Chai, C. S., Koh, J. H. L., & Tsai, C.-C. (2010).

Facilitating Preservice Teachers' Development of Technological, Pedagogical,

and Content Knowledge (TPACK). Educational Technology & Society, 13 (4), 6373.

Facilitating Preservice Teachers' Development of Technological, Pedagogical,

and Content Knowledge (TPACK)
Ching Sing Chai*, Joyce Hwee Ling Koh and Chin-Chung Tsai1
Nanyang Technological University, 1 Nanyang Walk, Singapore
1
Graduate School of Technological and Vocational Education, National Taiwan University of Science and
Technology, #43, Sec.4, Keelung Rd., Taipei, 106, Taiwan
[email protected] // [email protected] // [email protected]
*
Corresponding author

ABSTRACT
Preparing preservice teachers for ICT integration in the classrooms is a key focus for many teacher education
institutes. This paper examines the perceived development of preservice teachers in terms of their technological
knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, content knowledge and the synthesis of such knowledge, i.e., the
technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge (TPACK). A questionnaire adapted from Schmidt, Baran,
Thompson, Mishra, Koehler, and Shin (2009) was validated using factor analyses and the preservice teachers
TPACK perceptions before and after their ICT course were examined. The results reveal statistical significant
gains with good effect sizes. Regression analysis further reveals that technological knowledge, pedagogical
knowledge and content knowledge are all significant predictors of preservice teachers TPACK, with
pedagogical knowledge having the largest impact. Implications for designing the ICT instruction of preservice
teachers are discussed.

Keywords
Preservice teacher education, ICT, TPACK

Introduction
Since the creation of personal computers and the launch of the internet, many educators and governments have
advocated education reforms that take advantage of the affordances of information and communication technologies
(ICT) (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 2006; Fox & Henri, 2005; Greenhow, Robelia, & Hughes, 2009; Jonassen, Howland,
Marra, & Crismond, 2008; National School Boards Association, 2007). These reform efforts promote constructivist
and social constructivist teaching approaches that emphasize students as active constructors of knowledge in
collaborative settings. Currently, access to computers both in school and at home have improved tremendously in
most developed nations (Greenhow et al., 2009; Lim, Chai, & Churchill, 2010). However, student-centered education
supported by ICT is still an exception rather than a norm in classrooms. Many research studies indicate that teachers
use computers to support teacher transmission of knowledge (Gao, Choy, Wang, & Wu, 2009; Lim & Chai, 2008;
Selwyn, 2008). Given that preservice teacher education has good potential to influence teachers future use of ICT
(Hammond et al., 2009), it is clear that teacher educators have to constantly design, evaluate and redesign preservice
education for effective ICT integration (Goktas, Yildrim & Yildrim, 2009). Strong preservice education on the use of
ICT is also important because it can help to counter the possibilities of transmission-oriented school practices in the
assimilation of beginning teachers.

This paper uses the technological, pedagogical and content knowledge (TPACK) framework (Mishra & Koehler,
2006) to examine the effects of a preservice teacher education ICT course. It also derived stepwise regression models
to describe variables significant for TPACK formation. Other than contributing an example of TPACK-driven ICT
course design, it also contributes to the burgeoning interest in measuring teachers TPACK. To date, many studies
involving small samples have been conducted using the TPACK framework in the USA. Large scale surveys
verifying the TPACK framework has not yet been reported in the literature. Moreover, few studies were conducted to
enhance teachers TPACK in Asian countries. In the following sections, literature pertaining to preservice teachers
ICT education and the concept of TPACK are reviewed. After that, the implications of the study results for planning
of TPACK generating ICT courses in preservice teacher education are discussed.

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63
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Literature Review
Preservice teachers ICT education

It is obvious that preservice education plays an important role in shaping teacher use of ICT in the classroom (Gao et
al., 2009; Lim et al., 2010). Literature to date has reported that preservice teachers who have acquired higher level of
technological skills are more willing to use technology in classroom (Hammond et al., 2009; Paraskeva, Bouta, &
Papagianna, 2008). It has also been reported that preservice teachers who received ICT training possess a stronger
sense of self-efficacy with respect to computer use (Brown & Warschauer, 2006; Lee, Chai, Teo & Chen, 2008).
Despite these positive reports, many gaps exist in the design and implementation of preservice ICT integration
course (Haydn & Barton, 2007; Lawless & Pellegrino, 2007; Mishra, Koehler, & Kereluik, 2009). Researchers have
lamented that many preservice teachers are not adequately prepared to use ICT in classrooms (Kay, 2006; Swain,
2006). Preparing preservice teachers for ICT integration is a complex job given the fast changing nature of ICT and
the multiple sources of knowledge which need to be synthesized. The effectiveness of preservice education for ICT
is also influenced by a host of contextual factors such as university instructors use of ICT, school readiness, mentor
teachers attitude etc (Lim et al., 2010).

