John M. Gunn - Restoration and Recovery of An Industrial Region PDF

SPRINGER SERIES ON
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
John M. Gunn, Editor
Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources
Cooperative Freshwater Ecology Unit
Laurentian University
Sudbury, Ontario, Canada
Restoration and Recovery

of an Industrial Region
Progress in Restoring the Smelter-Damaged
Landscape Near Sudbury, Canada
With 221 illustrations, 18 in full color
Springer-Verlag
New York Berlin Heidelberg London Paris
Tokyo Hong Kong Barcelona Budapest
JohnM. Gunn
Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources
Cooperative Freshwater Ecology Unit
Laurentian University
Sudbury, Ontario, Canada
Cover photos: A site at the Copper Cliff tailings area were taken in 1973 (by Tom Peters) and in 1994 (by Ellen Peale).
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Gunn, John M.
Restoration and recovery of an industrial region: the smelter
-damaged landscape near Sudbury, Canada / John M. Gunn.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN -13: 978-1-4612-7568-8 e-ISBN -13 :978-1-4612-2520-1
DOl: 10.1007/978-1-4612-2520-1
1. Sulphur dioxide--Environmental aspects. 2. Smelting-

-Environmental aspects. 3. Acid rain--Ontario--Sudbury (District)
4. Reclamation ofland--Ontario--Sudbury (District) I. Title.
TD 196.S95G86 1995
363.73'928'09713133--dc20 95-9909
Printed on acid-free paper.
1995 Springer-Verlag New York Inc.

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ISBN -13: 978-1-4612-7568-8

In August, 1888, a roast pile was built and started burning in the middle of a
dense growth of spruce and birch trees. Again mind triumphed over matter
and the woods fell before the stench. The roast yard was quite a success.
D.H. Browne (circa 1889),
an official with Canadian Copper Company
Last came the prospector and the mining company: but when they came they
made the region theirs, and what they found, made all other industries seem
of no account. Even the sulphur that blasted all things living, only made
nature's grimness grimmer still, substitutued, as it were, deadly purpose for
beautiful desolation.
Stephen Leacock (1937),
from My Discovery of the West
It was really very encouraging to see the results of all your labours particu-
larly in the quest of trying to reduce the sulphur emissions ... and the fact
that you are setting an example in this area will I'm sure make a great differ-
ence to other plants in other parts of the world.
Prince Charles (1991),
during his visit to Sudbury
One of the happiest and most proud moments of the entire Earth Summit, for
me as a Canadian, came when the Sudbury community was given the 1992
United Nations Local Government Honours Award for its work to reverse the
process of environmental degradation.
Maurice Strong (1994),
UN Secretary General of Earth Summit
Preface
The acid test of our understanding is not whether we can

take ecosystems to bits on pieces of paper, however
scientifically, but whether we can put them together in
practice and make them work.
A.D. Bradshaw, 1983
Home of one of the world's largest metal smelting complexes, Sudbury, On-
tario, Canada is well known as a polluted region. Many superlatives and
startling statistics describe this area: one of the largest point sources of sulfur
dioxide emissions; 17,000 ha of industrial barrens; 7000 acid-damaged lakes;
but the picture of "Superstack," the world's tallest smokestack, dispersing
pollutants high into the atmosphe:r;e, is the powerful image that has brought
this area so much unwanted attention. Throughout the much publicized acid
rain debates of the 1980s, this 381-m structure became symbolic of the global
nature of environmental destruction and the need for international agreements
to control these problems.
Sudbury is now beginning to assume a new international reputation, this
time a more favourable one. During the debates that preceded the 1990 revi-
sions of the Clean Air Act by the u.S. Congress, the evidence of progressive
recovery of acid lakes in the Sudbury area after emission reductions from local
smelters was a forceful argument in support of expenditures on control of
pollution at the source. Similarly, the recognition of Sudbury's "re-greening
program" by the United Nations at the Earth Summit in Brazil has again thrust
the region into the international spotlight. With the world now faCing the
prospect of cleaning up horrendous "Sudburys" in China, India, eastern Eu-
rope, and elsewhere, a positive example of improved industrial technology and
land and water reclamation techniques is badly needed. In the early acid rain
research literature, the word Sudbury was occasionally used as a unit or mea-
sure of pollution. In the future, it is our hope that Sudbury may someday
deserve to be used as a measure of restoration.
This book grew out of a series of technical workshops, called the Sudbury
Rehabilitation Workshops, that were held at Laurentian University in 1990,
vii
viii Preface
1991, and 1992. These workshops were designed as informal sessions to en-
courage greater technical exchange and collaboration between researchers
from universities, government environmental agencies, and local mining com-
panies. Although most of the participants had conducted research in the Sud-
bury area for many years, many of them were not familiar with each other's
work. However, all shared a common interest in reversing the serious environ-
mental problems of the area, and as a result, several collaborative projects have
developed from these meetings. This book is a result of that collaborative spirit.
It represents a collective effort to bring an important case history of environ-
mental restoration to as wide an audience as possible.
Another important stimulus for this book was the publication of the proceed-
ings of a very similar workshop dealing with the effects of smelter emissions on
the Kola Peninsula in the border area between Russia and Finland (Kozlov,
M.V. et al. [eds.]. 1993. Aerial Pollution in Kola Peninsula, Proceedings of the
International Workshop, April 14-16, 1992, st. Petersburg, Russia). The de-
scriptions of the ecological damage around the Russian smelters are hauntingly
similar to those of Sudbury. Interestingly, the scientific studies in that area have
not overlapped significantly with research efforts in the Sudbury area, but
rather the studies complement each other. In the Kola area most of the research
dealt with terrestrial effects, particularly effects on forest growth. In Sudbury,
much of the vegetation damage occurred well before scientific studies began.
Here most of the research emphasis was placed on aquatic effects and on
remedial studies (aquatic, terrestriaL industrial). I should not overstate the case,
but in thinking about the Russian smelter problems, it is also noteworthy that
the political changes that allowed Russian and Finnish scientists to meet and
exchange information parallel some of the recent changes seen at our work-
shops. True cooperation between scientists from environmental protection
agencies and representatives of the polluting companies to solve problems
rather than assign blame is also a relatively recent phenomenon.
In almost every book dealing with the new field of restoration ecology there
is a struggle with the term restoration. (Should the word be rehabilitation or
reclamation if the chances of returning a system to its original condition are nil?)
If I can be so bold as to speak on behalf of the many authors of this volume, we
did not worry about this term. For us, restoration speaks to the goal that this
industrial region is working toward, the re-establishment of attractive self-
sustaining "healthy" ecosystems, free of toxic or other deleterious substances.
Many will say that this a hopelessly naive dream in such a polluted environ-
ment. However, the steady progress that has been made suggests otherwise.
This book was designed to serve a wide international audience, including
undergraduate students, environmental resource managers, and the general
public. Technical terms and details have been kept to a minimum to allow us to
cover a wide range of disciplines. Care has been taken to provide suitable
literature sources for people desiring more specific information.
I thank the many distinguished authors and reviewers that contributed to
this book. I was fortunate to have Dr. James Kramer (McMaster University),
Nels Conroy (Ontario Ministry of Environment and Energy), Dr. Harold Harvey
(University of Toronto), Dr. Anthony Bradshaw (University of Liverpool), Dr.
John Cairns, Jr. (Virginia Polytechnic Institute), and Maurice Strong (Ontario
Hydro) review the section chapters and/or prepare introductory articles. Addi-
tional external reviews were provided by Dr. Robert Hedin (U.S. Bureau of
Preface ix
Mines), Dr. Michail Kozlov (University of Turku, Finland), Dr. Robert Benoit
(Virginia Polytechnic Institute), and Dr. John Fortesque (Ontario Geological
Surveys). Most of the authors also assisted with manuscript reviews, but I must
acknowledge the large contributions made by Bill Keller, Ed Snucins, and the
members of the synthesis team-Nels Conroy, Bill Lautenbach, Dr. Dave Pear-
son, Marty Puro, Dr. Joe Shorthouse, and Mark Wiseman. Assistance with
typing, graphics, photography, and copy editing was provided by Jim Carbone,
Michael Conlon, Kristen Gunn, Jennifer Green-Blair, Jocelyn Heneberry,
Cassandra Jacobs, Lisa MacDonald, Pat Smith, and Elizabeth Wright. A spedal
thanks to Chris Blomme for much of the artwork, Leo Lariviere for cartography,
and Mary Roche and Ed Snudns for photography. Many students helped with
the workshops and authors meetings. I thank them all but dare not attempt to
name everyone.
This is a royalty-free book for all involved. The prindpal sponsors of the book
were Laurentian University and Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources. Addi-
tional support was provided by Ontario Ministry of Environment and Energy
and Ontario Ministry of Northern Development and Mines.
JohnM. Gunn
Sudbury, 23 January 1995
Contents
Preface . . . vii
Contributors xv
SECTION A.
ffistory of Geology, Mineral Exploration, and
Environmental Damage
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Nels Conroy and James R. Kramer
1. Geological and Geographic Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

