) Dr. Chasuble feels that the two brothers should be left
together for sometime. Cecily and miss Prism also return to the house. Cecily is feeling
very happy at the meeting of the two brothers but Miss Prism says that one must not
be premature in ones judgements.
Jack and Algernon are left alone for a very short time. The butler Marriman tells Jack
that he has put Ernests luggage in the room next to Jack. Jack is not happy to see his
friend Algernon who has taken the name of Ernest and whop pretends to be Jacks
brother. He (Jack) tells the butler to order for the dog-cart so that Algernon can go
back to London. Algernon refuses to go until Jack changes into a better dress (Jack is
dressed in black and he is supposed to be in mourning. Jack goes inside to change out
and to water the flowers Algernon (Ernest) takes this opportunity to talk to Cecily.
Cecily: Oh, I merely came back to water the roses. I thought you were with Uncle Jack.
Algernon: Hes gone to order the dog-cart for me.
Cecily: Oh, is he going to take you for a nice drive?
Algernon: Hes going to send me away.
Cecily: Then have we got to part?
Algernon: I am afraid so. Its a vary painful parting.
Cecily: It is always painful to part from people whom one has known for a very brief space of
time. The absence of old friends one can endure with equanimity. Buteven a momen-
tary separation from anyone to whom one has just been introduced is almost unbear-
able.
(Enter Merriman)
Marriman: The dog-cart at the door, sir. (Algernon looking appealingly at Cecily)
Cecily: It can wait, Merriman ....for ........five minutes.
Marriman: Yes miss (Exit Merriman)
Algernon: I hope, Cecily. I shall not offend you if I state quite frankly and openly that you seem
to me to be in every way the visible personification of absolute perfection.
Cecily: I think your frankness does you great credit, Ernest. If you will allow me I will copy
your remarks into my diary. (Goes over to table and begin writing in diary.)
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Cecily writes in her diary what ever Algernon tells her. The butler enter a second time
to tell then that the cart is waiting. Algernon tells the butler that he does not need the
dog-cart now. He plays to stay for a week.
Cecily: Uncle Jack would be very much annoyed if he knew you were staying on till next
week, at the same hour.
Algernon: Oh, I dont care about Jack. I dont care for any body in the whole world but you.
I love you, Cecily. You will marry me, wont you ?
Cecily: You silly you! Of course. Why. We have been engaged for the last three months.
Algernon: For the last three months?
Cecily: Yes, it will be exactly three months on Thursday.
Algernon:But how did we become engaged?
Cecily: Well, ever since dear Uncle Jack first confessed to us that he had a younger brother
who was very wicked and bad, you of course have formed the chief topic of conver-
sation between myself and Miss Prism. And of course a man who talked about is
always very attractive. One feels there must be something in him after all. I dare say it
was foolish of me, but I fell in love with you, Ernest.
Algernon:Darling! And when was the engagement actually settled?
Cecily: On the 14 of February last. Worn out by your entire ignorance of my existence, I
determined to end the matter one way or the other, and after a long struggle with
myself I accepted you under this dear old tree here. The next day I bought this little
ring in your name, and this is the little bangle with the true lovers knot I promised you
always to wear.
Algernon:Did I give you this? Its very pretty, isnt it?
Cecily: Yes, youve wonderfully good taste, Ernest. Its the excuse Ive always given for your
leading such a bad life. And this is the box in which I keep all you dear letters. (Kneels
at table, opens box, and produces letters tied up with blue ribbon.)
Algernon:My letters! But my own sweet Cecily, I have never written you any letters.
Cecily: You need hardly remind me of that, Ernest. I remember only too well that I was forced
to write your letters for you. I wrote always three times a week, and sometimes oftener.
Algernon:Oh, do let me read them, Cecily?
Cecily: Oh, I couldnt possibly. They would make you far too conceited. (Replace box) The
three you wrote me after. I had broken off the engagement are so beautiful, and so
badly spelled, that even now I can hardly read them without crying a little.
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Algernon:But was engagement ever broken off?
Cecily: Of course it was. On the 22 March. You can see the entry if you like. (Shows diary)
Today I broke off my engagements with Ernest. I fell it is better to do so. The
weather still continues charming.
The reader gets an insight into the character of Cecily. Cecily has already decided to
marry Algernon. On his behalf she writes letters to herself, and she has also bought a
ring and put it on her finger. She appears to be a romantic person. One day in anger
she breaks off her so called engagement. The reader must remember that Algernon.
(Ernest) has so knowledge about these things. He learns about them from Cecily her-
self. She tells Algernon that she had forgiven him and she continues to be engaged to
