Generator Protection

1
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 Generator Protection -
Introduction
Size of individual generating unit 30 MW to 500/1000
MW
Loss of even a single unit is a serious problem
Consequence : Protection systems of such generators
have also become more stringent
Required to reduce the outage period to a minimum
Achieved by rapid discriminative clearance of all fault
conditions associated with the units
Damage due to faults is none or to the minimum

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 Aspects of Generator
Protection
Fault Classification
Internal faults
Abnormal Service conditions
External Faults (as back up protection)
The hazards and problems considered
Phase to phase faults in winding
Phase-ground faults in winding
Ground faults in the rotor

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 Abnormal Conditions

Loss or insufficient excitation

Overload
Overvoltage
Under and Over frequency
Unbalance current
Inadvertent energization
Out of step (loss of synchronism)
Loss of prime mover (motoring)

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 Protective Relays
Over voltage protection
Over fluxing protection
Low forward power and reverse power protection
Dead machine protection
Stator over current protection
Rotor Over current protection
Generator Loss of excitation protection
Generator negative phase sequence protection
Back up distance protection
Shaft damage protection
Under frequency protection
Generator pole slipping protection
UAT breaker failure protection

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 Protection Schemes
Generator differential
Generator and generator transformer overall
differential
Transformer (GT-UAT) differential
Inter turn fault
Generator rotor earth fault
Generator stator earth fault
UAT differential
Generator transformer restricted earth fault
Fire protection for GT and UAT

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 Protection Schemes
(contd..)
Backup protection
GT backup over current protection
GT neutral over current protection
UAT backup over current protection
Distance protection of generator
UAT (LV side) earth fault protection

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 Function number for
generator protection
Ground Fault (50/51-G/N, 27/59, 59N, 27-3N, 87N)
Phase Fault (51, 51V, 87G)
Backup Remote Fault Detection (51V, 21)
Reverse Power (32)
Loss of Field (40)
Thermal (49)
Fuse Loss (60)
Over excitation and Over/Under voltage (24, 27/59)
Inadvertent Energization (50IE, 67)
Negative Sequence (46, 47)
Off-Frequency Operation (81O/U)
Sync Check (25) and Auto Synchronizing (25A)
Out of Step (78)

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 IEEE Function number for generator
protection
IEEE No Function IEEE No Function

Stator ground over current (Low, Med Z

24 Over excitation 50/51N Gnd, Neutral CT of flux summatin CT)
25 Synchronism check 51GN, 51N Stator ground over current (High Z gnd)
32 Reverse power (one stage) 51VC Voltage controlled overcurrent

Reverse power, Non electrical trip

32-1 supervision 51VR Voltage restrained overcurrent

59N, 27-3N,
40 Loss of field (Var flow approach) 59P Ground overvotlage

46 Negative sequence overcurrent 67IE Directional O/C for inadvertent energization

49 Stator temperature (RTD) 81 Over/Under frequency
50/87 Differential via flux summation CTs 87G Generator phase differential

Inverdent energization overcurrent with 27,

50/27IE 81 supervision 87N Generator ground differential

Stator ground over current (Low, Med Z

51N ground, Phase CT residual 87UD Unit differential

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Stator Earth Fault Protection
Neutral Overvoltage Scheme
95% Stator Overcurrent Scheme
Protection

3rd Harmonic Under-voltage

Scheme
100% Stator
Protection Neutral Injection Scheme

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95% Stator Ground fault protection
Provided by a neutral voltage relay with harmonic
restraint and adjustable time delay

The relay is fed either from a neutral voltage

transformer or from the broken delta winding of 3-
phase voltage transformers on the generator line side

Normally set to operate at 5% of the maximum neutral

voltage with a delay of 0.3 to 0.5 seconds

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 Generator phase fault
protection
Generator over current
protection should be
delayed and co-
ordinated with
downstream faults.

Manufacturers of
generator generally set
the typical or minimum
value. Lack of proper
co-ordination results in
generator tripping to
downstream faults.

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 Generator fault current
Sub transient current
Transient current
Steady state current

Xd : 0.15pu to 0.25pu
Xd : 0.25pu to 0.3pu
Xd : 1pu for Hydro
2pu for Thermal.

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 Voltage restrained or voltage controlled
over current relay

Voltage restrained
If the voltage falls, the pickup will be at
the reduced current.

Voltage controlled
Enabled if the voltage falls below
the pre-set value.

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 Differential protection

Flux
summation
CT acts as
sensitive
differential
protection.

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 Generator differential and
unit differential scheme.
Only generator is covered
in case of generator breaker

Generator and generator

transformer are covered in case
of breaker only at HT side.

Overall differential protection

Covers generator, generator
transformer and UAT.

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 Reverse Power Relay
This relay is for the protection of Prime Mover
(Turbine or motor)
If the driving torque becomes less than the total
losses in the generator and the prime mover, the
generator starts to work as a synchronous
compensator, taking the necessary active power from
the network
In case of steam turbines, a reduction of the steam
flow reduces the cooling effect on the turbine blades
and overheating may occur
For thermal units, this setting is normally 1%

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 Anti-motoring (32) and
loss of field (40) protection
Senses the voltage
and current.
Can be used as
reverse power or
low forward power
relay.
Generally set at
0.5% with 3-5
sec. time delay.
Should never be
instantaneous to
avoid tripping
during
synchronization.