David A.B. Pearson and J.Roger Pithlado
2. Early History of Human Activities in the Sudbury Area and

Ecological Damage to the Landscape . . . . . . . . 17
Keith Winterhalder
3. Reading the Records Stored in the Lake Sediments:

A Method of Examining the History and Extent of Industrial
Damage to Lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Sushil S. Dixit, Aruna S. Dixit, John P. Smol, and W. (Bill) Keller
SECTION B. Trends in Natural Recovery after

Emission Reductions
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Harold H. Harvey and John M. Gunn
4. Declining Industrial Emissions, Improving Air Quality, and

Reduced Damage to Vegetation . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Raymond R. Potvin and John J. Negusanti
5. Lake Water Quality Improvements and Recovering

Aquatic Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
W. (Bill) Keller and John M. Gunn
xi
xii Contents
6. Lichens: Sensitive Indicators of Improving Air Quality . . 81

Peter J. Beckett
7. Natural Recovery of Vascular Plant Communities on the
Industrial Barrens of the Sudbury Area . . . . . . . . . . 93
Keith Winterhalder
SECTION C. Goals of Restoration

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Anthony D. Bradshaw
8. Municipal Land Restoration Program: The Regreening Process. 109
William E. Lautenbach, Jim Miller, Peter J. Beckett,
John J. Negusanti, and Keith Winterhalder
9. Revegetation of the Copper Cliff Tailings Area 123
Tom H. Peters
10. Engineered Wetlands as a Tailings Rehabilitation Strategy 135
Bob Michelutti and Mark E. Wiseman
11. Preservation of Biodiversity: Aurora Trout . . . . . . . 143
Ed J. Snucins, John M. Gunn, and W (Bill) Keller
12. Partnerships for Wildlife Restoration: Peregrine Falcons 155
Chris G. Blomme and Karen M. Laws
SECTION D. Research Topics in Restoration Ecology

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
John Cairns, Jr.
13. Dynamics of Plant Communities and Soils in Revegetated
Ecosystems: A Sudbury Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Keith Winterhalder
14. Lake Sediments: Sources or Sinks of Industrially
Mobilized Elements? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Nelson Belzile and J. Robert Morris
15. Liming of Sudbury Lakes: Lessons for Recovery of
Aquatic Biota from Acidification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Norman D. Yan, W (Bill) Keller, and John M. Gunn
16. Trends in Waterfowl Populations: Evidence of Recovery
from Acidification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Donald K. McNicol, R.Kenyon Ross, Mark L. Mallory, and Lise A. Brisebois
17. Acidification and Metal Contamination: Implications for the
Soil Biota of Sudbury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Christine D. Maxwell
18. Birch Coppice Woodlands near the Sudbury Smelters:
Dynamics of a Forest Monoculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Gerard M. Courtin
Contents xiii
19. Potential Role of Lowbush Blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium) in

Colonizing Metal-Contaminated Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Joseph D. Shorthouse and Giuseppe Bagatto
20. Urban Lakes: Integrators of Environmental Damage
and Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
John M. Gunn and W. (Bill) Keller
SECTION E. Planning for the Future

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Maurice F. Strong
21. Developments in Emission Control Technologies/Strategies:
A Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Dan F. Bouillon
22. Integrated Management and Progressive Rehabilitation of
Industrial Lands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 287
Ellen L. Reale
23. Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems:
Technologies for Mapping and Monitoring
Environmental Health. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
J. Roger Pitblado and E. Ann Gallie
24. Catchment Management in the Industrial Landscape 313
Peter J. Dillon and Rayla E. Evans
25. Planning for the Environmentally Friendly City 325
Tin-Chee Wu and William E. Lautenbach
26. From Restoration to Sustainable Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . .. 335
John M. Gunn, Nels Conroy, William E. Lautenbach, David A.B. Pearson,
Marty J. Puro, Joseph D. Shorthouse, and Mark E. Wiseman
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
A color insert follows page 182

Contributors
Giuseppe Bagatto, Department of Biology, Laurentian University, Sudbury,

Ontario P3E 2C6, Canada .
Peter J. Beckett, Department of Biology, Laurentian University, Sudbury, Ontario
P3E 2C6, Canada
Nelson Belzile, Department of Chemistry, Laurentian University, Sudbury,
Ontario P3E 2C6, Canada
Chris G. Blomme, Department of Biology, Laurentian University, Sudbury,
Dan F. Bouillon, Inco Limited, Copper Cliff, Ontario POM 1NO, Canada
Anthony D. Bradshaw, Department of Environmental and Evolutionary Biology,
University of Liverpool L69 3B8, England
Lise A. Brisebois, Canadian WIldlife Services, Nepean, Ontario KIA OH3, Canada
John Cairns, Jr., University Center for Environmental and Hazardous Material
Studies, Virginia Polytechnic and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061-
0415, USA
Nels Conroy, Ontario Ministry of Environment and Energy, Sudbury, Ontario
P3E 5P9, Canada
Gerard M. Courtin, Department of Biology, Laurentian University, Sudbury,
Peter J. Dillon, Ontario Ministry of Environment and Energy, Dorset, Ontario
POA lEO, Canada
Aruna S. Dixit, Department of Biology, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario
K7L 3N6, Canada
Sushil S. Dixit, Department of Biology, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario
K7L 3N6, Canada
xv
xvi Contributors
Hayla E. Evans, RODA Envir. Research Limited, Lakefield, Ontario KOL 2HO,
Canada
E. Ann Gallie, CIMMER/Geography Department, Laurentian University, Sud-
bury, Ontario P3E 2C6 Canada
John M. Gunn, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Biology Department,

