DISCRETE MATHEMATICS

FINITE AND INFINITE SETS. CARDINALITY

Def.
Let A be a set. We say that A is a finite set and that n is the cardinality of A
(n = |A|) if there exists a bijection
f : n A where n = {0, 1, . . . , n 1} N
This definition is correct since there cannot exist two different bijections f1 , f2
f1 : n A
f2 : m A if n 6= m.
This property is known as the Pigeonhole Principle:
Let A, B be finite sets. If f : A B and |A| > |B| then f is not injective.
(If there are more pigeons than pigeonholes then there must be at least one
pigeonhole with at least two pigeons in it.)

Theorem
Let A, B be finite sets. Then

1. S A = S is also finite and |S| |A|

2. A B is finite and |A B| = |A| + |B| |A B|
If A B = then |A B| = |A| + |B|.
3. A B is finite and |A B| = |A| |A B|
If B A (A B = B) then |A B| = |A| |B|.
4. A B is finite and |A B| = |A| |B|.
5. The set of all functions from A to B (denoted by A B) is finite and
|A B| = |B||A|
6. P(A) is finite and |P(A)| = 2|A|

Proof
Given a set A we consider a subset B A and we define its characteristic function:
fB : A {0, 1}

1 if x B
fB (x) =
0 if x
6 B
Hence there is a bijection from P(A) to A 2 so |P(A)| = 2|A| .

Comparing Sets
Let A, B be sets (finite or infinite).

1. A c B if there exists a bijection f : A B.

We say A and B are equipotent sets.

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 2. A c B (A is dominated by B) if there exists an injection f : A B.
3. A <c B (A is dominated strictly by B) if A c B but A 6c B.

Ex.
N+ = N {0}
N+ c N idN+ : N+ N.
n n
N+ c N p : N+ N.
p(n) = n 1

Theorem
c is an equivalence relation.

1. A c A
idA : A A is a bijection. (RF)
2. A c B = B c A
f : A B is a bijection. = f 1 : B A is a bijection. (SYM)
3. A c B, B c C = A c C
f : A B is a bijection, g : B C is a bijection,= f g : A C
is a bijection. (TR)

Ex.
Z c N f : Z N

2x if x 0
f (x) =
2|x| 1 if x < 0
R c R+ f : R R+ .
x ex
R R c C f : R R C.
f (x, y) = x + iy

Theorem
Let A, B, C be sets,

1. A c A
2. A c B B c C = A c C
3. A c B B c A = A c B (very important)
4. A c B = A c B
5. A B = A c B
6. A finite = A <c N
7. A infinite N c A

Proof
3)
If A and B are finite and |A| = n |B| = m
Let f1 : A B be injective, hence n m

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Let f2 : B A be injective, hence m n
If A and B are infinite it is the Schroder- Berstein Theorem.
6)
If A is finite and |A| = n
Let f : n A be bijective. If A c N there exists g : A N a bijection.
We also have an injection n + 1 N , hence n + 1 N A is also an
injection but n + 1 > |A|. Contradiction.
7)
=)
Let f : N A be injective. If A is finite |A| = n and A c n so there exists
a bijection g : A n and the composition N A n is injective.
f inj g bij
Hence, we have an injection f g : N n and since n + 1 N we also
have an injection n + 1 N n, that is an injection n + 1 n.
Contradiction.
Therefore, A must be infinite.
=)
A is infinite. Hence, for all n N n 6c A.

1. 0 6c A = A 6= . Let a0 A.
2. 1 6c A = A 6= {a0 }. Let a1 A {a0 }.
3. 2 6c A = A 6= {a0 , a1 }. Let a2 A {a0 , a1 }.
..
.

We may then define an injection f : N A

f (i) = ai
Indeed it is injective since i 6= j = f (i) 6= f (j)
ai 6= aj
Thus, N c A. (This result says that N is the smallest infinite set).

Ex.
N N c N
N N N
x (x, 0) injection
N N N
(x, y) 2x 3y injection because of the unicity of the decomposition
in prime factors.
(0, 1) c R
[0, 1] c R

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COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE SETS

Def.
A set A that is either finite or A c N is called countable.

Ex.
A = {a, b, c}, N+ , N N, Z.