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 Stator temperature
(thermal) protection
Resistance
temperature detector
(RTD) embedded in
the stator slot is
used for temperature
measurement.
Relay provides a
constant current
source to measure
the voltage across
the RTD.
It is possible to have
two settings, one for
alarm and the other
for tripping.

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 Loss of VT detection
The operation of
voltage based relays
should be blocked
during loss of VT.
Achieved by
comparing the
voltage of two VTs.
Can also be
achieved by voltage
and current
comparison

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 Out of Step Operation
Causes
Loss of excitation with resulting asynchronous running
Falling out of step with existing excitation intact, as a
result of faults in the system
Due to Generator out of step operation, alternating
mechanical stresses are impressed on generator stators,
rotors, shafts and coupling
Cyclic depression of the rms voltage supplied to loads may
severely disturb operation of consumer drivers through
synchronous motors falling out of step and induction
motors stalling

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 Out of Step Operation

Out of step operation starting with generator or part

of the system may spread to the other parts of the
system and system may collapse
Out of step conditions which result from short circuits
in the system persist for some time and are
characterized by strong oscillation of the reactive and
active power
Presently offset mho relays are being employed for
the detection of loss of excitation and loss of
synchronism condition

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 Out of step protection

Rotor angle for fault cleared

within the critical clearing time

Rotor angle for fault cleared beyond

the critical clearing time.

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 Out of step operation

Fault cleared within the

critical clearing time

Fault cleared beyond the

critical clearing time.

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Generator Backup Impedance Relay
A three phase impedance relay with a circular
operating characteristics
This is mainly intended as back up short circuit
protection to the differential relays of generators and
to the line relays of network
Relay must be able to operate even when the fault
current is lower than the rated current and likewise in
the even of close up faults when the output voltage
from the generator disappears
If the voltage drops to zero volts the relay operates
for a current as low as 20% of the rated current
The relay is normally set to operate at 70% of the
generator load impedance

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Generator impedance relay
An impedance
relay can also
be used to
detect the
external fault.
CT position is
generally after
the generator
unit.
Operation is
always time-
delayed.

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 Generator Impedance
Relay
Example
Consider a generator of
141.5 MVA 10.5 kV 50 Hz 0.85 pf
Assuming generator is operating at 95 % of the rated
terminal voltage, the load impedance is given by
Zload = (10.5 x 0.95)2/141.5 = 0.70318 /phase
Assuming 1.4 times the rated current, the primary side
impedance is approximately equal to 0.4922

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 Generator Impedance Relay

Secondary side impedance is given by

[CT ratio : 9000/5 PT ratio : 10.5 kV/110 V]
ZLOAD-Secondary = (110/10.5 x 103) x 9000/5 x 0.4922
= 9.282
The impedance relay is set around 9 with a time delay of
0.5 to 1 second

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 Interlock Over Current Relay
This is a breaker failure relay
Introduced due to shorter and shorter fault clearing times
Each circuit breaker is provided with a local backup
protection scheme
If a power circuit breaker is unsuccessful to clear a fault
say due to a struck breaker pole adjacent circuit breaker is
tripped by the breaker failure relay after pre-set time
This relay provides local back up protection when a
primary circuit breaker has failed to operate
It also initiates tripping of adjacent back up breakers for
disconnection of the fault, thus preventing system
instability

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 Generator Over Voltage Relay
Automatic Voltage regulator : controls the terminal
voltage, during the starting up of a generator prior to
synchronization
After synchronization, the terminal voltage of the
machine is dictated by its own AVR and the AVRs of
the nearby machines
If the generator CB is tripped while the machine is
running at full load and rated pf, the subsequent rise
in terminal voltage will normally be limited by a quick
acting AVR

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 Over Voltage Relay
However, if the AVR is
faulty, or at this
particular time, switched
for manual control,
severe over voltages will
occur
This voltage rise will be
further increase if
simultaneous over
speeding occurs, owing
to a slow acting Turbine-
Governor System

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 Overall Differential Protection
Relay
Relay with three fold restraint namely
Through fault restraint for external faults
Magnetising inrush restraint
Over excitation restraint to counteract operation at
abnormal magnetizing currents caused by high
voltage

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 Overall Differential Protection Relay
During normal conditions, a small current flows
through the differential circuit of the relay. This
current corresponds to the excitation current of the
power transformer and to a current depending on the
ratio error of the CTs
With power transformer with tap change, at rated
load and with the tap changer in extreme end
position, differential current may be 20-30%

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 GT Over-fluxing Relay Detection
The excitation flux in the core of a power transformer is
Directly proportional to the excitation voltage
Inversely proportional to the frequency
The losses due to eddy currents and hysteresis and hence
the temperature rise, increase in proportion to the level of
excitation
As long as the GT is connected to the network, the risk of
over excitation is relatively small
However when the GT is disconnected from the network,
there is an obvious risk of over excitation, mainly during
generator start up and shut down

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 Over excitation relay
Over excitation
occurs with higher
voltage or at rated
voltage and lower
frequency.
Inverse squared
curve can be used
for tripping and
definite time for
alarm.
Over voltage and
under frequency
relays can also be
used as back up to
over excitation relay.

