Exercise 4.

1 Prove the following relations:

Gsw
a) d
1 e
( )
b)
c)
d) ( )
In the above equations, n is the porosity as a ratio not as a percentage.
Solution 4.1
Prove the following:

Gsw
(a) d
1 e

Start with fundamental definitions:

Ws
d ; Ws Vs w G s ; V Vs (l e) ; subsitutefor Ws and Vs
V
V G G
d s w s s w d
Vs (l e) le

n
(b) e=
1 n

wG s wG s (1 n )
S=
e n

(c) ; ;

; ;

(d)

Saturated unit weight (S=1)

therefore;

( )
Exercise 4.2:

Show that
( ) ( )
{ }
( ) ( )
Solution 4.2

Dr = relative density which is usually defined in terms of min, max and current void ratio (emin,
emax, e, respectively).

The corresponding dry densities are:

Gsw G G
d min ; d max s w ; d s w
1 e max 1 e min 1 e

Relative density in terms of void ratios is:

emax e
Dr
emax emin

Solving for the appropriate void ratios and substituting into :

G s w G s w G s w
e max 1; e min 1; e 1
d min d max d
Gs w G 1 1
1 s w 1
dmin d d min d
Dr = 1
Gs w G
1
1 s w 1 d min d max
dmin dmax

d 1 d 1 d d min
min
d d min d min d d d min
= d max 1 d min 1 = d max d min

d max d max d min d max d max d min
d d min d max d min
=
d d min d max d min

d d min d max

Dr =
d max d min d
Exercise 4.3

Tests on a soil gave the following results: Gs = 2.7 and e = 1.96. Make a plot of degree of
saturation versus water content for this soil.

Solution 4.3

Given Gs = 2.70, w = 0.65, and e = 1.96, Plot S vs. w.

Use S = (w Gs) / e and realize that S will equal 1 at about 71.6% water content. Assume
that up to this point, the void ratio will remain constant. After this point, the void ratio
will increase and the saturation will remain at 1.0. The relationship is linear up to
saturation. Notice that there are no data points shown as this is generated data, not
observed data.

1.2

1.0
S, saturation

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100

w, water content (%)

Exercise 4.4
Assuming soil particles to be spheres; derive equations for the maximum and minimum
porosities, and maximum and minimum void ratios.

Solution 4.4

Strategy
It is easiest to consider that each sphere occupies a unit volume. . If D is the diameter of
the sphere, the volume occupied by it in the array is D3 for the cubic (loose) array and
1
D3 for the dense array.
2

Loose array

Step 1. Calculate volume of sphere of diameter D:

D 3
Vsphere
6

Step 2. Calculate solid volume ratio occupied by sphere

D 3

6
VS
D3 6

Step 3. Calculate the porosity

n 1 0.4764
6

Step 4. Calculate the void ratio

n 0.4764
e 0.91
1 n 0.5236

Dense Array

Step 1. Calculate volume of sphere of diameter D:

D 3
Vsphere
6
Step 2. Calculate volume of space occupied by sphere. The height of space occupied is a
2
tetrahedron. Height of tetrahedron is D . Space occupied is:
3
3 2 1
D D D D3
4 3 2
 D3


VS
6

1 18
D3
2

Step 3. Calculate Porosity

n 1 0.2595
18
Step 4. Calculate void ratio
n 0.2595
e 0.35
1 n 1 0.2595
Exercise 4.5

A cylinder has 500 cm3 of water. After a mass of 100 grams of sand is poured into the
cylinder and all air bubbles are removed by a vacuum pump, the water level rises to 537.5
cm3. Determine the specific gravity of the sand.