Laurentian University, Sudbury, Ontario P3E 2C6, Canada
Harold H. Harvey, Department of Zoology, University of Toronto, Toronto,
Ontario M5S IAI, Canada
Ellen L. Heale, lnco Limited, Copper Cliff, Ontario POM INO, Canada
Wendel (Bill) Keller, Ontario Ministry of Environment and Energy, Sudbury,
Ontario P3E 5P9, Canada
James R. Kramer, Department of Geology, McMaster University, Hamilton,
Ontario L8S 4MI, Canada
William E. Lautenbach, Regional Municipality of Sudbury, Sudbury, Ontario P3E
5W5, Canada
Karen M. Laws, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Sudbury, Ontario P3A
4S2,Canada
Mark L. Mallory, Canadian Wildlife Services, Nepean, Ontario KIA OH3, Canada
Christine E. Maxwell, Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough,
Ontario K9J 7B8, Canada
Don K. McNicol, Canadian Wildlife Services, Nepean, Ontario KIA OH3, Canada
Robert E. Michelutti, Falconbridge Limited, Falconbridge, Ontario POM ISO,
Canada
Jim Miller, Regional Municipality of Sudbury, Sudbury, Ontario P3E 5W5,
Canada
J. Robert Morris, Department of Biology, Laurentian University, Sudbury, On-
tario P3E 2C6, Canada
John J. Negusanti, Ontario Ministry of Environment and Energy, Sudbury, On-
tario P3E 5P9, Canada
David Pearson, Department of Geology, Laurentian University, Sudbury, Ontario
P3E 2C6, Canada
Tom H. Peters, 31 School Street, Copper Cliff, Ontario POM INO, Canada
J. Roger Pitblado, Department of Geography, Laurentian University, Sudbury,
Raymond R. Potvin, Ontario Ministry of Environment and Energy, Sudbury,
Ontario P3E 5P9, Canada
Marty J. Puro, Inco Limited, Copper Cliff, Ontario, POM INO Canada
R. Kenyon Ross, Canadian Wildlife Services, Nepean, Ontario KIA OH3, Canada
Contributors xvii
Joseph D. Shorthouse, Department of Biology, Laurentian University, Sudbury,

John P. Smol, Department of Biology, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario
K7L 3N6 Canada
Ed J. Snucins, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Biology Department
Laurentian University, Sudbury, Ontario P3E 2C6, Canada
Maurice R Strong, Ontario Hydro, Toronto, Ontario M5G IX6, Canada
E. Keith Winterhalder, Department of Biology, Laurentian University, Sudbury,

Mark E. Wiseman, Falconbridge Limited, Falconbridge, Ontario POM I SO, Canada
Tin-Chee Wu, Regional Municipality of Sudbury, Sudbury, Ontario P3E 5W5,

Canada
Norman D. Yan, Ontario Ministry of Environment and Energy, Dorset, Ontario
POA lEO, Canada
Restoration and Recovery
of an Industrial Region
SECTION A
History of Geology,
Mineral Exploration, and
Nels Conroy and James R. Kramer
Sudbury, Ontario, is one of at least five "Sudburys" in the

world and probably the best known. It was named in 1882 by
James Worthington in honor of his wife's birthplace in En-
gland. Mr. Worthington was the construction manager for the
Canadian Central transcontinental rail line through the area.
The geological and anthropological histories of Sudbury, Ontario,
are complex and fascinating, and some aspects are still being re-
searched. In Table A.l, important milestones from earliest of time
until the present are documented. Many of the events are discussed
in the following chapters.
Ore was discovered in Sudbury in the 1880s. However, attempts to
extract the copper was largely unsuccessful because of the high
sulfides and the presence of the "devil's metal," nickel. Technology
that was developed to recover the metals was not environmentally
friendly, and the region suffered deep scars to the landscape from the
mining and smelting activity. By the 1950s, Sudbury was famous as
the world's largest producer of nickel and infamous as a region
where the landscape has been devastated. Soil and vegetation were
lost from tens of thousands of hectares of land surrounding the roast
beds and the smelters. The scar was readily visible even from outer
space (see Plate 1 following page 182). Decades later, the infamy was
extended when it was shown that lakes at a considerable distance
were addified and grossly contaminated with metals. Fortunately,
the story does not end there. Recent efforts related to reclamation,
including emission reductions, have been positive. The latter chap-
ters in this book demonstrate that, given the will and cooperation,
environmental degradation can be abated over the short term.
Sudbury is not alone in its history of environmental degrada-
tion caused by mineral smelting. In fact, there are several "sister
cities" in Russia where nickel smelting has created similar sites of
environmental damage related to sulfur dioxide and metal partic-
ulate emissions. It is our hope that this book will provide a useful
case history to assess progress toward environmental restoration.
3
4 A. History of Geology, Mineral Exploration, and Environmental Damage
TABLE A.I. Chronology of Important Events Influencing the