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 Over Excitation Relay
The risk of over-excitation is largest during periods when
the frequency is below rated value. Hence, over voltage
relays alone cannot be used to protect the GT unit against
over fluxing
The proper way of doing this is to use a relay which
measures the ratio between voltage and frequency (V/Hz
relay)
Modern power transformers are designed to operate at
very high flux levels, very close to the ultimate simulation
level
Therefore, even a slight increase in the flux above the
designed value saturates the core and forces the flux into
areas which normally carry very little or no flux at all

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 Over Excitation
Causes
Running or shutting down an alternator with the AVR in
service. The regulator will attempt to maintain normal
voltage regardless of frequency, and hence at sub normal
frequency, the connected generator transformer will be
over excited
Similar effect to above can occur if the alternator is started
up with the manual control set inadvertently to a very high
level of excitation, the AVR being out of service as per
normal practice. The resultant voltage to frequency ratio
will be excess of normal value

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 Over Excitation
Causes (contd..)

A deliberate attempt to export a large VAR component as

an aid to system control results in a over fluxing condition
in a transformer, the control operation usually consists of
leaving the AVR control normal but operating the tap
changer to reduce primary turns which results in a higher
voltage per turn and hence, an increase in flux

With the transformer connected to the bus, the bus voltage

being greater than the rated value, operation of the tap
changer over its full range as a maintenance operation can
also produce over fluxing conditions

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 Line Backup Impedance
Relay
For large generators, an extra impedance relay with short
time delay of 15-200 ms is sometimes included to obtain a
fast backup protection for phase short circuit on the
generator terminals, the generator bus and the low voltage
winding of the unit transformer
A circular impedance characteristic is used for this
application and the relay is set to operate at 50-60% of the
unit transformer short circuit impedance. Assuming relay is
located at the generator terminal

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 Line backup relay

Example
CT ratio is 9000/5 and PT ratio 10.5 kV/110kV
Generator transformer impedance (primary side)
ZGTprimary = 0.13 x 10.52/140 = 0.1023
ZGTSecondary = 0.1023 x 9000/5 x110/10.5x103
= 1.93
Assuming that the maximum loading of the GT is 150 MVA
(worst condition loading)
Zload min on the primary side = (10.5)2/150 = 0.735

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 Line backup relay

Zload min on the secondary side

= 0.725 x 9000/5 x 110/(10.5 x 103)
= 13.84
This implies that the relay setting should be less than
this value Z(load)min to avoid load encroachment problem.
Also, 50% of Zload min = 6.92
Thus Zload min = 6.92 1.93 = 4.99

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Suggested bare minimum protection
for low impedance grounded
generators

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Suggested bare minimum protection
for medium impedance grounded
generators

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Suggested bare minimum protection
for high impedance grounded
generators

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 Extended protection for high
impedance grounded generators

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 Reference

Generator Protection Application Guide by

Basler Electric / other relay manufacturers.

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 Queries & Discussion

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 Frequency Relays

1
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 Contents
Introduction
Under Frequency Relay
dF/dT Relay
Design of Load Shedding Scheme
Example Problem
Simulation of Frequency Relay Using
MiPower

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 Introduction
Load Generation balance
Mismatch in load and generation results
in frequency change
Machine frequency limits
Tripping of machine to prevent damage,
resulting in black out condition
Use of frequency relay to maintain L-G
balance
Types of frequency relay
Over frequency relay
Under frequency relay
dF/dT relay

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 Under Frequency Relay
When Pm < Pe, results in deceleration of machine
and frequency decreases below nominal
Pm = Mechanical Power input to Generator
Pe = Electrical Power output of generator
Generally used to throw off load in order to obtain
equilibrium between Pm and Pe
Operates when the system frequency falls below
the set point
In industrial systems can also be used for
islanding

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... Continued
Relationship between variation in frequency and Load
generation mismatch can be given by
dF/dT = PA f0 / 2 G H -------(1), where
G= Nominal MVA of machine under consideration
H= MWs/MVA or MJ/MVA
f0= Nominal frequency
PA = Net accelerating or decelerating Power
Operates when the rate of frequency change in above
the set point.

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 dF/dT relay
In case of group of generators the inertia
constant H is calculated from
H = (H1 * MVA1 + H2 * MVA2 + ) / (MVA1 +
MVA2 + .)
Where 1,2 etc. refer to individual generators in
the group
and H is expressed to a MVA base equal to the
total MVA capacity of the group

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Design of Load Shedding
scheme
Following need to be defined for design of
Automatic Load shedding System

A model that defines different Generating

Machines
Load Parameters
Criteria for setting Frequency Relays

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 ...Continued
Model :
A single machine is considered to illustrate Load
Shedding Scheme
It can also be considered as an equivalent to a number
of machines electrically connected with negligible
oscillations among themselves
Loads are represented as constant Power, neglecting the
change in load due to variation in Voltage and frequency.