One common problem in preparing preservice teachers for ICT integration is that many preservice teachers do not
have enough exposure to pedagogical use of ICT (Brown & Warschauer, 2006; Lim et al., 2010). Many teacher
education institutes (TEIs) offer only one technology course for teacher preparation (Hsu & Sharma, 2006), which
may focus on ICT skills (Mishra, et al., 2009; Steketee, 2005). However, teaching ICT skills alone does not
adequately prepare preservice teachers to integrate ICT (Lawless & Pellegrino, 2007; Mishra, et al., 2009). Such
recognition has prompted many preservice ICT courses to be designed as integrated courses where content teaching
and/or method courses are part of the curriculum (Angeli & Valanides, 2005; Lisowski, Lisowski, & Nicolia, 2006).

Meaningful use of ICT in the classroom requires the teachers to integrate technological affordances with pedagogical
approaches for the specific subject matter to be taught (Jonassen et al., 2008; Mishra & Khoeler, 2006). This
integrated form of contextualized knowledge has been recently referred to as the TPACK (Mishra & Khoeler, 2006;
Thompson & Mishra, 2007) or other similar notion such as ICT related TPACK (Angeli & Valanides, 2005; 2009).
Mishra and Khoeler (2006) argue that many studies examining preservice teachers development of ICT skills lack a
clearly articulated theoretical framework. Building on the notion of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK, Shulman,
1986), Mishra and Khoeler developed TPACK as a possible theoretical framework to strengthen the study of
teachers use of ICT for education.

The nature of TPACK

Mishra and Koehler (2006) posited that TPACK was derived from three key knowledge sources i.e. technological
knowledge (TK), pedagogical knowledge (PK) and content knowledge (CK). There are two viewpoints about
TPACKs epistemological nature. Gess-Newsome (1999) described the transformative viewpoint as one where
TPACK was a synthesis of TK, PK and CK such that the influences of each cannot be extricated. On the other
extreme was the integrative viewpoint where TPACK did not exist as a unique body of knowledge; but was a simple
combination of TK, PK, and CK that came about during teaching. There is preliminary support for the transformative
viewpoint where TPACK exists as a unique body of knowledge (Angeli & Valanides, 2009). Many qualitative
studies have also shown TPACK to be developed through design projects (e.g. Angeli & Valanides, 2009; Koehler &
Mishra, 2005), microteaching activities (e.g. Cavin, 2008), and participation in communities of practice (e.g.
Rodrigues, Marks, & Steel, 2003).

Modeling teachers TPACK formation

In recent years, the TPACK framework has been used to re-design teacher preparation programs and teacher
development workshops (see Niess, 2005; Niess, 2007; Niess, Suharwoto, Lee, & Sadri, 2006; Shoffner, 2007;
Burns, 2007). Special emphasis has been given to incorporating ICT design projects as avenues to help teachers
develop connections between TK, PK, and CK (e.g. Niess, 2005; Mishra & Koehler, 2006). Qualitative descriptions
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of student learning behaviours (e.g. Niess et al., 2006) lend considerable insight about their TPACK development in
specific programme contexts. However, fewer studies have measured the extent of teachers TPACK development
through pre-post course evaluations; or examined the relative importance of TK, PK, and CK to teachers overall
TPACK development.

One impediment to robust examination of TPACK through pre-post course evaluations is that numerous TPACK
surveys are currently in their early stages of development such as instrument validation. Existing TPACK surveys
have generally been examined for internal reliability (e.g. Schmidt et al., 2009; Lee & Tsai, 2010). But, construct
validation of several surveys are still in progress (e.g. Archambault & Crippen, 2009; Schmidt et al., 2009), which
could be a factor limiting their use for pre-post course evaluation. One of the few studies implemented found
significant improvement of teachers TPACK after undergoing a professional development programme (Graham et
al., 2009). However, the study was limited to a pilot group of 15 teachers.