Solution 4.5

Md = mass of dry soil = 100 grams

Mwe = mass of water of equivalent volume to dry soil

= volume of water displaced x density of water (1 gram/cm3)
= (537.5 500) x 1 = 37.5 grams

Md 100
Gs 2.67
M we 37.5
Exercise 4.6

An ASTM D 854 test was done on a sand. The data are as shown below. Calculate the
specific gravity.
Mass of pycnometer = 40.1 grams
Mass of pycnometer and dry soil = 65.8 grams
Mass of pycnometer, dry soil and water = 154.5 grams
Mass of pycnometer and water = 138.5 grams

Solution 4.6

Md = mass of dry soil = 65.8 40.1 = 25.7 grams

Mwe = mass of water displaced by the soil particles

= 138.5 154.5 + 25.7 = 9.7 grams

M d 25.7
Gs 2.65
M we 9.7
Exercise 4.7

The wet mass of a sample of saturated soil is 520 grams. The dry mass, after oven drying, is 400
grams. Determine the (a) water content, (b) void ratio, (c) saturated unit weight, and (d) effective
unit weight.

Solution 4.7

Given: S = 1.0, MT = 520g, Ms = 400 g

(a) Water Content (w)

w
Mw M Ms
T
520 400 0.30 30%
Ms Ms 400

(b) Void Ratio (e)

Gw
e s 2.7 0.30 0.81
S
Alternatively:
Gs = 2.7, w 1 gm/ cm 3 (mass density of water)

Ms 400
Vs 148.1cm3
Gss 2.7 1

Because S = 1, Vv = Vw

M 520 400
120 cm3
Vw = Vv =
w

w 1
Vv 120 cm3
e 0.81
Vs 148.1 cm3

(c) Saturated Unit Weight (sat)

G e 2.7 0.81 3
sat s w 9.8 19.0 kN/m
1 e 1 0.81

(d) Effective Unit Weight ( )

sat w 19.0 9.8 9.2 kN / m3

Exercise 4.8

A soil sample has a bulk unit weight of 19.8 kN/m3 at a water content of 10%. Determine
the void ratio, percentage air in the voids (air voids), and the degree of saturation of this
sample.

Solution 4.8

(a) Void Ratio (e)

19.8
d = 18 kN / m3
1 w 1.1
Gs w 2.7 9.8
d ; e 1 1.47 1 0.47
1 e 18
(b) Degree of Saturation (S)
wGs 0.1 2.7
Se wGs , S 0.57 or 57%
e 0.47
(c) % of Air voids
Volume of air = 100 57 = 43 %
Alternative solution
Assume V = 1 m3

If = 19.8 kN/m3 ; W = 19.8 kN

If d = 18 kN/m3 ; Ws = 18.0 kN
W 18
Vs s 0.68m3
Gs w 2.7 9.8
Vv V Vs = 1 0.68 = 0.32 m 3
Weight of water per m 3 = W Ws = 19.8 18 = 1.8 kN
1.8
Vw 0.18m3
9.8
Vair Vv Vw= 0.32 0.18 = 0.14 m 3
% of air voids =
Vair 0.14
100 44% ( This is slightly higher because of rounding errors)
Vv 0.32
Exercise 4.9

A wet sand sample has a volume of 4.64 104m3 and weights 8 N. After oven drying,
the weight reduces to 7.5 N. Calculate the water content, void ratio, and degree of
saturation.

Solution 4.9

Wwater (8 7.5)
w 100% 6.7%
Wsolids 7.5

Next, find the dry unit weight:

Wsolids 7.5 N
d 4 3
16.2 kN / m3
VT 4.64 10 m

Then, using the relationship:

Gs
d w , solve it for the void ratio, e.
1 e

Gs 2.70
e w 1 9.8 kN / m 3 1 0.63
3
d 16.2 kN / m

Finally, use the relationship:

Exercise 4.10

A saturated silty clay encountered in a deep excavation is found to have a water content
of 23.5%. Determine its porosity and bulk unit weight.