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 ...Continued

The rate of change of frequency is calculated using

eqn. (1) with the assumptions:
Mechanical Power entering the Machine remains at
the initial value (for purpose of hand calculation)
Load does not change wrt time, voltage or
frequency, it only gets reduced due to load shedding

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 ...Continued
Following parameters need to be defined to implement a Load shedding
Scheme
Maximum Load that can be disconnected and identify the loads to be
disconnected in a sequence
Quantum of load to be disconnected depends on loss of
generation or import from the utility
Starting frequency of Load shedding scheme
It should be below the system normal working frequency
range
Should be coordinated with islanding relay setting
Minimum permissible frequency
Running below nominal speed at reduced system
frequency can cause cumulative damage by excessive
vibration. Table shows typical allowable operation durations
at reduced frequencies

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 ... Continued
% of rated frequency at full load Max. permissible Time (Min.)
99.0 Continuously
97.3 90
97.0 10
96.0 1

Operating times at low frequency and full load are

cumulative
However, in majority of cases, during transient conditions
with load below nominal, reduction of frequency to 93% is
permitted without causing damage to turbine or TG auxiliary
lubrication and cooling systems.

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 ... Continued
Setting of Frequency Relays
Settings should be such that final settings satisfy
both speed and coordination
It is to be ensured that least amount of load is shed
depending on initial over load condition
Determination of operating times:
Operating times which indicate final effective load
disconnection for successive stages of load
shedding should be worked out considering the
relay pickup time, intentional delay introduced and
the breaker operating time
For industrial systems relay pickup time of 50ms
and breaker operating time of 100ms are usually
considered

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Example
SLD of the system under consideration

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... Continued
System Data
Gen 1 100 MVA, Inertia constant = 3 MJ/MVA
Gen 2 62.5 MVA, Inertia constant = 2.5 MJ/MVA
H eff = (100*3)+(62.5*2.5) / 162.5 = 2.8
GH constant = 162.5*2.8 = 455
Total Generation = 130 MW
Total Load = 180 MW
Critical = 120 MW
Non Critical = 60 MW
Import = 50 MW
System frequency = 50 Hz

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 ... Continued
Over load considering total loss of grid :
% Over load = (180-130)/130 * 100 = 27.8 %
Total Load to be shed = 50 MW (120 MW of critical load)
Frequency at which load shedding will start = 48.2 Hz
Such that it is coordinated with grid islanding relay setting
Minimum acceptable frequency = 47.5 Hz
Such that it is coordinated with the machine under
frequency setting
The entire load shedding is divided into three stages based on
priority of load
Stage 1 20 MW
Stage 2 10 MW
Stage 3 30 MW

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... Continued
Determination of Frequency Relay settings:
The settings are decided such that each stage is
disconnected when the frequency reaches a
predetermined value as shown below
First stage setting:
First stage is disconnected when the frequency reaches
48.2 Hz
Second Stage setting:
Second stage is to be set such that it does not operate
for over loads of first stage
An over load equal to 1st stage load is considered and
rate of frequency drop is worked out as
df/dt = (-20/2 G H)*50 = -1.09 Hz/s
Frequency as a function of time : f1 = f0 (df/dt)*t

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... Continued
Trip time of first stage t trip =t pick up +t breaker +t relay
t pick up = (50-48.2) / 1.09 = 1.65 s
t trip = 1.65 + 0.1 + 0.1 = 1.85 s
Frequency drop up to operation of 1st stage is
= 50 (1.09*1.85) = 48 Hz
Therefore second stage is set to operate below this
frequency value @ 47.9 Hz and delay of 0.1 s.
Third Stage setting:
Third stage is set such that it will not operate for
over loads corresponding to stages 1 & 2 i.e. for
an over load of 30 MW
df/dt corresponding to this = (-30/2 G H)*50 = -1.65 Hz/s
Pick up time for first stage relay at this rate = (50-48.2) /
1.65 = 1.09 s
Trip time of first stage ttrip1= 1.09+0.1+0.1 = 1.29 s
Frequency at this time = 50-(1.65*1.29) = 47.87 Hz

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... Continued
As second stage pick up is set at 47.9 Hz, 2nd stage
pickup time is
t pickup2 = (50 - 47.9)/ 1.65 = 1.27 s
t trip2 = 1.27+0.1+0.1 = 1.47 s
After tripping of 1st stage load, there will be a change in
rate of fall of frequency as after tripping of 1st stage ,
the deceleration power is only 10 MW
The rate of fall is given by df/dt = (-10 /2 G H) *47.87 =
-0.52 Hz/s
After tripping of first stage f0 = 47.87 Hz, therefore now
we have (f-47.87) = -0.52*(t-1.27)
i.e. f = 48-0.52*t
Therefore frequency drop after 2nd stage tripping
f = 48.53 - 0.52*1.47 = 47.75 Hz
Therefore third stage pick up is set below this
@47.65 Hz
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 Queries & Discussions

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Electromagnetic Transient Analysis (ETA)
& Overvoltage Studies

1
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 Contents
Introduction
System studies
Electromagnetic Transient Analysis
Need of Overvoltage studies
Different types of Overvoltage studies
Overvoltage protection

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 Introduction
Considerations for PSOC and design

1.Power quality: Maintain continuity of power

supply at desired voltage and frequency levels

2. Reliability: Minimize loss of load probability or

failure rate of components and systems.

3. Security: Robustness of system to remain in

normal state, even if some contingency takes
place.

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4. Stability: Ability of system to maintain the
synchronism under disturbances or to ensure
steady state post disturbance operation.