Sudbury Region
Time
(years since present)
Formation/accretion of earth 4,600,000,000
Oldest known rocks of the Canadian Shield 3,920,000,000
Origin of life 3.400,000,000
Formation of Sudbury Basin 1,850,000,000
Beginning of mountain building period causing deformation of Sudbury 1,800,000,000
Basin
End of mountain building period 1,630,000,000
Evolution of modem humans 1,000,000
End of last glaciation and formation of glacial deposits 10,000
Ojibways, Huro!}!" and Ottawas settle in the area from 10,000
Evidence of first settlement Sheguindah from 7,000
First European explorer (Champlain) (1615) 380
Chemical and physical properties of nickel recognized 250
Hudson Bay Trading Post established west of Sudbury Basin' (1824) 171
First geological reconnaissance of the north shore of Lake Huron (Logan) 146
(1849)
First mapping of mineralization in Sudbury area (1856) 139
Chicago fire exerts demands on Sudbury forests for lumber to rebuild 116
(1879)
Discovery of mineralization at Sudbury during construction of 112
transcontinental railway (1883)
First purchase of mining lands by Murray (1884) III
First uses of corrosion resistant nickel steel (1885) 110
First smelting of Sudbury ores by roast heap (1888) 107
Thomas Edison stops exploring just short of discovering Falconbridge 94
deposit (1901)
First geological map of Sudbury Basin (1905) 90
Ontario Royal Commission on Nickel (1915) 80
Austentite structure for stainless steel determined by Guillet (1915) 80
Damages by Sulphur Fumes Arbitration Act proclaimed (1921) 74
Founding of International Nickel of Canada Ltd. (Inco) (1928) 67
Formation of Falconbridge Nickel Mines Ltd. (1928) 67
Ontario government issues environmental control orders to reduce 26
emissions from area smelters (1969)
First published concerns of long-range atmospheric damage from Sudbury 25
(1970)
First Earth Day (1970) 25
Completion of Inco's Superstack" and major emission controls (1972) 23
U.N. Stockholm conference on the environment emphasizes acidification 23
pollution to lakes (1972)
First International Conference on Acid Rain at Ohio State University (1976) 19
Regional land reclamation initiated (1978) 17
Ontario government initiates Countdown Acid Rain program (1985) 10
First published evidence of reversal of acidification, Sudbury lakes (1986) 9
U.N. Local Government Honours Award to Sudbury (1992) 3
Legislated reductions in sulfur dioxide emissions achieved (1994)
1
Geological and Geographic Setting
David A.B. Pearson and J.Roger Pitblado
The Sudbury area lies near the southern edge of already been extracted or are known to be
the Precambrian Canadian Shield, just north of available in ore reserves. Only the Noril'sk de-
Lake Huron (4600'N-4730'N; 7930'N-81 posits (BOX 1.1) north of the Arctic Circle in
30'W) (Fig. 1.1) Although the rocks are old, the central Siberia, with a known total of about 15
rugged landscape is young and dominated by million tons, are in the same class as Sudbury
rocky hills and ridges, rounded and scoured by (Naldrett 1994). Almost all the earth's nickel is
glaciers. Lakes and rivers are plentiful and often concentrated in the core of the planet, and just
lie in fractures or weak zones in the bedrock that a very tiny fraction is found in surface rocks.
were more easily eroded by the moving ice. A Only about two dozen significant deposits are
generally thin veneer of sandy glacial sediment known (Fig. 1.3).
covers the bedrock and supports a thin soil and The Sudbury ore deposits (Dressler et al.
widespread forest. The focus of geological as well 1991) lie in sporadic pockets around the 150-
as current economic interest is the Sudbury krn rim of what is widely known as the Sud-
Basin (Fig. 1.2). It is a puzzling elliptical feature bury Basin (see Fig. 1.2). Strictly speaking,
that many geologists believe was produced by a geologists reserve this term for the low-lying
meteorite collision nearly 2 billion years ago. ground, underlain by sandstone and slate, in
Nickel and copper ore has been mined for more the center of the structure. However, in this
than a century from more than 90 mines around book, Sudbury Basin will be used for the geolo-
the edge of the structure. gical structure as a whole. On the surface, the
Prevailing winds have carried pollution from basin is enclosed by the once molten rocks of
smelting over a wide area to the east and north- the Sudbury Igneous Complex. In cross sec-
east, causing the damage to vegetation and lakes tion, the igneous rocks underlie or cradle the
described in Chapters 2 and 3. Unfortunately, rocks of the basin like a spoon. It is an enig-
the bedrock and glacial sediment have contrib- matic feature, and even after 40 years of inten-
uted very little add neutralizing capability to the sive study, it is not clear how it was formed.
lakes and soils affected by these emissions. Several characteristics make it clear that it was
the result of a violent event. Foremost is the
enormous volume, estimated to be 1670 krn 3
Sudbury Basin (Stevenson 1972), of breccia or welded broken
Sudbury is the site of the largest known concen- rock (the Onaping Breccia) that forms a 1.6-
tration of nickel on the surface of the planet. krn-thick blanket over the igneous rock within
Nearly 20 million tons of the metal have either the basin. The fragments of the breccia are
5
6 Pearson and Pitblado
-------- FAULTS
MINES
FIGURE 1_1. Generalized location map of the study area and geology of the Sudbury Basin.
FIGURE 1.2. Radar image of the Sudbury Basin and Wanapitei Lake from 6000 m. (Courtesy of the Canada
Centre for Remote Sensing.)
1. Geological and Geographic Setting 7
Box 1.1. Noril'sk: The Treasure of Siberia
Open-pit mine near Noril'sk (photo by P. Light- times the platinum group element grade (Nal-
foot, Ontario Geological Surveys). Noril'sk and drett 1994). The other two areas of Russia
Sudbury are the two great nickel sulfide depos- where nickel is mined, smelted, and refined
its of the world. Also, Noril'sk stands, with are the Kola Peninsula, near the Norwegian
deposits in Zimbabwe, as the predominant and Finnish border, and the middle and south-
world resource site for platinum group metals. ern Urals. Like Noril'sk and Sudbury, the Kola
In relation to Sudbury ore, the Talilakh deposit Peninsula deposit is a sulfide ore. The Ural
from the Noril'sk area contains twice the nickel deposits are of the laterite type.
grade, four times the copper grade, and five
considered to have fallen back to earth into a have separated as hot sulfide droplets from the
crater after either one or more volcanic explo- molten igneous rock on the crater floor. It is
sions (Muir 1984) or after the impact of a no longer thought, as was once suggested, to
lO-km-diameter meteorite (Grieve 1994). The have been melted meteorite.
explosive violence of this catastrophic event, Age dating of the igneous rock has estab-
whatever its cause, also shattered the rock lished that it crystallized about 1850 million
around the crater, producing half-cone-shaped years ago (Krogh et al. 1984). This is seen as a
fractures called shatter cones (Fig. 1.4, Box 1.2) more or less accurate date for the origin of the
as well as open fissures that instantly filled basin as a whole.
with crushed fragments, now referred to as Sud- The elliptical pattern of the outcrops is in-
bury Breccia. The igneous rocks fonning the herited from compressive forces that built
hilly rim of the Sudbury Basin are seen either as mountains to the southwest of Sudbury after
impact melt generated on the floor of the crater the structure was formed. Dislocation of the
(Golightly 1994) or as a succession of molten south side of the structure may have shoved it
intrusions that rose from lower in the crust at several tens of kilometers over what had been
roughly the time the crater was produced (Nal- the center of the original crater, effectively
drett and Hewins 1984). The ore is thought to halving its diameter (Milkereit et al. 1992)
8 Pearson and Pitbla
"" lO 10 ,,. '50 .

FIGURE 1.3. Nickel mining areas of the world. The two largest producing sites (> 100,000 tonnes Ni/yr) are at
Sudbury, Canada, and Noril'sk, Russia. At anyone indicated site, there may be several individual mines.
FIGURE 1.4. Shatter cones in bedrock outside the Southern edge of the Sudbury Basin. Most point towa.rd
the center of the basin and are thought to indicate the location of an extremely violent explosion.
(Courtesy of Wilf Meyer.)
Box 1.2.
Apollo 16 astronauts Charles Duke and John about living in a "moonscape" and deliberately
Young visited Sudbury in July 1971, just a few overlooked by outside commentators happy to
months before walking on the moon. NASA's find an easy target. The Apollo 17 crew, which
purpose was to have the astronauts practice included Harrison Schmitt, a geologist, also
describing the rocks and geological features in came to Sudbury a year later, but they left
preparation for reporting on the geology of the their packs behind. Instead of astronauts moon-
moon. However, this was widely misunder- walking, it was shatter cones (Fig. 1.4) that
stood by Sudburians still oversensitive to jokes made the national television news!
Erosion has cut down at least 5 km, but recent an iron sulfide that dominates the ore, often to
seismic reflection work shows the floor of the the extent of 80-90%. The nickel mineral pent-
Sudbury Basin is still between 10 and 15 km landite and copper-rich chalcopyrite make up
below the surface (Milkereit et a1. 1992). the bulk of the remaining 10-20%. High-
grade ore yields between 7 and 10% refined
nickel and copper combined, with nickel usu-
Sudbury Ore ally predominating.
Nickel and copper are the main products from

the Sudbury ore, but cobalt, platinum, palla- Ice and Landscape
dium, osmium, iridium, rhodium, ruthenium,
gold, silver, selenium, and tellurium are sig- A mere 12,000 years ago, the Sudbury area was
nificantly valuable byproducts as well as po- buried beneath the Laurentide ice sheet, which
tential trace contributors to the geochemical covered most of Canada with 1-2 km of ice
environment. Also, zinc, lead, and arsenic are during the last Ice Age. This and several previ-
frequently present in trace amounts. ous advances of ice stripped soil and over-
Almost all the minerals in the ore are sul- burden from the surface, deepened existing rock
fides, induding the waste mineral pyrrhotite, basins, gouged out many others, and forced the
FIGURE 1.5. Frequency distributions shown as a rose diagram