With the increasing use of TPACK to undergird ICT programme development, it is necessary to understand the
relationship between TPACK, TK, PK, and CK. Yet, there is a dearth of such studies as much of extant research has
been centered on the relevance of technology skills instruction. While some schools of education have proposed that
computer skills training be removed from teacher education programs (e.g. Brinkerhoff, Ku, Glazewski, & Brush,
2001), Wang and Chen (2006) argued that some level of proficiency in technological skills was needed for teachers
to integrate technology effectively. On the other hand, many studies have also found that teachers with high levels of
confidence in their computer skills tend to use more technology in the classroom (Zhao, Pugh, Sheldon & Byers,
2002; Littrell, Zagumny & Zagumny, 2005). A high level of TK may be important for developing TPACK. But, the
relative influences of PK and CK have not been studied.

The relative contribution of TK, PK, and CK to teachers TPACK development can be statistically modelled and
predicted with techniques such as multiple regression. The derivation of these statistical models can inform the
design and evaluation of ICT programs. Nevertheless, the small sample size in existing TPACK survey studies (e.g.
Schmidt et al., 2009; Graham et al., 2009) has limited the application of inferential statistics to the data. Therefore,
these relationships have not yet been thoroughly examined. In addition, studies of TPACK surveys have generally
been reported for US teachers (e.g. Schmidt et al., 2009; Archambault & Crippen, 2009; Graham et al., 2009). The
effectiveness of TPACK-driven ICT programmes have not yet been widely reported in an Asian context.

Objectives of study

This study therefore aims to address the gaps by:

1. Examining the effectiveness of an ICT programme designed to enhance Singapore preservice teachers TPACK
2. Predict how TK, PK, and CK contribute to Singapore teachers TPACK with stepwise regression

Method
The TPACK framework and the ICT for Meaningful Learning course

Using the postulations of the TPACK framework, a course entitled ICT for Meaningful Learning was designed to
prepare Singapore preservice teachers for technology integration. The course comprises of 12 two-hour sessions, and
its components provided preservice teachers with three TPACK knowledge sources:

PK. The first five sessions were targeted at building their theoretical understanding of pedagogical approaches
involved in meaningful learning with ICT (see Jonassen et al., 2008). These sessions engaged the preservice
teachers in experiential learning of various student-centered pedagogical approaches with ICT. For example, they
take on collaborative research to understand different pedagogical approaches, which include problem-based
learning, project-based learning and inquiry-based learning, and undertake reciprocal teaching for their peers. They
also learned about classroom management of ICT lessons through case-based instruction and e-learning.

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TK. The six other sessions were designed to develop their TK with respect to different technology tools. These were
organized as technology enhanced lessons (TELs). In each TEL, they learn about a technology tool; its affordances
and limitation; and its pedagogical uses (example WIKI, Spreadsheet, modelling). The preservice teachers are
organized into tutorial groups by their teaching subjects. Each tutorial group chose two to three TELs most relevant
to their teaching subject through joint negotiation with their instructor. Each TEL provided preservice teachers with
resources for skill-based practice, and scaffolded them with design activities to generate lesson ideas applicable to
the students they expected to teach. For example, in the TEL of concept mapping, Cmap was introduced as one
possible technological tool (for details, see http://cmap.ihmc.us/). The preservice teachers are required to explore
Cmap by building a concept map of a personally relevant topic of their choice. They then discuss the affordances and
limitations of Cmap and brainstorm some lesson ideas on how the tool can be used meaningfully for students
learning.

TPACK. These lesson ideas, if they are selected by the preservice teachers, were then further developed consolidated
into a technology-integrated lesson unit, which constituted their Final Project. This project required them to design a
technology-integrated lesson unit for a specific grade-level of students such that it fulfilled the instructional
objectives specified in the national educational curriculum. The deliverables for this project were the lesson plan,
accompanying teaching materials, and a write-up justifying how the selected technologies and pedagogical
approaches supported the instruction of that lesson unit. This project was presented to the class during Week 12, and
evaluated with rubrics that measured their application of TK, PK, CK and TPACK. Some examples of the final
projects are available online (http://155.69.84.21/wbaml/displaySearchResultg.php).