5. Economy: Minimize capital cost, operating

(running) cost and maintenance cost.

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 System studies
1.Power flow solutions

2. Short circuit studies

3.Transient stability analysis

4.Electromagnetic Transient Analysis (ETA)

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 Transients in power Systems

Electromechanical PhenomenaElectromagnetic Phenomena

Frequency f in Hz
Frequency Range 2

Very Fast Transients, SF6 Transients

106
Fast Transients, Lightning
105

104 Slow Front Transients, Switching

103 Temporary Overvoltages, ferroresonance

102
Steady State Overvoltages
101 Subsynchronous resonance
Frequency Range 1

Transient Stability: Machinerotor

100
Dynamics
10-1 Interarea Oscillations

10-2
Mid term & long term Stability:
10-3 Automatic Generation Control

10-4

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 Transients in power Systems
Electromagnetic Transients in Power Systems
Impulsive Transient
Nanosecond 5ns rise
Microsecond 1s rise
Millisecond 0.1ms rise
Oscillatory Transients
Slow transient <5 kHz
Medium transient 5-500 kHz
Fast transient 0.5-5 MHz
Very fast transient 5-50MHz

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The differential equation for the circuit shown
di(t ) 1
Ri(t ) L i(t )dt Vm sin( wt )
dt C
Linear system Laplace Transforms
The closed form solution is
1
I ( s) R sL V ( s)
sC

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Polyphase and several loops Not possible to use Laplace
Transforms

Numerical methods Time discretization

(T , 2T ,......)

L& C Storage elements;

transients

Convert all L & C to Resistances and solve only resistive

networks

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 Trapezoidal Rule

Differential Equation Difference Equation

di(t ) i(t ) i(t ) i(t T )

dt T T
i(t) To be computed

i(t T ) known as past history term

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Resistor
1 2
v1 (t ) v2 (t )
i12 (t )
R
i12 (t ) G12 v1 (t ) v2 (t )

i R i R

1 2 1 2

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 L
Inductor
1 2
v12 (t ) v12 (t T ) i12 (t ) i12 (t T )
L
2 T
di(t )
v(t ) L
dt
T
i12 (t ) v1 (t ) v2 (t ) I12 (t T )
2L
i R= 2L/T
L
1 [ ] 2
1 2 I12(t - T)

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Capacitor C
1 2
dv(t )
i12 (t ) C
dt
i12 (t ) i12 (t T ) v12 (t ) v12 (t T )
C
2 T
2C 2C
i12 (t ) v1 (t ) v2 (t ) v1 (t T ) v2 (t T ) i12 (t T )
T T
2C
i12 (t ) v1 (t ) v2 (t ) I12 (t T )
T
i R= T/2C
i
C 1 [ ] 2
1 2 I12(t - T)

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Inductor with series Resistor:
i R L i G
1 [ ] 2
1 2 I12(t - T)
i12 (t ) G v1 (t ) v2 (t ) I12 (t T )
where
1
G
2L
R
T
I12 (t T ) G v1 (t T ) v2 (t T ) Hi12 (t T )
where
2L
R
H T
2L
R
T

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 Distributed Elements: Transmission line
X=d
1 X=0 2 R = Resistance /unit length

L = Inductance H/unit length

i1
v1 v2
C = Capacitance F/unit length
d = line length
v( x, t ) i ( x, t )
L' v( x, t ) Z oi ( x, t ) 2 Z o f1 ( x ct )
x t
i ( x, t ) v( x, t ) v1 (t ) Z oi12 (t ) v2 (t ) Z oi21 (t )
C'
x t v1 (t ) v2 (t )
i12 (t ) i21 (t )
i ( x, t ) f1 ( x ct ) f 2 ( x ct ) Zo Zo
v( x, t ) Z o f1 ( x ct ) Z o f 2 ( x ct ) v1 (t )
i12 (t ) I12 (t )
where Zo
L' 1 where
Zo ; c
C' ' '
LC d
travel time
c

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Resistive Equivalent for Single Phase Line:
x=0 x=d
1 2

i12
v1 v2

i 12(t)

[
Z0 I12(t-
v1( t)
)
]

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 Extension to Three Phase Networks:
1a 2a
1A Linear Linear 2A
Transformation Transformation
1b 2b
1B 2B
1c 2c 2C
1C [S] [Q] [S] [Q]

PHASE Model Domain PHASE

DOMAIN DOMAIN

Transformation of Three-phase Line

From Phase to Model Domain

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 Extension to 3-phase network
V mod e SV phase ;V phase QV mod e where S is mod el matrix of ZY and Q S 1
v1a (t ) v (t a )
i1a 2 a (t ) I1a 2 a (t a ) where I1a 2 a (t a ) 2 a i2 a1a (t a )
Z ao Z ao
v1b (t ) v (t b )
i1b 2b (t ) I1b 2 b (t b ) where I1b 2 b (t b ) 2b i2 b1b (t b )
Z bo Z bo
v1c (t ) v (t c )
i1c 2 c (t ) I1c 2 c (t c ) where I1c 2 c (t c ) 2 c i2 c1c (t c )
Z co Z co
1
i12phase Z phase V1 phase I12phase
1
Z phase [ S ][ Z mod e ]1[Q ]
[ I12phase ] [Q][ I12mod e ]
1 1 1 1 1 1
S 1 2 1 Q 1 1 0
1
3
1 1 2 1 0 1