highlight the prevailing wind directions.
southward migration of plants and animals Today, the maJonty of landscapes can be
(Dredge and Cowan 1989; Trenhaile 1990). described as rock knobs or ridges of rolling,
The advancing ice created a bare bedrock sur- undulating, sometimes rugged topography of
face, in places thinly plastered by a stony and moderate elevation or relief. A wide variety of
sandy ground moraine (Boissonneau 1968; Bur- interesting landforms built from glacial deposits
wasser 1979; Barnett 1992). Study of striations are interspersed. Low relief deposits of silt, silty
scratched into the bedrock and the dispersal of clay, and organic terrains are scattered through-
boulders of distinctive lithologies (Shilts 1989) out the region. The most extensive level areas
has shown that the ice in Ontario moved toward are the glacial lake and river sediments within
the southwest or south. the Sudbury Basin itself and, toward the east,
Over the next 2000 years, the landscape was parts of the sandy Lake Nipissing lowlands.
dramatically altered as the ice melted. Meltwater
spilled out from the ice front in countless
streams and rivers to form massive glacial lakes. Climate
One example is Lake Algonquin, which at one
time occupied much of what is today Lake Hu- The Sudbury area is alternately buffeted by
ron and Georgian Bay. All of the area from the very cold-dry continental arctic, cool-dry con-
north rim of the Sudbury Basin southward was tinental polar, hot-dry continental tropical,
engulfed until the Mattawa-Ottawa river outlet and warm-moist maritime tropical air masses.
became ice-free to the east. Locally, lakes The flow of these air masses generates prevail-
formed, drained, and re-formed in response to ing wind directions from the north and south-
the progressive lowering of post-Algonquin west (Fig. 1.5). These prevailing winds have
lakes and altering drainage patterns. It was at had a profound influence on where airborne
this time that massive amounts of ice-contact pollutants have had an effect on terrestrial and
and glaciofluvial materials were deposited to the aquatic ecosystems in the region.
north and east of the Sudbury Basin. These in- The modified continental climate of the area
cluded the eskers in the vicinity of Falconbridge is characterized by relatively long severe win-
and sand-gravel deposits to the north and south ters and short temperate summers. Based on
of Wanapitei Lake. Concurrently, clay and silt 1951-1980 normals (Environment Canada
were deposited in great quantities in the progla- 1982) for the Sudbury Airport climate station,
ciallake that formed within the Sudbury Basin mean daily minimum and maximum temper-
itself as well as along the outer margin of the atures for the year are 1.6'C and 8.3'C, respec-
southern basin rim. tively. The average daily temperature in the
month of January is -12.3C, increasing to ganic surface layer, a white to ash-gray leached
19.8C in July, the warmest month of the year. horizon immediately below, followed by yellow-
Precipitation is uniformly distributed through- ish-brown or reddish-brown subsoils.
out the year, although highest in the summer
months. Over the 30-year period from 1951 to
1980, total precipitation has averaged 860 mml Vegetation
year, with just less than 250 cm of snowfall
annUally. It is tempting to suggest that today's vegetation
Since 1895, the mean annual temperature (see Chapter 2) represents postglacial communi-
for Canada has increased by 1. 1C (Gullett and ties that followed a simple progression from tun-
Skinner 1992). Locally, although there have dra, to boreal, and finally to the current mixed
been great variations in monthly total precipi- coniferous-deciduous woodlands. Mounting
tation, the mean monthly temperature shows evidence suggests that is not the case. Pollen
little variation over the past 100 years. In the analyses (Webb 1985; Gajewski 1988) in the
past few decades, however, the Sudbury cli- midwest and eastern United States indicate that
mate has moderated, taking on more of the temperatures 6000 years ago were ISC higher
climatic characteristics associated with parts of than at present, allowing for increased rates of
southern Ontario. soil formation and the expansion of temperate
vegetation species well beyond their present-day
ranges. But over the past 2000 years, there has
Soils been a long-term gradual cooling. The latter
would permit an expansion of boreal elements
With the retreat of the Laurentide ice sheet at the expense of more-temperate tree species
dated at only 9,000-10,000 years ago, rela- and similarly a decrease in the rates of soil
tively little time has passed for the develop- formation.
ment of mature mineral soils on the exposed Similar patterns have been found from pol-
bedrock outcrops. Well-drained to excessively len studies in Canada (Ritchie 1966, 1988).
drained shallow, stony, sandy soils, known as These indicate a southward extension of the
regosols, have accumulated in pockets of ex- boreal forest in the west and a significant
posed rock knobs and ridges, in depressions, increase in spruce in the transition zone be-
and along small stream valleys. Similarly, wide- tween the boreal and temperate forest of
spread but localized occurrences of poorly southern Quebec. It is very unlikely that such
drained gleysols (formed when soils are satu- changes in climate, rates of soil formation, and
rated with water either continuously or for shifts in species distribution were not experi-
long periods during the year) and organic soils enced as well in the Sudbury area.
are important.
The dominant soil-forming process in the
region is podzolization, a process in which or- Lakes
ganic acids form in the surface horizons, leach
basic elements such as calcium, magnesium, For both visitors and residents alike, one of the
iron, and aluminum from the upper layers, most striking features of the Canadian Shield
and then deposit them in soil horizons im- is the enormous number of lakes that dot the
mediately below (Canada Soil Survey Com- landscape. It has been estimated that within
mittee 1978). Under a coniferous or mixed the province of Ontario there are more that
conifer-deciduous forest cover, this process is 226,000 lakes, and approximately 20,000 of
enhanced by the cool humid climate and the these are within 100 km of Sudbury (Cox 1978).
acidic parent materials produced by the silica- A good impression of the number and com-
rich Precambrian bedrock. Podzols are very plex distribution of these lakes is provided in
well defined on well-drained sandy tills of the Figure 1.6. The landscape is strewn with lake
area and are characterized by their dark or- basins controlled by bedrock faults and glacial
FIGURE 1.6. Principal lake patterns derived from a

1:250,000 scale topographic map.
scour, or areas of glacioloacustrine deposits in which the bedrock, overlying glacial mate-
(Sudbury Basin, Nipissing lowlands) virtually riaL and soil have little ability to neutralize or
unoccupied by lakes. The principal exception buffer the acid (Fig. 1.7). Buffering capacity
is the largest of the lakes, Wanapitei, located in is provided by minerals that accept protons
the center of the figure. This is a crater lake (or hydrogen ions) from acid solutions. The
created 37 million years ago by meteorite im- minerals themselves may be dissolved in the
pact (Grieve and Robertson 1987). process, as occurs with calcite (calcium car-
bonate), the main mineral of limestone, or
they may be altered to another mineral in the
Geological Influence on case of fine-grained clay.
The most effective buffering is provided by
Environmental either limestone bedrock or finely ground-
Geochemistry up limestone in glacial drift. However, in the
hinterland of Sudbury's smelters, limestone
The chemical make-up of the bedrock and is rare. The only extensive outcrops are in
overlying glacial deposits, as well as pro- the Hudson Bay lowland more than 500 km
cesses of soil formation, are critical factors in to the north. Although it is possible for ma-
the ability of aquatic and terrestrial eco- terial to be carried that far, Karrow and Ged-
systems to withstand the effects of chemical des (1987) found that the carbonate content
pollutants. In the Sudbury area, several of glacial debris fell to less than 10% about
studies have investigated these relationships 175 km north of Sudbury. Nevertheless,
in ecosystems affected by acidic precipitation two local sources must be borne in mind: an
and heavy metals (Conroy and Keller 1976; outlier of limestone around Lake Timis-
Semkin and Kramer 1976; Griffith et al. 1984; kaming near the Ontario-Quebec border,
Jeffries et al. 1984). and small outcrops of Precambrian limestone
With regard to acidification, efforts have been north of Wanapitei Lake. An example of the
made at a very general level to assess and map influence of the Lake Timiskaming outlier
"sensitivity" to acidic precipitation (Shilts et al. may well be elevated calcium and magne-
1981; Cowell, 1986). Sensitive areas are those sium levels in near-neutral and alkaline lake
. .....
......
.. .. ...
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.. .. ..
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.. .. .. . .. ..
~
.
.. .
. .
.. .. ..
..
.,.
.. . . .............
.. .. ..
..
. "
..
... ... . .......... . ............. .