CK. Content Knowledge was not specifically taught in this ICT course as the preservice teachers for this study have
been recruited for the teaching of secondary school students based on their undergraduate subject major, and can be
considered as subject matter experts.

Instrument Development

Evaluation of how this course developed the TPACK of Singapore preservice teachers was conducted through a
survey of the pre-study and post-study TPACK perceptions. Several survey instruments were reviewed (e.g.
Archambault & Crippen, 2009; Graham et al., 2009; Lee & Tsai, 2010; Schmidt et al., 2009). The survey instrument
developed by Schmidt et al (2009) was selected as it could be adapted to analyze the CK of Singapore teachers with
respect to the variation of their teaching subjects. This survey was developed through content validation by experts in
the USA, and was pilot-tested with 124 preservice teachers. High Cronbach alphas of 0.80 were obtained for each
TPACK constructs, indicating good internal reliability. In comparison, other instruments were subject-specific (e.g.
Graham et al., 2009), and required more substantial modification.

The TPACK survey designed by Schmidt et al. (2009) was therefore used with the following adaptations. Firstly, the
5-point Likert scale was changed to a 7-point scale to increase the reliability of measurement, as recommended by
Thorndike (2005). Secondly, CK questions in the original scale that assessed CK for the curriculum areas of
Mathematics, Social Studies, Science, and Literacy were changed to incorporate the teaching subjects of Singapore
preservice teachers. Singapore preservice teachers recruited to teach secondary schools are assigned to teach two
related subjects based on their undergraduate majors, i.e. curriculum study 1(CS1) and curriculum study 2 (CS2).
Therefore, a question such as I know how to select effective teaching approaches to guide student thinking and
learning mathematics, was changed to I know how to select effective teaching approaches to guide student
thinking and learning in my Curriculum Subject 1. Thirdly, only items for the categories of TK, PK, CK and
TPACK are chosen; the items for TPK, TCK, and PCK were left out as these were not part of the course design.

The final instrument therefore comprised 18 questions that were measured on a 7-point Likert scale where: (1)
Strongly disagree (2) Disagree (3) Slightly Disagree (4) Neither Agree Nor Disagree (5) Slightly Agree (6) Agree (7)
Strongly Agree.

Sampling and study procedure

The cohort of 889 preservice teachers entering the Postgraduate Diploma in Education (Secondary) programme at a
Singapore teacher education institution during the August 2009 semester was selected for this study. These teachers
were learning to teach secondary school students and they entered the institute with a basic degree in their teaching
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subject. There was a variation of subject majors in this cohort which included Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics,
Literature, English, Chinese Language and Computer Applications.

These preservice teachers were invited to participate in course evaluations via an e-mail that explicated the purpose
of this study. This e-mail also included a link to a web-based version of this survey. The pre-course survey and post-
course survey were administered during the first and last weeks of semester respectively. Participation was
voluntary. The response rates to the surveys were: Pre-course (n=439, 49.3%), post-course (n=365, 41%).

The mean age of respondents were: Pre-course (M=26.77, SD=5.27), Post-course (M=27.08, SD=5.45). There were
slightly more female respondents in both the pre and post course survey: Pre-course (Male: 208, 45.6%; Female:
248, 54.4%), Post-course (Male: 173, 48.6%; Female: 192, 51.4%). In respect of respondent privacy, identifiers were
not collected. However, chi-square analysis found no significant association between gender by response to pre-and
post-course survey. T-tests also found no significant differences between pre-and post-course survey respondents by
age. Therefore, the respondents of the pre-course and post-course survey can be considered as being demographically
similar.

Data Analyses

Instrument validation. Both surveys had high Cronbach alphas, indicating adequate internal reliability: Pre-course
(=.93), post-course (=.95). Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was then performed on both sets of data, generally
following the procedures recommended by Costello and Osborne (2005). Table 1 below reports the outcome of EFA.
The EFA yielded four factors in both cases, each with high Cronbach alphas: Pre-course (TK=0.85, PK=0.91,
CK=0.99, TPACK=0.96), Post-course (TK=0.85, PK=0.93, CK=0.89, TPACK=0.94). The 18 items were further
analyzed via confirmatory factor analysis using Amos 18.0. This four-factor model reveals satisfactory model-fit for
both the pre-course survey (2 = 339.47, 2/df = 2.69, GFI = .920, IFI = .968, TLI = .961, CFI = .968, RMSEA =
.062, SRMR = .043) and post-course survey (2 = 346.11, 2/df = 2.75, GFI = .902, IFI = .964, TLI = .956, CFI =
.964, RMSEA = .069, SRMR = .047).

