Volcanogenic Massive

Sulfide Deposits
Part 1: Classification and
Model
James M. Franklin
Franklin Geosciences Ltd

Adjunct Professor
University of Ottawa
Queens University
Laurentian University
Email:
[email protected]
 Contributors (Alphabetical)
D. Ames, Geological Survey of Canada
T. Barrie, T Barrie and Associates, Ottawa
CODES Team (R. Large, B. Gemmel et al)
A. Galley, Geological Survey of Canada
H. Gibson, Laurentian University (MERC)
W Goodfellow, Geological Survey of Canada
M. Hannington, University of Ottawa
I. Jonasson, Geological Survey of Canada
J. Peter, Geological Survey of Canada
R Sherlock, Miramar Mining Ltd
 Major Volcanogenic Massive Sulfide Districts of the World
World-wide contain about $500 billion in contained metal value
Sustain much of the worlds supply of zinc and silver, important
sources of Cu, and are a major source of high tech metals (Ge, In)
Occur in strata of all ages
 Sources of Information
Studies of Ancient Deposits
Precambrian Shield
Kuroko (Japan)
Paleozoic in Canada and Australia
Lower Cretaceous in Peru and Mexico
Mesozoic-Cenozoic in Cyprus, Oman
Modern Hydrothermal Systems on the
Seafloor
Spreading ridges
Back-Arcs and Arcs
 The Challenge: Some Belts are Rich
and Others Arent Why?

Exceptional value
in specific tectonic
areas of high
potential should
lead to exploration
investment in
these areas
Why are some
belts so well
endowed (Abitibi,
Trans-Hudson,
Slave) and others
not (Wabigoon,
Grenville) ??
 VMS Model
What are the key geological processes that
enable the formation of productive districts?
Are any of these evident in the geological record?
Are these key criteria evident on geological maps,
or must we conduct specialized studies to
establish there presence?
What can we learn from other districts?
In summary.
Whats the VMS model about? What can we
learn from it?
Bottom to Top- Some Important
Guides What are the most
important guides?
Regional Guides
Subvolcanic Intrusions
Volcanological Style
High Temperature
reaction zones
Exhalite zones

Local Guides
Alteration pipes
Ore zoning patterns
 Hydrothermal
Escape
Precipitation
Site
Discharge
Zone
Reservoir
Cap

Reaction Zone

Heat Source
 Evolution of the
Hydrothermal System
1: Subvolcanic intrusion
emplaced;
2: Heat from intrusion raises
trapped seawater temperature
causing dissolution of Si;
3: Cold seawater descends,
meets rising HT water, Mg +Si
ppt forming cap to reaction
zone
4: Reservoir zone becomes
isolated from seawater influx,
becomes isothermal ~380oC
5: High-T water : rock reaction
liberates metals, sets pH ~3.0,
forms qtz-epidote-actinolite-
albite assemblage
 Classification for Discovery
Deposit types are not a continuum
Deposits in each tectonic setting have specific
characteristics
Knowledge of these is important in defining an
exploration approach
Some of the best large-scale diagnostic
features of paleo-tectonic environment:
Petrogenetic trends
define paleo-heat flow = VMS potential
Physical volcanology
Surrogate for water depth = expected composition
and physical form
Sediment type
Useful distal and proximal indicators of VMS
presence
 Five VMS Lithotectonic Settings
1: Bimodal mafic-dominated volcanic
Ocean-ocean suprasubduction arc
2: Mafic backarc: mafic volcanic dominated,
ophiolite-associated
Oceanic backarc and mid-ocean rifts
Some plume-related (including alkaline) volcanics
3: Pelitic Mafic backarc: sediment, mafic flow/sill
dominated
Oceanic backarc-rift; pelagic sediments
4: Bimodal felsic-dominated volcanic
Ocean-continent suprasubduction arc
5: Siliciclastic- Felsic
Ocean-continent backarc; continental-derived sediments
 1: VMS Deposits: Copper-Rich Deposits
Ocean-Ocean Arc -Backarc Terrains
Initial Arc Splitting
<25% felsic volcanic strata
Flow dominated, shallow intrusive/extrusive domes indicate
discharge faults; subset (shallow water) pyroclastic-
dominant
Zn - Cu Au Deposits
Examples:
Noranda, Flin Flon, Tambo Grande, Urals
Mature Arc Splitting
>50% mature sedimentary rocks (pelite) in Besshi-type, or
ophiolite (Cyprus-type)
No (or >1%) felsic rocks
Laterally extensive, Co-enriched Cu Zn Au
Examples
Windy Craggy (Canada), Besshi, Oman, Cyprus
2: VMS Deposits: Zinc-Lead-Rich Deposits
Ocean-Continent Arc -Backarc Terrains
Steep Subduction
Initial Arc Splitting
>50% felsic volcanic strata
Pyroclastic dominated, at caldera margins
Zn-Pb-Cu Deposits
Examples:
Kuroko (Japan); Skellefte, Bergslagen (Sweden)
Mature Arc Splitting
>50% mature sedimentary rocks (greywacke)
Felsic pyroclastic strata, minor basalt
Low grade Zn-Pb +/- Cu
Examples
Bathurst district (Canada), Iberian Pyrite belt
 Subduction
Dynamics