.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .... .. I> ............ ..
~
.
. .. ...
.. .. .. ....
........................
.......... ....... I> ..
.
. .. ....
..
. .. ....
, ........
....................... .. .
of ., t
............................
.. t t .. , ...... ..
.. .. .. .. .. I> .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
t .. .... ........................... ..
.. ...
+-
.. . .. ..
..
..
....
.. .. ..
. ..
..
..
f

. .. . .. . ..
,
.....
., .. .. ..
..................
..
.. .. ..
.. .. ..
. .. .. ..
.. .. ..
.
..
o ... .... ..... t .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
~ .......... tC;~
.. ~.. ..... . . .m.~
.. .. . .. .. .. .. .. ......
.............. .. .
. -t .. t .. t .. t t t ...... ..
. .. . . . . .. .. .. .. . .
. . . ... . ... ... .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. ~
................
" . "
Georgtan
\
Bay\
FIGURE 1.7. Sensitivity of bedrock and derived soils to acid precipitation (Shilts et aI., 1981).
water in two areas 70 and 115 kIn north of On the whole, transported glacial debris has
Sudbury reported by Fortescue (1985). It is done little to modify the fundamental pattern
also possible that calcite or other carbonate of sensitivity produced by the bedrock. To the
minerals in veins cutting the bedrock may be east, beyond what geologists call the Grenville
responsible for surprisingly effective buffering Front, igneous and metamorphic rocks have
(Drever and Hurcomb 1986). produced quartz and feldspar-rich sand and
Acidity is also counteracted by the ability of silt. To the northeast, slightly less sensitive ter-
clay particles to capture hydrogen ions in rain is underlain by iron-rich igneous rocks
exchange for other ions such as calcium or and extensive beds of sandy and silty sedimen-
potassium. This mechanism may now be sig- tary rock. Some slight buffering capacity is
nificantly effective in areas of former glacial prOvided by clay minerals.
lakes fed by muddy streams as the ice front Metal levels in surface environments are
melted back 9000 years ago. Lake Ramsey, in also influenced by bedrock. West of Sudbury,
the shadow of the smelters in downtown Sud- near Sault St. Marie, distinct geochemical sig-
bury, may owe much of its remarkable resis- natures have been reported for granites, me-
tance to acidification to the effectiveness of tamorphosed sediments, and two varieties of
buffering by glacial clay. In small areas with volcanic rocks. Copper, for example, was
more mature soils, the same mechanism is closely associated with iron-rich volcanic rocks
provided by aluminium and iron hydroxides. and uranium with granites, whereas zinc and
arsenic were related to the contact between Soil Classification. Agric. Pub!. 1646. Department
sedimentary and iron-rich volcanic rocks (For- of Agriculture, Ottawa.
tescue and Vida 1989, 1990). Lake sediment Conroy, N.!., and W. Keller. 1976. Geological factors
surveys on metamorphic rocks south of Sud- affecting biological activity in Precambrian Shield
bury show regional bedrock-related chemical lakes. Can. Mineral. 14:62-72.
patterns in lead, zinc, uranium, and cobalt and Cowell, D.W. 1986. Assessment of Aquatic and Ter-
restrial Acid Precipitation Sensitivities for On-
also arsenic values strongly associated with fault
tario. ARB Report 220-86-PHYTO/APIOS Report
zones (Easton 1992). These and many other 009/86. Environment Canada/Ontario Ministry
examples well known in the literature on min- of the Environment, Ottawa/Toronto.
eral exploration are important in the present Cox, E.T. 1978. Counts and Measurements of On-
context because of the potential for acidic water tario Lakes: Watershed Unit Summaries Based on
to release these minerals in toxic amounts into Maps of Various Scales by Watershed Unit. On-
the environment. The toxic effect on vegetation tario Ministry of Natural Resources, Toronto.
of high levels of otherwise innocuous alumin- Dredge, L.A., and W.R. Cowan. 1989. Quaternary
ium results from the doubling or tripling of the geology of the southwestern Canadian Shield,
normal rate of rock weathering or decomposi- pp. 214-235. In R.J. Fulton (ed.). Quaternary
tion produced by acid rain. Accelerated weath- Geology of Canada and Greenland. Geological
ering also produces more carbon dioxide, which Survey of Canada, Ottawa.
alters the atmosphere and feeds the greenhouse Dressler, B.O., V.K. Gupta, and T.L. Muir. 1991. The
Sudbury structure, pp. 593-626. In P.C. Thurston
effect. It is a stark reminder that the rocks of the
et al. (eds.). Geology of Ontario. Special Volume
lithosphere, the plants and animals of the bio- 4, Part 1. Ontario Geological Survey, Toronto.
sphere, and the gases of the atmosphere are Drever, J.I., and D.R. Hurcomb. 1986. Neutralization
delicately balanced. The rest of this book deals of atmospheric aadity by chemical weathering in
with understanding that balance, attempting to an alpine drainage basin in the North Cascade
restore it, and learning to live in ways that pro- Mountains. Geology 14:221-224.
tect it for future generations. Easton, R.M. 1992. The Grenville Province and the
Proterozoic history of central and southern On-
tario, pp. 714-904. In P.C. Thurston et al. (eds.).
Acknowledgments. Thanks are extended to Leo Geology of Ontario. Special Volume 4, Part 2.
Lariviere for drafting the diagrams for this chap- Ontario Geological Survey, Toronto.
ter and to Dr. John Fortescue of the Ontario Environment Canada. 1982. Canadian Climate Nor-
Geological Survey for valuable discussions. Dr. mals, 1951-1980. Supply and Services Canada,
Jim Kramer, Nels Conroy, and Dr. John Gunn Ottawa.
Fortescue, J.A.C. 1985. Preliminary Studies of Lake
made a notable contribution through their com-
Sediment Geochemistry in an Area Northeast of
ments on an earlier draft. Sudbury, Sudbury and Temiskaming District; Map
80756. Geochemical Series. Ontario Geological
Survey, Toronto.
References Fortescue, J.A.C., and E.A. Vida. 1989. Geochemi-
Barnett, P.J. 1992. Quaternary geology of Ontario, cal Survey of the Trout Lake Area; Map 80803.
pp. 1011-1088. In P.C. Thurston et al. (eds.). Ontario Geological Survey, Toronto.
Geology of Ontario. Special Volume 4. Part 2. Fortescue, J.A.C., and E.A. Vida. 1990. Geochemi-
Ontario Geological Survey, Toronto. cal Survey, Hanes Lake Area; Map 80806. On-
Boissonneau, A.N. 1968. Glacial history of northeast- tario Geological Survey, Toronto.
ern Ontario. ll. The Timiskaming-Algoma area. Gajewski, K. 1988. Late Holocene climate changes
Can. J. Earth So. 5:97-109. in eastern North America estimated from pollen
Burwasser, G.J. 1979. Quaternary Geology of the data. Quat. Res. 29:255-262.
Sudbury Basin Area, District of Sudbury. Report Golightly, J.P. 1994. The Sudbury Igneous Complex
181, Ontario Geological Survey, Toronto. as an impact melt; evolution and ore genesis,
Canada Soil Survey Committee, Subcommittee on pp. 105-117. In P.C. Lightfoot and A.J. Naldrett
Soil Classification. 1978. The Canadian System of (eds.). Proceedings of the Sudbury-Noril'sk Sym-
posium. Special Volume 5. Ontario Geological pp. 309-325. In E.G. Pye, A.J. Naldrett, and
Survey, Sudbury. P.E. Giblin (eds.). The Geology and Ore Deposits
Grieve, R.A.F. 1994. An impact model for the Sud- of the Sudbury Basin. Special Volume 1. Ontario
bury structure, pp. 119-132. In P.C. Lightfoot and Geological Survey, Toronto.
A.J. Naldrett (eds.). Proceedings of the Sudbury- Naldrett, A.J. 1994. The Sudbury-Noril'sk Sympo-
Noril'sk Symposium. Special Volume 5. Ontario sium, an overview, 3-8. In P.C. Lightfoot and A.J.
Geological Survey, Sudbury. Naldrett (eds.). Proceedings of the Sudbury-Noril'sk
Grieve, RA.F., and P.B. Robertson. 1987. Terrestrial Symposium. Special Volume 5. Ontario Geological
Impact Structures; Map 1658A. Geological Sur- Survey, Sudbury.
vey of Canada, Ottawa; map supplement in Epi- Naldrett, A.J., and RM. Hewins. 1984. The main
sodes 10:86. mass of the Sudbury Igneous Complex, pp. 235-
Griffith, M.A., T. Spires, and P. Barclay. 1984. Ontario 252. In E.G. Pye" A.J. Naldrett, and P.E. Giblin
Soil Baseline Survey-Analytical Data 1980-81. (eds.). The Geology and Ore Deposits of the Sud-
APIOS Report 002/85. Ontario Ministry of the En- bury Basin. Special Volume 1. Ontario Geological
vironment, Toronto. Survey, Toronto.
Gullett, D.W., and W.R. Skinner. 1992. The State of Ritchie, J.C. 1966. Aspects of the late-Pleistocene his-
Canada's Climate: Temperature Changes in Can- tory of the Canadian flora, pp. 66-80. In RL. Taylor
ada 1895-1991. SOE Report 92-2. Environment and R.A. Ludwig (eds.). The Evolution of Canada's
Canada, Ottawa. Flora. University of Toronto Press, Toronto.
Jeffries, D.S., W.A. Scheider, and W.R Snyder. 1984. Ritchie, J.e. 1988. Postglacial Vegetation of Canada.
Geochemical interactions of watersheds with pre- Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
dpitation in areas affected by smelter emissions Semkin, R.G., and J.R. Kramer. 1976. Sediment
near Sudbury, Ontario, pp. 196-241. In J. Nriagu geochemistry of Sudbury-area lakes. Can. Min-
(ed.). Environmental Impacts of Smelters. John eral. 14:73-90.
Wiley & Sons, New York. Shilts, W.W. 1989. Flow patterns in the central
Karrow, P.F., and R.S. Geddes. 1987. Drift carbonate North American ice sheet. Nature 386:213-218.
on the Canadian Shield. Can. J. Earth Sd. 24: Shilts, W.W., K.D. Card, W.H. Poole, and B.V. San-
365-369. ford. 1981. Sensitivity of Bedrock to Acid Precip-
Krogh, T.E., D.W. Davis, and F. Corfer. 1984. Predse itation: Modification by Glacial Processes. Paper
U-Pb zircon and baddeleyite ages for the Sudbury 81-14. Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa.
area, pp. 431-447. In E.G. Pye, A.J. Naldrett, and Stevenson, J.S. 1972. The Onaping ash-flow sheet,
P.E. Giblin (eds.). The Geology and Ore Deposits Sudbury, Ontario, pp. 41-48. In J.V. Guy-Bray
of the Sudbury Structure. Special Volume 1. On- (ed.). New Developments in Sudbury Geology.
tario Geological Survey, Toronto. Spedal Paper 10. Geological Association of Can-
Milkereit, B., A. Green, and the Sudbury Working ada. Toronto, Ontario.
Group. 1992. Deep geometry of the Sudbury Trenhaile, A.S. 1990. The Geomorphology of Can-
Structure from seismic reflection profiling. Geol- ada. Oxford University Press, Toronto.
ogy 20:807-811. Webb ill, T. 1985. Holocene palynology and climate,
Muir, T.L. 1984. The Sudbury structure; consid- pp. 163-195. In A.D. Hecht (ed.). Paleoclimate An-
erations and models for an endogenic origin, alysis and Modeling. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
2
Early History of Human Activities in
the Sudbury Area and Ecological
Damage to the Landscape
Keith Winterhald~r
In contrast to the ancient events that formed the In 1824, the Hudson's Bay Company estab-
Sudbury Basin and its mineral deposits, its hu- lished a fur-trading post near what was later to
man history spans less than 10,000 years. As the become Sudbury, and the hunting and gather-
Wisconsin glacier receded, a forest cover devel- ing life-style of the local Anishnabe people was
oped, and the area was settled by native groups. modified to include commercial fur trapping.
The events that led to Sudbury becoming one of This, however, did not have a permanent ef-
the largest mining and smelting regions in the fect on the local wildlife population. When the
world (Fig. 2.1) are from a far briefer period of area was opened up to lumbering in 1872, the
about 100 years. The environmental damage larger red and white pines were cut and float-
that occurred during this recent industrial period ed down rivers to Georgian Bay and Lake
is the focus of this chapter. Other international Huron, then rafted to sawmills in the northern
examples of mining-related ecosystem damage United States.
are described in Box 2.1. Lumber from the Sudbury area almost cer-
Sudbury lies in a vegetation zone referred to tainly played an important role in rebuilding
by Rowe (I959) as the Great Lakes-St. Law- Chicago after that city's devastating fire of
rence Forest Region and is located on the mar- 1871. Although the first European settlers in
gin of the northern Temagami section, once Sudbury would have found a forest that was
characterized by extensive stands of red and partly cut-over, with regrowth of birches and
white pine (Pinus resinosa and P strobus), and poplars, in many areas some fair-sized trees
the southern Algonquin section, where white must have remained, because the Sudbury
pine formed an admixture with tolerant hard- parish came to be known as "Ste. Anne of
woods such as sugar maple (Acer saccharum) the Pines."
and yellow birch (Betula aUeghaniensis). Al- By the turn of the century, black and white
though we do not know the exact nature of spruce (Picea mariana and P glauca), balsam
the vegetation that existed in the Sudbury fir (Abies baisamea), and later jack pine (Pinus
area before disturbance, the huge white pine banksiana) were also being harvested, and
stumps now found on bare stony slopes more than 11,000 men were employed in
(Fig. 2.2) and the vestiges of white cedar the mills and in the bush around Sudbury. In
(Thuja occidentalis) that cover many acres of the broader Sudbury area, lumbering contin-
barren peat (Fig. 2.3) hint at a mosaic of pine ued to be the dominant industry as late as
forests on the slopes and cedar swamps in 1927, despite the emergence of the mining
many of the depressions. industry after 1886.
17
18 Winterhalder
10
"'" .2<1 . '"