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 Illustration
System:
1 3
2

Single Line Diagram

1 2 3

vs(t)

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 Associated Equivalent Circuit
I 12(t -T) I 23(t -T)
1 [ ] 2 [ ] 3

G12 G23
[ ]

I 10(t -T) G20

[ ]

I 20(t -T) G30 I 30(t -T)

[ ]

[ ]
GsVs(t) GS

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 Nodal equations for the illustration
network
node1
G12 [v1 (t ) v2 (t )] I12 (t T ) Gs [v1 (t ) vs (t )] I10 (t T ) 0
node 2
G12 [v2 (t ) v1 (t )] I12 (t T ) G23[v2 (t ) v3 (t )] I 23 (t T ) G20v2 (t ) I 20 (t T ) 0
node 3
G23[v3 (t ) v2 (t )] I 23 (t T ) G30v3 (t ) I 30 (t T ) 0

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G12 + GS -G12 0 1(t)

2(t)
-G12 G12 + G23 + G20 - G23 =
3(t)
0 - G23 G23 + G30

G1s s(t) - I12(t - T) - I10(t - T)

0 + - I21(t - T) - I20(t - T) - I23(t - T)

0 - I32(t - T) - I30(t - T)

[G ][v(t )] [i (t )] [ I history ]
where
[G ] conductance matrix
[i (t )] column vector of current sources(specified)
[ I history ] column vector of past history current sources
[v(t )] column vector of n node voltages (to be computed at instant 't')

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 GAA GAB v A (t ) iA (t ) I Ahistory
G
BA GBB vB (t ) iB (t ) I Bhistory
part A : representing nodes unknown voltages
part B : representing nodes known voltages
[GAA ][v A (t )] [ I total ] [G AB ][vB (t )]
where
[ I total ] [iA (t )] [ I Ahistory ]

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 READ DATA, SET INTIAL CONDITIONS: t=0

BUILD UPPER PART OF TRANGULAR MATRIX

BUILD REDUCED MATRIX Flow chart for ETA

CHECK SWITCHES FOR CHANGES

YES
HAVE ANY SWITCH POSITIONS CHANGED?
NO
ST
IS THIS 1 STEP YES

NO ALTER REDUCED MATRIX FOR SPECIFIC SWITCH

POSITIONS; BUILD LOWER PART OF TRAIANGULAR MATRIX

IF NONLINEAR ELEMENTS;
FIND VECTOR [Z]

UPDATE PAST HISTORY , [IHISTORY]

t=t+T
YES
IS t>tmax?
NO
READ OR COMPUTE SPECIFIED VOLTGAES AND CURRENTS
AND UPDATE VOLTAGES INTO [V(T)]; ADD CURRENTS INTO [ITOTAL]
STOP
FORWARD SOLUTION ON [ITOTAL] WITH UPPER PART OF TRIANGULAR MATRIX

REFLECT SWITCH POSITIONS IN [ITOTAL] AND [VB(t)]

FURTHER FORWARD SOLUTION ON [ITOTAL] WITH LOWER PART OF TRIANGULAR MATRIX

BACK SUBSTITUTION ; Vj=Vi IF SWITCH j-i CLOSED AND i>j

IF NONLINEAR ELEMENTS : CORRECT VOLTAGES

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OUTPUT VOLTAGES
 1 2 3

CB Tr.line

1 2 3

G12 G23

G1s

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 Representation
1 Switch / Circuit breaker

1 2 1 2
R12= very small R12= very large

2 Creation of fault
2

3 Non linearity

f (V, I, time)

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I p(t) R2 L2
1

RB
Rm Lm
LB

node1
I p (t ) G12 [v1 (t ) v2 (t )] I12 (t T ) G1mv1 (t ) I1m (t T )
node 2
G12 [v2 (t ) v1 (t )] I 21 (t T ) G2 B v2 (t ) I 2 B (t T ) 0

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 Surge Arrestor model: Rpp I V

Power
Vpo
System LA

Current for SA I = KVn

K, n are specified for ranges of v
f (v) = Vpo -Rpp I - V
f (v) = Vpo -Rpp KVn - V
Taylors Series

f (v0+ v) = f (v0) + v f (v) v0

+=0
f (v) = - Rpp KnVn-1 1.0
f (v0) = - Rpp KV0n-1 1.0

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 Need of Overvoltage studies

Design issues
Protecting equipment from Insulation failures
Preventing Overheating of equipment
Avoid the Mal-operation of protective device
To find optimum location of Lightning Arrestors
To find the energy class of arrestors
Protection against high-touch voltages and
internal flashover in GIS enclosures.

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 Classification of O/V
Steady state
Temporary
Slow front
Fast front
Very fast front

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Events Causing Overvoltages

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 Steady state overvoltages
The highest r.m.s phase-to-phase voltage that occurs
on the system under normal operating conditions.

These are preceded by those of transient and dynamic

periods.

This investigation must be done in advance so that if

necessary, modification in basic system could be done so
that these over voltages remain within the capabilities
/rating of the equipments.