Must have slab roll-

back
Need dense,
dehydrated, cool
oceanic crust to be
effective
Should be distal to
spreading ridge
Excellent Oceanic Backarc
Tonga Kermadec
Potential for Noranda,
Besshi, ophiolite type Arc
Northern End (Lau Basin)
Classic Mature Ocean-
Ocean Backarc
Good potential for
Noranda-style deposits
Southern End (Havre Trough)
Ocean-Continent
backarc Underlain by continental
Potential for
crust
Kuroko, Iberia Good potential form
types
Kuroko-style deposits
 Tectonic Controls on VMS Deposits- Summary
Paleo-Tectonic Environment
Best back-arcs form where older, cooler (somewhat
dehydrated) more dense oceanic crust was subducting
steeper subduction, continental retreat lead to
offshore, classic oceanic island arc and back arc
development: Lots of VMS
Proximity to paleo-oceanic spreading ridge is important
too close (e.g. EPR to S. America) yields hot,
hydrated, buoyant subducted oceanic crust, forming
continental arcs: No VMS, lots of epithermal &
porphyry deposits
Very old, cold, thick oceanic crust, including oceanic
plateaus, may not subduct: No oceanic arcs, backarcs
or VMS
e.g. Ontong -Java plateau locked against New Ireland
arc, subduction shifted
 Median Metal Content (Millions of Tonnes/Kg)

GEOMETRIC 1:Bimodal 2:Mafic 3:Pelitic- 4:Bimodal 5:Siliciclasic

MEAN Mafic Backarc Mafic Felsic Felsic

Cu % 1.24 1.82 1.23 1.04 0.62

Pb % 0.3 0.02 0.68 1.14 1.09
Zn % 2.32 0.84 1.58 4.36 2.70
Au g/t 0.81 1.40 0.75 1.06 0.59
Ag g/t 21.14 10.62 19.29 56.35 38.54
TOTAL METAL
(TONNES) 128,515 63,035 132,968 198,461 324.748
TOTAL SULFIDE
(TONNES) 3,421,075 2,699,466 4,721,093 3,420,784 7.139,305
N 291 76 90 241 106
2007
Normalized Metal Contents of
Principal VMS Types
 Metal Correlation Matrix
Cu Pb Zn Au Ag

Cu 1

Pb -0.921 1

Zn -0.756 0.757 1

Au 0.695 -0.745 -0.327 1

Ag -0.659 0.773 0.953 -0.286 1

Characteristics of the Five Types of VMS
Although types are distinct, significant variations
exist within each type
Compositional characteristics are specific
Physical volcanological characteristics vary,
depending on water depth, melt volatile contents
Greatest variations in Bimodal mafic and
Bimodal felsic types
Bimodal mafic can be divided into two
subgroups:
1A: flow dominant, Zn-Cu, form on seafloor
1B: pyroclastic dominant, ZnPb, Cu, Ag, form sub-
seafloor
Bimodal mafic: Comparison of Subtypes
Flow dominated
Higher Cu, no
Pb
Lower total
metal content
 Type 1A:Bimodal mafic-dominated (flow)
Setting: Ocean-ocean arc, nascent (early) arc rifting
Median Size and Composition: 2.8m.t., 1.41 Cu, 2.6 Zn,
0.1Pb, 0.8 g/t Au, 22 g/t Ag
Geology: >75% pillowed tholeiitic basalt-andesite, <25%
Na-felsic flows, flow breccia, endogenous domes, minor
pyroclastic; sediment minor (tuffite). Felsic (some mafic)
subvolcanic intrusions prominent (3x20km)
Ore: Massive sulfides bulbous to tabular, pyritic, As, Sb
minor, Sn variable; prominent Cu-stringer zones.
Pipe alteration: pronounced, zoned Fe -Mg chlorite core,
sericite rim; quartz-sulfide veins
Semiconformable: Epidote-albite-actinolite, overlain by
silicification; irregular metal depletion
Examples: Noranda, Mattagami, Snow Lake, Norwegian
Caledonides
Noranda Cross Section
 Noranda Camp: Bimodal Mafic-
Dominated setting (1a)
Horne
Anomalous because:
formed either
>25% felsic outside calderon or
strata on its margin
many shallow more sediment to
intrusions, flow trap precipitates
domes
No pyroclastics
 Snow Lake
- two major VMS
episodes, two
subtypes
late: Zn-Pb-Cu-
Au, Bimodal
Felsic
Pyroclastic
dominated
(Chisel-Ghost)
early: Cu-Zn,
Bimodal Mafic
dominated
(Anderson-
Stall)
 Kidd Creek vs. Potter Mine
Contrasting settings in the same
greenstone belt
Both with strong ultramafic
volcanic association