.. .20
"'"
FIGURE 2.1. Worldwide location of nickel smelters and refineries. Numbers indicate the location of relatively
large smelters (>30,000 tonnes of nickel per annum): (1) lnco Limited at Sudbury; (2) Faleonbridge Limited at
Sudbury; (3) lneo Limited at Thompson, Manitoba, Canada; (4) Pechenganikel Company (now Severonikel) at
Nikel and Zapolyarny, Russia; (5) Severonikel Complex at Monchegorsk, Russia; (6) Severonikel Complex at
Noril'sk, Russia; (7) Western Mining Company at Kalgoorlie, Western Australia.
Early logging practice, involving the selective fire. Early accounts of Sudbury often spoke of
removal of the larger red and white pine, made blackened stumps and plentiful blueberries
a minimal contribution to environmental degra- (Howey 1938), the blueberry plant being a
dation, because rapidly growing successional very fire-tolerant species. The wood-burning
species such as white birch (Betula papyriJera) locomotives must have contributed to the fire
and trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides) would setting, and prospectors were said to have set
have colonized quickly. Even the less-selective fires to expose the bedrock under the duff
logging that came later, for railroad ties and cover. As logging became less selective, a greater
locomotive fuel and for pit timbers and pulp- proportion of the timber was removed, and
wood, should not have led to permanent denu- the slash left behind created an ideal fuel for
dation of the landscape. But events were to take forest fires. Later, sulfur dioxide damage led to
a different direction in 1883 when surveyor Wil- the death of leaves on the trees, creating tin-
liam Ramsey accidentally routed the new Cana- der. Even today the blueberry patches, main-
dian Pacific Railway (C.P.R.) to the north of tained to some extent by recurring fire, attract
Birnitimigamasing Lake (now Ramsey Lake) ra- pickers who themselves often accidentally start
ther than to the south. According to legend, it new fires. As recently as the 1970s, a map of
was C.P.R. blacksmith Tom Flanagan's discovery fire frequency for Ontario shows the Sudbury
of a rusty stain on rocks near what became area as a record-setter.
Murray Mine that initiated Sudbury's mining Several different mining companies set up
history (LeBourdais 1953; DeLestard 1967; Wal- operations in Sudbury, but most of them only
lace and Thompson 1993). survived a few years (LeBourdais 1953). The
The arrival of the railroad resulted in in- Canadian Copper Company was the first suc-
creased lumbering and a greater frequency of cessful one, beginning operations at Copper
2. Early History of Human Activities 19
Box 2.1. Selected Examples of Landscapes Denuded by the Effects of Smelter Fumes
Ducktown, Tennessee Open-bed roasting and smelting of copper sulfide ore since 1850
(Smith 1981) has acidified the soil and created an almost totally barren land-
scape covering 2700 ha within the richly forested southern Ap-
palachian Mountains.
Monchegorsk, Russia Smelting of copper-nickel ore has given rise to 21,000 ha of bar-
(Kryuchkov 1993) ren land surrounded by 44,000 ha of dwarfed birch forest, in
what was originally spruce-pine forest.
Palmerton, Pennsylvania Smelting of zinc ore in a narrow valley since 1898 has contami-
(Jordan 1975) nated the naturally acid soil with zinc, cadmium, copper, and
lead, giving rise to 485 ha of barren to sparsely vegetated land.
Queenstown, Tasmania Smelting of sulfide copper ore in this high rainfall area since
(Blainey 1967) 1896 has caused the denudation and erosion of the spectacular
mountain peaks.
Smelterville, Idaho Smelting of sulfide ore in the Kellogg Valley since 1916 has led
(Carter et al. 1977) to the acidification and zinc, lead, and cadmium contamination
of soil, resulting in extensive barren hillsides.
Trail, British Columbia Sulfide ore smelting since 1926 in the narrow valley of the Colum-
(Archibold 1978) bia River affected vegetation 25 km upstream and 95 km down-
stream into Washington State. Between Trail and the u.s. border,
17 km to the south, vegetation was almost totally eradicated.
Wawa, Ontario (Gordon Sulfur dioxide fumes emitted by an iron sintering plant since
and Gorham 1963) 1939 have damaged a narrow 37-km strip of vegetation, with
complete denudation up to 8 km.
Cliff in 1885 and later being incorporated as worthless and problematic contaminant in the
part of the U.S.-based International Nickel copper ore, but in the 1890s, the Orford pro-
Company (Inco) in 1902. The Mond Nickel cess was devised to separate the two metals
Company, from Britain, began operations in (Boldt 1967). As the century drew to a close,
1900. It later amalgamated with Inco in 1929. the demand for nickel was boosted by the
Falconbridge Limited was incorporated and discovery of nickel-steel, which was used
became the second largest company in 1928. extensively for armorplate and in the Spanish-
For the past 65 years, Inco Limited and Fal- American War. The history of nickel produc-
conbridge Limited have remained as the two tion at Sudbury is shown in Figure 2.4.
companies with mining and smelting opera- Some of the early smelters used a portion of
tions in the Sudbury Basin. untreated or "green" ore, but historically, roast-
ing was usually the first step in the processing
of Sudbury's sulfide ore. The ore was heated in
Roast Yards air to a temperature at which much of the
sulfide was oxidized, and the sulfur was
During the early years of mining, ore was sent burned off as sulfur dioxide. In the early years
to other centers for smelting, but in 1888 the of the Sudbury industry, crushed ore was piled
first roast yard and smelter were set up in on beds of cordwood in the open (Fig. 2.5),
Copper Cliff (LeBourdais 1953). During the covered with the finer material to prevent
first few years, nickel was looked on as a open flames, and ignited. After a period during
FIGURE 2.2. White pine stumps on a barren stony hillside, 3.2 km northeast of the Copper Cliff smelter.
FIGURE 2.3. White cedar stumps on a barren peat area, Happy Valley, dose to the Palconbridge smelter.
20
FIGURE 2.4. Annual nickel production from Sud- 250