him. She likes the name Ernest. He tries to tell her that if he had any other name would
she not love him. She says that she loves the name Ernest. It is interesting to note that
both Cecily and Gwendolen are in love with the name Ernest. Whereas there is in
really no person by the name of Ernest.
Just as Algernon goes out, Narriman, she butler, enters to inform Cecily that a lady by
the name of miss Fairefax has come. The lady wants to meet mr Worthing on a very
important business. Cecily thinks that miss Fairfax must be an elderly lady with uncle
Jack in some charitable work in London. Cecily tells the butler to bring her in.
Cecily and Gwendolen introduce themselves and Gwendolen learns that Cecily is Jack
Worthings ward. Since Jack has taken the name of Ernest and since Gwendolen
knows Jack by the name of Ernest, Gwendolen is relieved to learn that Ernest is not
Cecilys guardian. Till now both these ladies do not know that Jack calls himself Ernest.
And to add confusion Algernon has also begun to call himself Ernest.
Cecily and Gwendolen learn that they are both engaged to Mr. Ernest Worthing. The
butler and the servants enter to put the tea-tray on the table. The two ladies stop their
argument. Cecily deliberately puts sugar in Gwendolens tea and gives her cake to eat
when Gwendolen has specifically asked for bread and butler. Both the ladies are nasty
and unkind towards eachother. At this moment Mr. Jack Worthing whom Gwendolen
loves and who is Cecilys guardian enter the garden where these two ladies are having
their tea.
(Entering Jack)
Gwendolen: (catching sight of him.) Ernest! My own Ernest!
Jack: Gwendolen! Darling! (Offers to kiss her.
Gwendolen:(drawing back) A moment! May I ask if you are engaged to be married to this
young lady? (Points to Cecily.)
Jack: (laughing) To dear little Cecily Of course not! What could have put such an idea into
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your pretty little head?
Gwendolen:Thanks you. You may. (Offers her cheek.)
Cecily (very sweetly) I knew there must he some misunderstanding. Miss Fairfax. The gentle-
man whose arm is at present round your waist is my dear guardian, Mr. John Worthing.
Gwendolen: I beg your pardon ?
Cecily: This is Uncle jack.
Gwendolen: (receding.) Jack! Oh!
(Enter Algernon)
Cecily: Here is Ernest.
Algernon:(goes straight over to Cecily without noticing anyone else.) My own love! Offers to
kiss her.)
Cecily: )drawing back). A moment, Ernest! May I ask you- are you engaged to be married to
this young lady?
Algernon:(looking round). To what young lady? Good heavens! Gwendolen!
Cecily: Yes, to good heavens, Gwendolen, I mean to Gwendolen.
Algernon: (laughing). Of course not! What could have put such an idea into you pretty little
head?
Cecily: Thank you. (Presenting her cheek to be kissed.) You may. (Algernon kisses her.)
Gwendolen:I felt there was some slight error, Miss Cardew. The gentleman who is one em-
bracing, you is my cousin Mr. Algernon Moncrieff.
Cecily: (breaking away from Algernon). Algernon Moncrieff! Oh! (The two girls move to-
wards each other and put their arms round each others waists as if for protection.)
Cecily: Are you called Algernon?
Algernon:I cannot deny it.
Cecily: Oh!
Gwendolen:Is your name really John?
Jack(standing rather proudly). I could deny it if I liked. I could deny anything if I liked. But my
name certainly is John. It has been John for years.
Cecily(to Gwendolen). A gross deception has been practised on both of us.
Gwendolen:My poor wounded Cecily!
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Cecily: My sweet, wronged Gwendolen!
Gwendolen:(slowing and seriously). You will call me sister, will you not? (They embrace. Jack
and Algernon groan and walk up and down.)
Cecily(rather brightly). There is just one question I would like to be allowed to ask my guard-
ian.
Gwendolen:An admirable idea! Mr. Worthing, there is just one question I would like to be
permitted to put to you. Where is you brother Ernest? We are both engaged to be
married to you brother Ernest, so it is a matter of some importance to us to know
where you brother Ernest is at present.
Jack(slowly and hesitatingly). Gwendolen- Cecily- it is very painful for me to be forced to
speak the truth. It is first time in my life that I have ever been reduced to such a painful
position, and I am really quite inexperienced in doing anything of the kind. However I
will tell you quite frankly that I have no brother Ernest. I have no brother at all. I never
had a brother in my life, and I certainly have not the smallest intention of ever having
one in the future.
Cecily (surprised). No brother at all?
Jack (Cheerily). None!
Gwendolen: (severely). Had you never a brother of any kind?
Jack(pleasantly). Never. Not even of any kind.
Gwendolen:I am afraid it is quite clear, Cecily, that neither of us is engaged to be married to
anyone.
Cecily: It is not a very pleasant position for a young girl suddenly to find herself in. Is it?
Gwendolen:Let us go into the house. They will hardly venture to come after us there.
Cecily: No, men are so cowardly, arent they? (They retire into the house with scornful looks.)