Table 1. Results of Exploratory Factor Analysis

Factor
Items
1 2 3 4
TPACK1- I can teach lessons that appropriately combine my CS2, technologies and teaching.951
approaches.
TPACK2- I can teach lessons that appropriately combine my CS1, technologies and teaching.961
approaches.
TPACK3- I can use strategies that combine content, technologies and teaching approaches that I.917
learned about in my coursework in my classroom.
TPACK4- I can select technologies to use in my classroom that enhance what I teach, how I teach.887
and what students learn.
TPACK5- I can provide leadership in helping others to coordinate the use of content, technologies.809
and teaching approaches at my school.
TK1- I know how to solve my own technical problems. .927
TK2- I can learn technology easily. .860
TK3- I have the technical skills I need to use technology .845
TK4- I am able to use website Editors to create and/or modify web pages. .695
CK 1- I have various ways and strategies of developing my understanding of my CS2. .908
CK 2- I can think about the subject matter like an expert who specialize in my CS2. .834
CK3- I have various ways and strategies of developing my understanding of my CS1. .769
CK4- I have sufficient knowledge about my CS 1. .749
PK1- I can adapt my teaching style to different learners .903
PK2- I can adapt my teaching based upon what students currently understand or do not understand. .860
PK3- I can use a wide range of teaching approaches in a classroom setting (collaborative learning, .765
direct instruction, inquiry learning, problem/project based learning etc.).
PK4- I know how to assess student performance in a classroom. .734
PK5- I know how to organize and maintain classroom management. .641

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Data Analysis. Research question 1 was analyzed using t-tests to determine if there were significant differences
between preservice teachers TPACK perceptions before and after the course. Cohens d was also used to compute
effect sizes to assess the practical significance of results.

Research question 2 was answered by first studying the correlations between TPACK, TK, PK, and CK. Regression
models were built withthe dependent variable as the preservice teachers TPACK and the three independent variables
as TK, PK, and CK. This was conducted to assess the relative contributions of ICT course components. Two
regression models were built using stepwise methods, one for the pre-course survey, and the other for the post-course
survey.

Results
Research question 1 Preservice teachers TPACK development from ICT course

Before the ICT course, the preservice teachers rated themselves as slightly above average in terms of TK, CK, PK,
and TPACK (See Table 2). T-tests found significant gains in each category after the ICT course (t = 8.90, 9.21, 8.62,
9.83 for TK, CK, PK and TPACK respectively, all p<.001). Moderately large effect sizes of at least 0.60 (Cohen,
1969) was derived for all categories.

Table 2. Descriptive Data and Results of Independent Samples t Test

Pre-test Post-Test t d
(N=439) (N=365)
Factors M SD M SD
TK 4.39 1.09 5.05 1.01 8.90 *** 0.63
CK 4.87 1.04 5.48 0.82 9.21 *** 0.65
PK 4.95 0.90 5.47 0.79 8.62 *** 0.61
TPACK 4.91 1.01 5.54 0.81 9.83 *** 0.69
*** p < .001

The results suggest that the designed course support preservice teachers development of TK, PK, CK and TPACK.
The approach of teaching about specific technology tools through skill-based practice in each TEL was effective for
enhancing their TK. Interestingly, a moderately large effect size of 0.65 was obtained for CK even though this was
not specifically taught in the ICT course. The largest effect size of 0.69 was obtained for TPACK, indicating that the
course activities had a considerable effect in helping to enhance the preservice teachers expertise for technology
integration.

Research Question 2 Predicting the contribution of TK, PK, and CK to TPACK

TPACK was significantly and positively correlated with TK, PK, and CK for both the pre-course and post-course
survey (See Table 3). Only PK was strongly correlated with TPACK in the pre-course survey (r = 0.70, p<.01) as it
was above the 0.60 guideline suggested by Fraenkel and Wallen (2003). In the post-course survey, all three variables
showed strong correlations with TPACK (r = 0.61, 0.82 and 0.69 for TK, PK and CK respectively, all p<.01).
However, the correlation between TPACK and PK remained the strongest in both surveys.