Solution 4.10

Since the soil is saturated S = 1

Find void ratio
Se = wG s ; e = 2.7 x 0.235 = 0.63

Find dry unit weight

Gs w 2.7 9.8
d = 16.23 kN / m3
1 e 1.63
Find bulk unit weight
d 1 w = 16.23 (1 + 0.235) = 20.04 kN/ m3
Find porosity
e 0.63
n= 0.39 or 39%
1 e 1.63
Exercise 4.11

A soil sample of diameter 37.5 mm and length 75 mm has a wet weight of 1.32 N and dry
weight of 1.1 N. Determine (a) the degree of saturation (b) the porosity (c) the bulk unit
weight and (d) the dry unit weight.

Solution 4.11

Bulk unit weight

Dry unit weight

You can also calculate the water content then d;

= 20%

Void ratio

Degree of saturation, S = wGs/e = 0.2 x 2.7/0.99 = 0.54.5 = 54.5% or 55%

Porosity
Exercise 4.12

The mass of a wet sample of soil and its container is 0.33 kg. The dry mass of the soil and its
container is 0.29 kg. The mass of the container is 0.06 kg and its volume is 0.15x10-3 m3.
Determine the following.
(a) The bulk, dry, and saturated unit weights of the soil.
(b) The void ratio and the degree of saturation.
(c) How much air void is in the soil?
(d) The weight of water required to saturate 1 m3 of this soil.

Solution 4.12

Mwet + Mcan = 0.33 kg => Mwet = 0.33 0.06 = 0.27 kg

Mdry + Mcan = 0.29 kg => Mdry = 0.29 0.06 = 0.23 kg
Mw = 0.33 0.29 = 0.04 kg
( )

a)

To find saturated unit weight, first we need to find void ratio (e);

( )
Now we can find saturated unit weight;

( ) ( )

( )
c)
To find air voids in the soil first we need to find the volume of voids in the soil

To find the volume of the voids we will use the equation for porosity;

( )
Now we need to find the volume of the water;

Now we can find the volume of the air;

d)

To saturate this soil, we need to fill the air voids with water. To solve this question we will use

direct proportion;

To saturate 0.15x10-3 m3 soil we need water;

To saturate 1 m3 soil, we need x m3 water.

Exercise 4.13

A sand has a natural water content of 5% and bulk unit weight of 18.0 kN/m3. The void ratios
corresponding to the densest and loosest state of this soil are 0.51 and 0.87. Find the relative
density and degree of saturation.

Solution 4.13

Given: w = 0.05, = 18 kN/ m 3 , Gs = 2.7, emax = 0.87 (loose state), emin = 0.51 (dense state)

(a) Relative Density (Dr)

e max e
Dr = x 100
e max e min

Determine e by first calculating d

18
d 17.14 kN / m3
1 w 1.05

Gs w 2.7 9.8
e 1 1 0.543
d 17.14

Calculate Dr:

0.87 0.543
Dr 100 90.8%
0.87 0.51

(b) Degree of Saturation

wGs 0.05 2.7

S 25%
e 0.543
Exercise 4.14

The void ratio of a soil is 1.2. Determine the bulk and effective unit weights for the following
degrees of saturation: (a) 75%, (b) 95%, and (c) 100%. What is the percentage error in the bulk
unit weight if the soil were 95% saturated but assumed to be 100% saturated?

Solution 4.14

Given: e = 1.2

Determine bulk () and effective () unit weights for the following degrees of saturation:

(a) S = 0.75

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

(b) S = 0.95

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

(c) For S = 1, sat = 17.4 kN/ m 3

% Error in if S = 0.95 but assumed to be 1.0:

Solution 4.15
The following results were obtained from a liquid limit test on a clay using the Casagrande cup
device.
Number of blows 6 12 20 28 32
Water content (%) 52.5 47.1 43.2 38.6 37.0

(a) Determine the liquid limit of this clay.

(b) If the natural water content is 38% and the plastic limit is 23%, calculate the liquidity index.
(c) Do you expect a brittle type of failure for this soil? Why?