Kidd Creek Potter is

has a unique Besshi/Ophiolite
setting; Type style: Type 1A
1B
 Typical Noranda-type Deposit

Sulfide mound formed on seafloor: Zn-Cu, low (1 g/t) Au

Many with Fs-porphyry dykes in FW, occupy synvolcanic fault
Several in / on felsic cryptodomes
Some detrital (talus) sulfide on margin
Very vertically extensive stringer - alteration zone
Chlorite-quartz core, sericite outer margin
Type 1B:Bimodal mafic-dominated volcaniclastic
Setting: Ocean-ocean arc, nascent (early) arc rifting
Median Size and Composition: 4.5m.t., 1.1 Cu, 3.4 Zn,
0.8 Pb,1.1 g/t Au, 37 g/t Ag
Geology: >75% pillowed tholeiitic basalt-andesite, <25%
Na-felsic volcaniclastics, endogenous domes, mafic flows
and flow breccia; capping sediment (tuffite). Felsic (some
mafic) subvolcanic intrusions prominent (3x20km)
Ore: Massive sulfides tabular, pyritic, As, Sb more
common, Sn variable; limited Cu-stringer zones.
Pipe alteration: poorly defined sericite-silicification zone,
semiconformable; aluminous minerals common
(pyrophyllite, andalucite, chloritoid)
Semiconformable: Epidote-albite-actinolite, overlain by
carbonatization; irregular metal depletion
Examples: Sturgeon Lake, Abcourt, Chisel Lake, Kidd
Creek
Sturgeon Lake District: Example of Type 1B