Table 3. Correlation between TPACK constructs

TK PK CK
Pre-course survey (N=439) TPACK 0.41** 0.70** 0.56**
**
Post-course survey (N=365) TPACK 0.61 0.82** 0.69**
** p<0.01

Stepwise regression analysis found both the pre-course and post-course models to be statistically significant. R2
values indicated that the independent variables (i.e. TK, PK, and CK) explained only of the variance for TPACK
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54% in the pre-course model (See Table 4). This improved to 74% in the post-course model (See Table 5). These
results indicate that the connections between TK, PK, CK and TPACK were very much strengthened after preservice
teachers attended the ICT course.

Table 4. Stepwise regression models (Pre-course survey)

Model Predictors B Std. Error Beta Significance R2
1 (Constant) 1.05 0.19 ** 0.49
PK 0.78 0.04 0.70 **
2 (Constant) .58 0.20 ** 0.53
PK .71 0.04 0.64 **
TK .19 0.03 0.20 **
3 (Constant) .43 0.20 * 0.54
PK .61 0.05 0.55 **
TK .16 0.03 0.18 **
CK .15 0.04 0.15 **
*p<0.05 **p<0.01

Table 5. Stepwise regression models (Post-course survey)

Model Predictors B Std. Error Beta Significance R2
1 (Constant) 0.99 0.17 ** 0.67
PK 0.83 0.03 0.82 **
2 (Constant) 0.63 0.16 ** 0.73
PK 0.69 0.03 0.68 **
TK 0.22 0.03 0.28 **
3 (Constant) 0.43 .163 ** 0.74
PK 0.60 0.04 0.59 **
TK 0.20 0.03 0.25 **
CK 0.15 0.04 0.16 **
**p<0.01

Tables 4 and 5 show that TK, PK, and CK were all significant predictors of preservice teachers TPACK. However,
they each had different impact on TPACK. Of the three components, PK was most influential as it accounted for
more than half the variance in both the pre-course and post-course model. The percentage of variance explained by
PK and TK increased in the post-course model. But, the percentage of variance explained by CK remained fairly
consistent.

Discussion
Characteristics of ICT courses that develop TPACK

This study analyzed preservice teachers TPACK perceptions before and after attending an ICT course designed
according to the components of the TPACK framework. The pre and post course surveys found significant
differences between preservice teachers TK, PK, CK, and TPACK with moderately large effect sizes. These results
are in general agreement with previous research that ICT courses can enhance the teachers perception of their
competencies in using ICT for teaching and learning (Brown & Warschauer, 2006; Lee et al., 2008; Paraskeva et al.,
2008). In addition, these results showed that ICT courses with components that directly instructed the use of
technological tools through the TEL approach; and provided preservice teachers with experiential learning of
pedagogical approaches were effective for raising their TK and PK respectively.

Although CK was not specifically taught in the course, preservice teachers were challenged to make references to the
content of their teaching subject through brainstorming lesson ideas in the TELs and their Final Project. Preservice
teachers were also attending methods courses concurrently with their ICT course. They may have been challenged to
re-process their teaching content to make it more accessible to their students through these multiple avenues, which
in turn enhanced their perceptions of content mastery. The largest effect size from t-tests of pre-post course surveys
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was obtained for TPACK. These results showed that multiple opportunities to develop, reflect, and refine their
design ideas through TELs and their Final Project was effective for honing their perceptions of technology
integration mastery. This concurred with extant research findings that design projects and reflection was effective for
developing TPACK (e.g. Koehler, Mishra, & Yahya, 2007).

Relative impact of TK, PK, and CK on TPACK

Stepwise regression models of the pre and post course survey results found PK to have the largest impact on
preservice teachers TPACK. This could be because technology integration was a type of pedagogical practice. Niess
et al. (2006) found that inexperienced teachers who were weaker in pedagogical skills were less able to connect
content, pedagogy, and technology. Pierson (2001) also found that teachers with low levels of PK were not able to
make the pedagogy-technology linkage even if they had high TK. Therefore, increasing PK is foundational for
developing TPACK. As preservice teachers develop a basic level of PK, they establish a strong knowledge base from
which effective technology integration ideas can flourish. The percentage of variance explained by CK was relatively
stable in both the pre and post course survey. These results show CK to be a source of foundational knowledge that
the preservice teachers draw upon to develop TPACK. While it had a significant impact on TPACK, its relative
importance amongst the other factors did not increase as it was not specifically covered in the course.