Solution 4.15

(a) Determine LL
LL = 40%

60

55
Water content (%)

50

45

40

35

30
1 10 25 100

Number of blows (log scale)

(b) Liquidity Index (LI)

PI = 0.40 0.23 = 0.17

(c) Since LI is within the range 0 < LI < 1, the soil is plastic and brittle failure is unlikely.
Exercise 4.16

The following data were recorded from a liquid limit test on a clay using the Casagrande cup
device.
Container
Container Water
Test Container and dry Blow
and wet soil content
number (grams) soil count
(grams) (%)
(grams)
Mc Mw Md N w
1 45.3 57.1 54.4 28 29.67
2 43 59.8 56 31 29.23
3 45.2 61.7 57.9 22 29.92
4 45.6 58.4 55.3 18 31.96

Determine the liquid limit.

Solution 4.16

(a) Determine LL

32.5
32
water content (%)

31.5
31
30.5
30
29.5
29
28.5
25
10 100
Number of blows (N) (log scale)

LL = 30%
Exercise 4.17

A fall cone test was carried out on a soil to determine its liquid and plastic limits using a cone of
mass 80 grams. The following results were obtained:

80 gram cone
Penetration (mm) 8 15 19 28
Water content (%) 43.1 52.0 56.1 62.9

Determine (a) the liquid and plastic limits and (b) the plasticity index. If the soil contains 45%
clay, calculate the activity.

Solution 4.17

75

70

65

60
Water content (%)

55

50

45

40

35

30
1 10 100

Penetration (mm) (log scale)

LL = 58%
c = 22.97, m = .3024
PL c(2)m 22.97(2)0.3024 28.3%
PI = LL PL = 58 28.3 = 29.7%

Activity (A) =
Exercise 4.18

The following results were recorded in a shrinkage limit test using mercury.
Mass of container 17.0grams
Mass of wet soil and container 72.3 grams
Mass of dish 132.40 grams
Mass of dish and displaced mercury 486.1 grams
Mass of dry soil and container 58.2 grams
Volume of the container (V1) 32.4 cm3

Determine the shrinkage limit.

Solution 4.18

( ) ( )

( )
Exercise 4.19
The results of a particle size analysis of a soil are given in the following table. No Atterberg
limits tests were conducted.
Sieve No. 9.53 mm (3/8) 4 10 20 40 100 200
% finer 100 89.8 70.2 62.5 49.8 28.6 4.1

(a) Would you have conducted Atterberg limit tests on this soil? Justify your answer.
(b) Classify the soil according to USCS, ASTM-CS and AASHTO.
(c) Is this soil a good foundation material? Justify your answer.

Solution 4.19

Coarse-grained
Fine-grained
Sand Gravel
Clay Silt Fine Medium Coarse Fine Coarse
#200 #40 #10 #4 #3/8" #3/4"
100
90

80

70

60
% Finer

50

40

30
20

10

0 2.0 4.75 19.0

0.075 0.425
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm) - logarithmic scale

a) It is a coarse-grained soil; we dont need to conduct Atterberg limit tests. These tests are
suitable for fine grained soils.
b) Classify the soil
USCS
50% of particles are bigger than 0.075 mm; soil is coarse-grained
Sand fraction is bigger than gravel fraction; soil is sand
Clay + silt fraction is less than 4%; soil is SW or SP
D10 = 0.09, D30 = 0.16, D60 = 0.7
( )
 Cc is not between 1 and 3; soil is SP (Poorly graded sand)
ASTM-CS
Sand fraction is bigger than gravel fraction; soil is sand
Clay + silt fraction is less than 4%; soil is SW or SP
Soil is SP, gravel is less than 15%; Poorly graded sand
AASHTO
According to left to right elimination process soil is A-1
c) According to Engineering Use Chart soil hasnumber 5 rating which is an average rating.
Exercise 4.20
The results of a particle size analysis of a soil are given in the following table. Atterberg limits
tests gave LL = 62% and PL = 38%. The clay content is 37%.