1. What does Algernon mean by the term bunburing ?
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2. When and where was the play the importance of Being ernest stayed ?
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3. Who is Alegernons best friend ?
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4. Who is Gwendolen ? Whom does she love ?
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5. Who is Cecily ? Whom does she love.
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6. Where was Jack discovered (found) ?
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7. Who is Miss Prism ?
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8. How is Jack related to Lady Bracknell ?
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9. What is Jacks fathers name ?
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10. What does the word earnest mean ?
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18.7 Answers SAQs

1. Whenever Algernon wants to avoid an unwelcome social obligation, or whenever he
wants to get away for the weak end, he says that he must visit his friend named
Bunbury who lives in the country and is frequently in ill health. He pretends he has a
fried in the country (away from London). He calls this practice Bunburying.
2. The play was stayed on February 14, 1895 at St, James theater in London.
3. Algernons best friend is Ernest Worthing who lives in the country. Ernest is also
called Jack.
4. Gwendolen is Algernons cousin and Lady Bracknells daughter. She loves Ernest
Worthing to Jack.
5. Cecily is Ernest Worthing or Jacks niece. Cecily is in love with Algernon who pre-
tends to be Ernest.
6. Ernest Worthing or Jack was discovered in a handbag at a railway station.
7. Miss Prism is Cecilys governess.
8. Jack is actually Lady Bracknells nephew and Algernons older brother. Many years
ago when Miss Prism had worked as a nurse maid for Lady Bracknellssister, Miss
Prism had lost a baby boy is a handbag. That baby boy is Jack.
9. Jacks fathers name is Ernest and Jack was named after his father.
10. In this play Ernest is a fictitious character at first. Later on when the play ends the
reader that Jack was named after his father Ernest. The word earnest means some-
one who is sincere and eager about to learn something or know something.
18.8 Let us Sum up

In this unit you have learnt:
About the age of Oscar Wilde. You have also become familiar with the main
writers and poets of nineteenth century England.
308
You have learnt about the life of Oscar Wilde. Remember that Wilde is spelt
with an e at the end.
You have been made familiar with the summary of the play. Extracts from the play
will be given to you in the next unit.
Words used is the summary have been explained for your benefit. These words
will help to increase your vocabulary.

1. The Importance of Being Earnest is truly a very humourist play. Explain with ex-
amples from the play.
2. Oscars play is an exquisite work of wit and comic revelry. Elucidate.
3. The Victorian mannerisms and pompous life has be remarkable presented by Oscars
flamboyant witty style and aphorisms. Explain with example.
18.10 Bibliography
Bulsary - Shah, Shefali ed. The Importance of Being Earnest. Delhi; Orient Longman,
1986.
Bird, Alan. The plays of Oscar Wilde: London: Vision Press, 1977.
Elolman, Richard ed. Oscar Wilde: A Collection of Critical Essays. New Jersey: Prectice Hall,
1969.
Website http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki:/The Importance of Being Earnest.
Note- Some editions give the spelling as Earnest and in some editions the word
(name) is a ernest.
__________________
309

The Daffodils Wordsworth

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UNIT 1

WORDSWORTH : THE DAFFODILS

1.3 Influence of the French Revolution and Rousseau on

1.4 Background of the Poem

Continuous as the stars that shine

The waves beside them danced; but they

For oft, when on my couch I lie

1.9 Critical Appreciation

1.10 Self Assessment Questions

1.11 Answers to SAQs

1.13 Review Questions

2.2 The Poem : The Solitary Reaper

No Nightingale did ever chaunt

Will no one tell me what she sings ?

2.2.2 Stanza-wise Summary

2.2.4 Critical appreciation

2.2.5 Self Assessment Questions

2.2.6 Answers to SAQs

2.3 The Poem: The World is Too Much With Us

2.3.2 Stanza-wise summary

2.3.4 Critical Appreciation

2.3.5 Self Assessment Questions

2.3.6 Answers to SAQs

2.5 Review Questions

But O! how oft,

Dear Babe, that sleepest cradled by my side,

Therefore all seasons shall be sweet to thee,

3.4 Explanation and Critical Notes

3.5 Complete Paraphrase

3.6 Critical Summary

3.7 Humphry House on Frost at Midnight

3.9 Answers to SAQs

3.10 Let Us Sum Up

3.11 Review Questions

4.2 About the Poet

4.3 The Poem: DEJECTION: AN ODE

A grief without a pang, void, dark, and drear,

Suspends what Nature gave me at my birth,

4.4 Paraphrase of the Poem

4.5 Critical Summary

4.6 Self Assessment Questions

4.7 Answers to SAQs

4.8 Let Us Sum Up

4.9 Review Questions

5.2 About the Age

5.3 About The Author

5.4 The Poem : All For Love

5.4.3 Self Assessment Questions

5.4.4 Answers to SAQs

5.5 The Poem : On The Castle of Chillon

And when thy sons to fetters 8 are consignd 9

Worn25 as if thy cold pavement26 were a sod,27

5.5.3 Self Assessment Questions

5.5.4 Answers to SAQs

5.6 The Poem : There be None of Beautys Daughters

5.6.3 Self Assessment Questions

5.7 Let Us Sum Up

5.8 Review Questions

6.2 About the Poet