Lemma

1. If A N, A is countable.
2. If B is countable and S B = S is countable.

Proof
a) If A is finite = A is countable.
If A is infinite, we take the elements of A in increasing order: a0 < a1 < a2 . . .
We may then define a bijection f : N A
f (i) = ai
Hence A c N.
b) B is countable.
If B is finite and S B = S is finite, hence S is countable.
If B is infinite, B c N.
Let S B, if S is finite it is countable.
If S is infinite = N c S, We also have S B c N = S c N
inj
N c S, S c N = S c N

Theorem

1. A is countable iff there exists an injection f : A N. (A c N).

2. A 6= , A is countable iff there exists a surjection g : N A.

Proof
a)
=)
If A is finite, A c n, and since n N we have an injection A n N
= A c N
If A is infinite, A c N.
=)
If we have an injection f : A N = f : A ran(f ) is a bijection.
Hence A c ran(f ) N and by the above lemma ran(f ) is countable.
If ran(f ) is finite A c ran(f ) c n for some n N. Hence A must be finite,
= A is countable.

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If ran(f ) is infinite ran(f ) c N and A c ran(f ). Hence A c N = A is
countable.
b)
A 6=
=)
If A is countable, by a) there exists an injection f : A N (f : A ran(f )
is a bijection)
We define g : N
 A 1
f (n) if n ran(f )
g(n) = a0 A 6=
a0 if n 6 ran(f )
g is surjective: a A, f (a) ran(f ), f (a) = n N = a = f 1 (n) = g(n)
=)
Let g : N A be a surjection. A = {a0 = g(0), a1 = g(1), . . .} (Some
elements may be repeated since g is not necessarily injective) We shall say g
enumerates A.
We may define f : A N injective
f (a) = the least n N such that g(n) = a.

Properties of Countable Sets.

Theorem

1. Let A, B be countable sets = A B, A B are countable sets.

2. Let A1 , . . . An , be countable sets = A1 . . . An , A1 . . . An are
countable sets.

Proof
a)
If A = or B = it is trivial.
If A 6= and B 6= . There exist surjections f : N A g : N B.
We may define h : N A B surjective.
f (i) if n = 2i
h(n) =
g(i) if n = 2i + 1
There exist injections f : A N g : B N.
We may define h : A B N injective.

h ((a, b)) = 2f (a) 3g (b)
h ((a, b)) = h ((a , b ))
f (a) = f (a ) a = a
 
f (a) g (b) f (a ) g (b )
2 3 =2 3 = =
g (b) = g (b ) b = b
b)
By induction on n. A1 . . . An = (A1 . . . An1 ) An
A1 . . . An = (A1 . . . An1 ) An

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Ex.
Z = A B is a countable set.
A = {n Z|n 0} which is a countable set.
B = {n Z|n 0} which is a countable set.
A1 . . . An is a countable set if Ai , 0 i n are all countable.
We may suppose we have: fi : Ai N 0 i n injections.
We may define h : A1 . . . An N injective.
f (a ) f (a )
h((a1 , . . . , an )) = p11 1 pnn n where p1 , p2 . . . , pn are
prime numbers.
Theorem
Let C = {Ai |i N} be a family of countable sets. (Ai is countable i N)
S S
C = iN Ai is countable.
Proof S
We define g : N C surjective.
Let A0 = {a00 , a01 , . . . , a0n , . . .}
A1 = {a10 , a11 , . . .} . Ai = {ai0 , ai1 , . . .}
a00 , (g(0))
a01 , a10 , (g(1), g(2))
a02 , a11 , a20 , (g(3), g(4), g(5))
a03 , a12 , a21 , a30 . . . (g(6), g(7), g(8), g(9), . . .)

Ex.
Q = Q+ {0} Q
Q+ = {x Q|x > 0} is countable. Q = {x Q|x < 0} is countable.
We may define f : Q+ N injective.
f(mn
) = 2m 3n (m, n are coprimes.)

UNCOUNTABLE SETS
Theorem
P(N) is an infinite, uncountable set.
Proof
P(N) is not a finite set since N c P(N) (f : N P(N))
f (n) = {n}
P(N) is uncountable. We show there is no g : N P(N)) surjective.
Let us suppose there is a g0 : N P(N)).
Let A0 = g0 (0) A1 = g0 (1) A2 = g0 (2) . . . be sets.
We define D = {i N|i 6 Ai } P(N). But D 6= g0 (n) n N.
Suppose D = g0 (n0 ) for some n0 N : n0 D n0 6 An0 = g0 (n0 ) = D
n0 D n0 6 D
(Cantors Diagonal argument.)

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Theorem
Let A be any set. A <c P(A).
N <c P(N) <c P(P(N)) . . .

Theorem
Let I R be any interval of R.

1. I c R
2. R c P(N)

Theorem
Let A0 , A1 , . . . An1 , be sets such that Ai c R 0 i n 1

1. A0 A1 . . . An1 c R
2. A0 A1 . . . An1 c R

Ex.
Rn c R (n 2)

Theorem
Let C = {Ai |i N} be a countable family of sets such that Ai c R i N.
S
iN Ai c R.