Sieve No. 9.53 mm (3/8) 4 10 20 40 100 200

% finer 100 90.8 84.4 77.5 71.8 65.6 62.8

(a) Classify the soil according to ASTM-CS and AASHTO.

(b) Rate this soil as a subgrade for a highway.

Solution 4.20

Coarse-grained
Fine-grained
Sand Gravel
Clay Silt Fine Medium Coarse Fine Coarse
#200 #40 #10 #4 #3/8" #3/4"
100
90
80
70
60
% Finer

50
40
30
20
10
0 0.075 0.425 2.0 4.75 19.0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm) - logarithmic scale

a) Classify the soil

ASTM-CS
50% of particles are smaller than 0.075 mm; soil is fine-grained
According to plasticity chart; soil is MH (high compressible silt
AASHTO
More than 35% passing No. 200; A-4, A-5, A-6, A-7
Liquid limit is bigger than 40; A-5 or A-7
Plasticity index (PI) = LL PL = 62 38 = 24 %; A-7-5, A-7-6
PI = 24%<LL-30 (from Figure 4.12) = 32%; A-7-5

b) It is poor soil for subgrade

Exercise 4.21

The water contents of soil samples taken at different depths are given in the table below.
Depth (m) 1 2 3 4 5 6
w (%) 21.3 23.6 6.1 32.7 41.5 42.0

The ground water level is at the surface. Assume Gs = 2.7.

a) Plot on the same graph (a) depth versus water content and (b) depth versus saturated unit
weight.
b) Are there any questionable water content value(s)? If so, at what depth?
c) If the water contents are all correct, what type or types of soils (e.g., clay, sand) are
probably at the site?

Solution 4.21
G e Gw Gw
sat s w ; e s s Gs w
1 e S 1
Gs Gs w G s (1 w)
(a) sat w w
1 Gs w 1 Gs w
G s 2.7
Depth (m) 1 2 3 4 5 6
w (%) 21.3 23.6 6.1 32.7 41.5 42
3
sat(kN/m ) 20.4 20.0 24.1 18.6 17.7 17.6

w (%); sat (kN/m3)

0 10 20 30 40 50
0
water
1 content
Depth (m)

2 saturated
unit weight
3
4
5
6
7

(b) The water content at depth = 3m is very low in comparison with the other values and is rather
suspicious

(c) The soil at depth = 3m could possibly be a thin sand layer.

Exercise 4.22

A fine-grained soil has a liquid limit of 200% and a plastic limit of 45%. The natural water
content of the soil in the field is 60% and the clay content is 63%.
a) Calculate the plasticity index, the liquidity index and the activity.
b) What is the soil state (e.g. liquid) in the field?
c) What is the predominant mineral in this soil?
d) This soil is under a rectangular concrete slab, 15 m x 50 m, used as a foundation for a
building. A water pipe, 100 mm diameter, is located in a trench 450 mm below the center
of the slab. The trench, 300 mm wide and 450 mm deep, running along the length of the
slab, was backfilled with the same soil. If this pipe were to leak, what effect would it
have on the foundation? Draw a neat sketch of the existing trench and pipe, and show in
another sketch how you would mitigate any water related issue related to the pipe and the
soil. Explain why your mitigation method is better than the existing construction.

Solution 4.22
a) PI= LL PL = 200 - 45 = 155%
LI = (w PL)/PI = (60 45)/155 = 0.096
A = PI/Clay fraction (%) = 155/63 = 2.46

b) Soil is in plastic state

PL<w<LL, also 0<LI<1

c) Montmorillonite might be the predominant mineral due to the high liquid limit value.

d) Existing foundation, trench and pipe

Concrete slab

Fine-grained soil

Montmorillonite is also known as swelling or expansive clay. Because of the water leaking, the
soil would swell and this would cause upward movement of the slab.