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 Temporary Overvoltages
Oscillatory phase-to-ground or phase-to-phase
overvoltage of relatively long duration (seconds,
even minutes) at a given location and that is
undamped or only weakly damped.
Temporary overvoltages usually originate from
switching or fault clearing operations or from non-
linearities.
Temporary overvoltages are of importance when
determining stresses on equipment related to
power-frequency withstand voltage in particular
for the energy capability of MOA.

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 Ferroresonance (FR) TOV
An oscillating phenomena occurring in an electric
circuit which must contain at least:
1. a non-linear inductance
2. a capacitor,
3. a voltage source (generally sinusoidal),
4. low losses.
Transients, lightning overvoltages, energizing or
deenergizing transformers or loads, occurrence or
removal of faults, etc...may initiate
ferroresonance.
The main feature of this phenomenon is that more
than one stable steady state response is possible
for the same set of the network parameters.

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 Comparison of LR and FR
Its (FR) resonance possibility in a wide range of
values of Capacitances.
In case of FR, the frequency of the voltage and
current waves which may be different from that of
the sinusoidal voltage source.
The existence of several stable steady state
responses for a given configuration and values.
In case of LR the voltages and currents are linear
and they are frequency dependent.

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Examples of systems at risk
from ferroresonance.

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 Ferroresonance Prediction
High permanent overvoltages of differential mode
(phase-to-phase) and/or common mode (phase-
to-earth)
High permanent over currents, high permanent
distortions of voltage and current waveforms.
Displacement of the neutral point voltage,
transformer heating (in no-load operation)
Continuous, excessively loud noise in
transformers and reactors,
Apparent untimely tripping of protection devices.

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 Preventing or Damping FR
Avoid or by proper design and/or switching
operations, configurations suspectable to
ferroresonance

Ensure that the energy supplied by the source is

not sufficient to sustain the phenomenon.

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Sample study results for predicting and
understanding of TOV and FR

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 1-pole 2-pole
HT side LR by opening CB2

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 Voltage Current
FR existence when 2-poles opening of CB1

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Slow front overvoltages
When a circuit is energized, re-energized or
opened, transient over voltages termed as
switching surges are generated due to
associated traveling wave phenomena.
Line energisation
Transformer energisation and de-energisation
Shunt reactor switching
Shunt capacitor switching

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 Line energisation

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 Capacitor switching

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 Shunt reactor De-energisation

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 Reactor energisation

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Fast front Overvoltages

One of the primary causes of fast transients

(frequency range 0.5-5MHz) is the due to
lightning stroke to the transmission line.

Direct strokes to power conductors

Back flashovers

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Sample study results of FFO

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 Vbusbar with 1LA Vtransformer with 1LA

Vbusbar with 2LAs Direct stroke Vtransformer with 2LAs

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 Vbusbar with 1LA Vtransformer with 1LA

Vbusbar with 2LAs Vtransformer with 2LAs

Back flashovers

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Very Fast Front Overvoltages
VFFOs appear under switching conditions in GIS
or when operating vacuum circuit-breakers in
medium-voltage systems.
Pre-striking or GIS disconnector and SF6 circuit-
breaker re-ignition would produce VFFO.
VFFO in GIS can be divide into internal transient
and external transient overvoltages,
These VFFOs can be avoided by point-on-cycle
(POC) switching

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 Trapped charge=0.5p.u Trapped charge=1.0p.u
VFFOs in GIS

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 Overvoltage protection
Steady state overvoltages

-Transformer taps
-AVRs of Generators
-Neutral grounding of system
-Reactors
-Line reactors
-Bus reactors
-Tertiary reactors

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Overvoltage Protection for
SFO,FFO, and VFTO
-Resistor Insertion

-Controlled switching

-Draining trapped energy

-Shielding methods

-Lightening Arresters

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 Conclusion
Based on these different overvoltage studies, we will do
the insulation coordination of system equipment and
protective device

Equipment to be protected
Voltage

Protective device

time

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 Case study on Overvoltages
Insulation coordination for 400kV S/S by
conducting following overvoltage studies.

Steady state Overvoltages

Temporary Overvoltages

Switching Overvoltages

Lightning Overvoltages

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 Queries & Discussions

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 Thank You

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 COMTRADE
File Analysis

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 Contents
Introduction
Exploring Standard
Types of files
Difference between standard 1999 and 1991
Exercise

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 Introduction
Successful implementation of AFAS requires
handling variety of recording equipments.
The data available will be mostly in proprietary
format which is a critical issue to handle.
The problem can be solved by converting it into
a standard format such as COMTRADE file
format.
Data need to be analyzed by implementing
various algorithms.

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 Exploring standard
IEEE Std C37.111 is dedicated to Common
Format for Transient Data Exchange (COMTRADE)
for Power Systems.
A common format for data files and exchange
medium used for the interchange of various
types of fault, test or simulation data for
electrical power systems is defined in the
standard.
There are two versions initial came in 1991 and
revision is made in 1999.

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IEEE Std C37.111-1999
Each COMTRADE record has set of four files
which carries a different class of information.
The four files are as follows :
Header
Conguration
Data
Information

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 Header file (xxx.HDR)
The header le is an optional ASCII text le
The header le can include any information in any
order desired by the creator.
The content of file is not intended to be
manipulated by any application and it can be
Description of the power system prior to
disturbance
Name of the station
Length of the faulted line; etc..