Interestingly, the percentage of variance explained by TK increased in the post-course regression model. This could
imply that preservice teachers started to make tighter connections between their technological skills and technology
integration practice after attending the ICT course. Pierson (2001) found that experienced teachers with high levels
of PK only started to make the pedagogy-technology linkage if they attained a reasonable comfort level with using a
technological tool. Therefore, as shown by the regression model, enhancement of TK needs to occur in tandem with
raising PK. Analysis of the post-course regression model also showed the contribution of TK becoming more
important as preservice teachers make stronger connections between TK, PK, CK, and TPACK. The focus on
technological skills can become increasingly important when teachers gain a certain comfort level with their
pedagogical skills; which has implications on the professional development of in-service teachers.

Future development of the ICT course

Although the t-tests provided positive gains in TPACK from the ICT course, there is still a need to examine how it
can further raise the preservice teachers TPACK. This is because failure to raise the teachers competence during
preservice education may result in the preservice teachers quickly forsaking the use of ICT in practice (Gao et al.,
2009; Hammond et al., 2009). The regression results of this study indicated that a plausible model for ICT courses
should give priority to developing a strong pedagogical foundation before instruction in technological tools. That is,
the prerequisite for enhancing TAPCK is the acquisition of solid pedagogical knowledge. The course should also
cater for continual engagement in design activities which facilitate preservice teachers to make connections between
their CK, PK, and TK (See Figure 1).

Figure 1. Model for developing preservice teachers TPACK through ICT courses

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The current design of our ICT course did not incorporate fine distinctions between TPACK and three other
knowledge types in the TPACK framework proposed by Mishra and Koehler (2006), i.e., Pedagogical Content
Knowledge (PCK), TCK (Technological Content Knowledge), and TPK (Technological Pedagogical Knowledge). It
is recognized that some form of PCK, TCK, and TPK could have emerged as preservice teachers engaged in
pedagogical instruction, technology skills instruction through TELs and when they worked on their Final Project.
Going beyond this initial exploration, future iterations of this course need to consider if the existing course
components adequately developed TCK, TPK, and PCK. A conceptual analysis by Cox and Graham (2009) found it
difficult to pinpoint TCK, TPK, and PCK in practice. Teachers usually work with concrete instructional objectives
for the topics they are teaching. Decisions for technology use, content representation, and pedagogical approach tend
to be considered concurrently. Understanding the relationships between TCK, TPK, PCK, and TPACK can help
teacher educators assess the practical significance of these theoretical differences, especially if existing course
components need to be further broken down to expound these different types of competencies. Or, some integrative
efforts can be made for enhancing TPACK.

The exploratory factor analysis results of this study indicate that a four-component TPACK model (i.e. TK, PK, CK,
and TPACK) was statistically robust. A factor analysis by Lee and Tsai (2010) also showed that relatively
inexperienced teachers could not distinguish between the constructs of PK and PCK. Preservice teachers may see
using ICT for classroom teaching as an act of integrating TK, PK and CK to form TPACK for a particular lesson. In-
service teachers with more pedagogical experience may better benefit from professional development making fine-
grained differences between constructs such as TPACK, TCK, and TPK, which could possibly hone their technology
integration expertise. This is an area that needs to be further studied through longitudinal studies of how preservice
teachers technology integration expertise develops as they become full-fledged teachers. Research on the
illuminative evaluation of process and the development of TPACK in longitudinal studies is necessary, and the
initiation of collaborative discussion between teachers and researchers would be useful research lines.

Hewitt (2008) commented on the lack of critical discourse among the researchers who have contributed to the
Handbook of TPACK (AACTE, 2008). As of now, teacher educators may still need to debate about what constitutes
a good ICT program and to develop instruments that can provide reliable and valid prediction of the preservice
teachers TPACK (Lim et al., 2010). A better understanding of the relationships between TPACK constructs can
inform the design of ICT programs for both preservice and in-service teachers.

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