To mitigate this problem you could investigate the solution below with the lowest cost.
1. Put a compressible material (foam) between the soil and the slab. Or a layer of
sand/gravel with good drainage.
2. Re-locate the trench and pipeline away from the foundation
Exercise 4.23
An elliptical artificial island is required for a reclamation project. The major axis of the ellipse is
10 km and the minor axis is 7.5 km (Fig. P4.23). A rock breakwater, 100 m thick, forms the
edges of the island. The area within the breakwater is to be filled with sand. The sand in its
loosest state has a porosity of 50% and the desired porosity, when compacted, is 20%. Assuming
an average thickness of the completed island is 200 m, determine the quantity of sand required.

Solution 4.23
First we have to find the volume of the compacted sand, which is equal to;

V = (Area of the elliptical artificial island) x (height)

Area of the elliptical artificial island =

2A = 7.5 km 2 x (0.1 km) => A = 3.65 km

2B = 10 km 2 x (0.1 km) => B = 4.9 km
Area of the elliptical artificial island = = 3.14 x 3.65 x 4.9 = 56.187 km2

Height = 200m = 0.2 km

V = 56.187 x 0.2 = 11.237 km3

At the end of the project, the volume of the compacted sand will be 11.237 km3

Now, find the volume of the voids at dense state. We can find it by using porosity equation;

Now find the volume of the sand particles (Vs) at dense state. We can use void ratio equation;

For compacted state void ratio will be;

Volume of the sand particles at dense state;

Volume of the sand particles will not change during compaction. Only volume of the voids will
change. So at loose state volume of the sands have to be equal to the volume of the sands at
dense state.

At loose state void ratio will be;

Volume of the voids at loose state;

Exercise 4.24
The highway embankment from Noscut to Windsor Forest, described in the sample practical
situation, is 10 km long. The average cross section of the embankment is shown in Fig. P4.24a.
The gradation curves for the soils at the two borrow pits are shown in Fig. P4.24b. Pit 1 is
located 5 km from the start of the embankment while pit 2 is 3 km away. Estimated costs for
various earthmoving operations are shown in the table below. You are given 10 minutes by the
stakeholders committee to present your recommendations. Prepare your presentation. The
available visual aid equipment is an LCD projector.

Cost
Operation Pit 1 Pit 2
3
Purchase and load borrow pit material at site, haul 2 km round trip, and $10/m $12/m3
spread with 200 HP dozer
Extra mileage charge for each km $0.50/m3 $0.55/m3
Compaction $1.02/m3 $1.26
Miscellaneous $1.10/m3 $0.85/m3

Solution 4.24

I. Suitability of Soils

PIT 1 PIT 2
% Fines 5 22
Cu 7 ---
Cc 1.3 ---

Pit 2 contains too many fines (and may not be suitable)

Pit 1 has few fines and is well graded it will compact to higher densities, which implies it will
have higher shear strength and lower compressibility.

Pit 1 contains a better soil for the embankment than Pit 2.

Cost
1
Volume of embankment = 13 2.2 2 2.2 4 2.2 10 x 10 3 = 47.96 10 4 m 3
2
Extra mileage charge/m3
10
Pit 1: 8 2n = 190 km
n 1

10
Pit 2: 4 2n = 150 km
n 1

Pit 1 : 10 190 0.5 1.02 1.1 47.96 104 = $51,374,752

Pit 2: 12 150 0.55 1.26 0.85 47.96 104 1.1 = $46,334,156

The actual cost is likely to be more because we have calculated the compacted volume. The
volume of pit material required is likely to be different for each pit.
Exercise 4.25
The soil profiles for four boreholes (BH) at a site proposed for an office building are shown in
Fig. P4.23. The soils in each borehole were classified using ASTM-CS. Sketch the soil profiles
along a diagonal line linking boreholes 1, 2 and 3 and along a line linking boreholes 3 and 4.

Solution 4.25
Boreholes 1,2 and 3;
0 OH
ML

10 CH

SW-SM
Depth

20

GP
30

40
Boreholes 3 and 4;

0
OH

ML

10
CH

SW-SM
Depth

20

GP
30

40