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Configuration file (xxx.CFG)
The conguration le is an ASCII text le
intended to be read by a computer program
It contains information needed by a computer
program in order to properly interpret the data
(.DAT) le
One eld in the rst line of the conguration le
identies the year of the COMTRADE standard
revision with which the le complies (e.g. 1991,
1999, etc.)

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 Configuration file (xxx.CFG)
The conguration le shall have the following information:
Station name, identication of the recording device, and
COMTRADE Standard revision year
Number and type of channels
Channel names, units, and conversion factors
Line frequency
Sample rate(s) and number of samples at each rate
Date and time of rst data point
Date and time of trigger point
Data le type
Time Stamp Multiplication Factor.

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 Sample configuration file
An, ch_id, ph, ccbm, uu, a, b, skew, min, max, primary, secondary, PS

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 Data file (xxx.DAT)
The data le contains the value for each input
channel for each sample in the record.
The data le contains the sample number, time
stamp, and data values of each channel for each
sample in the le.
In the event that the total storage space required
for the le set exceeds 1.44 MB, the data le may be
segmented into multiple les, each of less than 1.44
MB having file extension from .D00 to .D99, thus
allowing a maximum of 100 data les.

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 Data file (xxx.DAT)
All data in data les are in the integer format.
The contents of the file are:
The rst column contains the sample number.
The second column is the time stamp for the data of
that sample number.
The third set of columns contain the data values that
represent analog information.
The fourth set of columns contain the data for the
status channels.
Format : n, timestamp, A1, A2,Ak, D1,
D2,Dm

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 Sample Data File

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Obtaining Instantaneous Value
The constants are available in XXX.CFG file
The value is available in XXX.DAT file
The conversion can be as follows :
Let x be the value of a quantity in data file
Let a and b the constants given in configuration file
Then, instantaneous value x is given as
x = ax + b
Example: if x=100, a = 10 and b=1
x = 10*100 + 1 = 1001

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 Information File (xxx.INF)
The information le (.INF) is an optional le.
The information le is an ASCII text le that is in a
computer readable specied format.
File contains two type of information which are
classified as public and private respectively.
Public sections contain information in a form that
can be used by equipment and/or software made by
more than one manufacturer.
Private sections contain manufacturer specic
information that is only useful with a specic vendor

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 Difference Between Standard of
1999 and 1991
The Header (.HDR) le is explicitly dened as optional.
The Conguration (.CFG) le has been modied.
A eld containing standard revision year has been added.
A eld for a Time Stamp Multiplication Factor has been added.
To assist in conversion of the data, three new scaling elds
(primary, secondary, and primary-secondary) are added.
Conguration elds for Status (Digital) Channel Information
have been expanded to ve elds.
Support for Event Triggered data has been added by the addition
of a new mode for sampling rate Information
The Date/Time Stamps format has been modied
i.e. mm/dd/yy in 1991 to dd/mm/yyyy in 1999

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Difference Between Standard of
1999 and 1991
A new format for a binary data (.DAT) le has
been specied .
A new optional Information le (.INF) has been
added to provide for transmission of extra public
and private information in computer-readable form
All eld descriptions are explicitly dened with
respect to: criticality, format, type,
minimum/maximum length, and
minimum/maximum value.

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 Exercise

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 Solution
Exercise 1 :
Ans 1: 1999 Ans 1: 1991
Ans 2: Analog = 8 Ans 2: Analog = 10
Digital =17 Digital = 48
Ans 3: 5972 Ans 3: 1605
Ans 4: Time Stamp - Ans 4: 1000 Hz
-Multiplication Factor
Exercise 2 :

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 Queries & Discussions

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 Thank you

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Tripping Analysis - Methodology

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 Contents
Importance

Source of Data for Analysis

Analysis Approach

Simulation Model

Conclusion and Recommendations

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 Importance
Helps in identifying issues related to
Commissioning errors (Eg. CT polarity reversal)
Setting errors
Adequacy of present relaying philosophy
Helps in preventing incorrect operations in
future
Improves effectiveness of the protection
system

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 Sources of Data for Analys
COMTRADE files from
Relay
DR
SCADA Data (understanding the operating
scenario)
PMU
Time Synchronized data for sequence of
operation
Observation

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 Analysis Approach
Analyze every data to classify it as use full
information for fault analysis
The use full information is studied in greater detail to
derive meaning full results
Aid for analysis
Instantaneous / RMS plots
Phasor Angle Comparison
Harmonic Plot
Relay trajectories (Eg. Impedance and differential)
Reasoning of obtained Waveforms and observations

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 Simulation Model
The scenario can be reconstructed in
simulation platform
Electro-Magnetic Transient Study
Transient Stability Study
Validate the analysis results derived using
disturbance data
Can also help to find solution for identified
issues.

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 Case Study

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Conclusion and Recommendations
Modification in relay settings
Correction of any commissioning related issues
Enhancement in operating philosophy that can
prevent future occurrence
Recommendations that can help reduce
occurrence of disturbance
If no incorrect operation protection scheme
healthiness can be studied.

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 Queries & Discussions

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 Thank You

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