Camp Size
20.42 mt 8.25% Zn;
0.76% Pb; 0.97% Cu
109g/t Ag
Sturgeon Lake Geology
Sturgeon Lake Bimodal mafic 1B
Pyroclastic
dominated
Caldron sequence:
base of sequence-
submarine and
subaerial basalt
episodic caldera-
collapse: heterolithic
debris flow
deposits formed at
onset of felsic
volcanism
cryptodome formed
after deposits
Andesitic HW
Mattabi deposit: Five stratiform lenses, banded sphalerite-galena pyrite,
minor stringer zone, late cpy-asp-tetrahedrite zone
 Type 2: Mafic-Backarc (ophiolite)
Setting: Mature ocean-ocean backarc, oceanic
spreading ridges
Av. Size and Composition: 2.7 m.t., 1.8 Cu, 0.84 Zn,
0.02 Pb, 1.4 g/t Au, 11 g/t Ag
Geology: Tholeiitic: MORB to LILE and LREE-enriched
, ocean island basalt
Ore: Massive sulfides bulbous pyritic, low As, Sb, Sn;
prominent Cu-stringer zones.
Pipe alteration: pronounced, zoned Fe -Mg chlorite
core, sericite+/- paragonite rim ; silicic veins
Semiconformable: Epidote-albite-actinolite, local
silicification; regular metal depletion
Examples: Cyprus, Oman, Lokken (Norway)
 Ophiolite-hosted
Usually formed in mature
oceanic backarcs
May be obducted oceanic
spreading ridges
Productive areas have
plagiogranite in the
subvolcanic sequence
biggest deposits low in
stratigraphic section
Au-rich caps generally
overlooked by early miners
 Type 3: Pelitic - Mafic Backarc (Besshi)
Setting: Mature ocean-ocean backarc
Av. Size and Composition: 4.7 m.t., 1.2 Cu, 1.6 Zn, 0.7
Pb, 0.75 g/t Au, 19 g/t Ag
Geology: pelitic to semi-pelitic distal, minor siliciclastic
sediments. Tholeiitic basalt, MORB to LILE and LREE-
enriched , ocean island basalt
Ore: Massive sulfides tabular, pyrite & pyrrhotite, low
As, Sb, Sn; high Co (+/- Ni?), minor Cu-stringer
zones.Some sulfidic sediments, chert, IF.
Pipe alteration: zoned Fe -Mg chlorite core, sericite;
Semiconformable: not well established
Examples: Besshi, Windy Craggy
Besshi-Type (Mafic-
Dominated Siliciclastic)
 Type 4: Bimodal felsic-dominated
Setting: Ocean-continent arc, nascent arc rifting
Av. Size and Composition: 3.4 m.t., 1.0 Cu, 4.4 Zn, 1.1
Pb, 1.1 g/t Au, 56 g/t Ag
Geology: <65% Na+/- K felsic pyroclastic strata,
endogenous domes; sediment minor (tuffite). >35%
pillowed tholeiitic to calc-alkaline andesite, Felsic subvolc.
intrusions, not prominent
Ore: Massive sulfides bulbous to tabular, pyritic, As, Sb,
Sn variable; some Au-rich, local (late?) high-S zones;
limited Cu-stringer zones.
Pipe alteration: pronounced, silicification and sericite
dominant, zoned Fe -Mg chlorite core, sericite rim
Semiconformable: Lower albitic, upper K-spar rich, Na-
depleted, uppermost zoned (Fe) carbonate
Examples: Kuroko, Skellefte, Sturgeon Lake, Buchans,
Buttle Lake
These are a special case of the bimodal-felsic-dominated class
There are two types
1:Unusual compositions: Boliden, Neves Corvo: possible direct magmatic input
High Hg, Sn, Te; unusual non-stratiform shapes, not high S
Unusually enriched in high volatility elements (Hg, Sb, As, S):
probable exceptionally high vapour-phase (boiling) systems
not really high S either!
 Type 5: Felsic siliciclastic hosted
Setting: Mature ocean-continent backarc
Av. Size and Composition: 7.1 m.t., 0.6 Cu, 2.7 Zn, 1.1
Pb, 0.6 g/t Au (?), 38 g/t Ag
Geology: Siliciclastic (volcanic +/- continent derived)
sediments, locally prominent felsic pyroclastic flows,
minor calc-alkaline mafic flows (typically H.W.)
Ore: Massive sulfides huge tabular, pyrite & pyrrhotite,
variable As, Sb, Sn; minor Cu-stringer zones. Some
with IF, chert
Pipe alteration:variable size, usually minor, sericitic,
silicic, Fe-chlorite
Semiconformable: not well established (K-rich upper
zone, Na-rich (+epidote, actinolite) lower
Examples: Bathurst, Iberia, Kazakhstan, Bergslagen (?)
 Bathurst Mining Camp: Sedimented
Back-Arc Continental Rift Basin
Oceanic Subduction
Back-Arc
Crust Zone and Shelf Land
Rift
Island Arc

Sea level
O2 Felsic Massive Basinal
HS
2
Volcanics Sulfides sediments
Oceanic Crust
Syn-rift
Syn-rift Continental
clastics
clastics
Magma Basement
Asthenosphere

Asthenosphere
Subducting Upwelling
Oceanic
Crust
Geology
of the
Brunswick
District
Bimodal Siliciclastic Environment
 Summary
Cu-rich deposits form in primitive, basalt-dominant oceanic arc-
backarc systems: deep water
Zn-rich deposits form in epicontinental, felsic and sediment-
dominant oceanic backarc systems
Subvolcanic intrusions are more common, and are commonly
mafic or composite
High-T reaction (ep-ab-act-qtz) zones are metal depleted with
silicified caps (or carbonate in shallow-water systems): These
provide good indictors of potentially productive regions
Alteration pipes occupy synvolcanic faults: usually vertically
extensive, Mg-metasomatized, Na Ca depleted and Cu-rich
Cu-rich VMS typically form as mounds on the paleo-seafloor;
extensive metal redistribution may result in Cu-rich core, Au
Ba cap (post PC)
Zn-rich VMS form sub-seafloor, some metal redistribution,
copper in limited stringer zones, Au-rich (cap), oxidized distal
exhalite
Laterally extensive exhalite (chert or pelite) contains
anomalous metals and conserved elements, useful as vectors
to ore