en
bury smelters. (Data from Ontario Ministry of Natu- E
ral Resources and the Ontario Ministry of Northern e
~2oo
Development and Mines.) :;;:
.
~ 150
.
. 100
o:l
"
o
Q: 50
Gi
:.t:
o
Z
o .
tego 1IKIO uno 1020 1030 19.tQ lQ50 1GOO uno UIIIO
Year
which heat was provided by the burning wood, Laroche et al. (1979) estimated that the
the ore itself began to bum (Boldt 1967). After roast beds released an estimated 10 million
burning for 2 months or more, the ore was tonnes of sulfur dioxide. The dense sulfur di-
loaded into rail cars and transported to furnaces oxide fumes, emitted at ground level, killed
for smelting and conversion. In the vidnity of plants and acidified soils in their path. Indeed,
the roast yards, even the smallest timber was there was once a widely held hypothesis that
removed as fuel, and between 1913 and 1916, the extensive destruction of vegetation and
the Mond Nickel Company removed nearly all the presence of toxic soils in the Sudbury area
the woody vegetation and tree stumps from the are mainly the result of early open-bed roast-
Coniston area to provide fuel for the roasting ing activities. It seems, however, that the ef-
process (Watson and Richardson 1972). Laroche fects of the roast yards were neither as severe
et al. (1979) estimated that more than 3.3 mil- nor as permanent as expected; the widespread
lion m 3 of wood was consumed in the 11 roast poisoning of the soil was caused by the smelter
yards that were in use during 1888-1929. fumes, which contained copper and nickel
Most of the roast yards were located in close particles as well as sulfur dioxide. The slow-
proximity to the nine smelters (Fig. 2.6) that burning roast beds emitted mainly sulfur di-
operated at various times and locations oxide, which had a less permanent effect on
throughout the area. In 1916, most of the surrounding soils. Turcotte (1981) showed that
smaller roast yards were replaced by a very the Victoria Mine roast bed, which was distant
large (2286 m long by 52 m wide) and highly from smelter activity, had done little to con-
mechanized yard, the O'Donnell roast yard, taminate the surrounding landscape with met-
some distance west of Sudbury, to move this als, except in the immediate vicinity of the
source of human discomfort farther from the roast yard, and that vegetation had shown ex-
main population centers. Open-bed roasting cellent recovery (see Fig. 2.5). The Coniston
was not abandoned until 1929, even though roast yard, in contrast, is still surrounded by
this practice had long since been replaced in barren metal-contaminated soils (see Fig. 2.5)
Norway because of the damage it had caused but only because of its proximity to the Coniston
there (Peck 1980). In the latter years of heap- smelter, a source of copper and nickel particu-
roasting at Coniston, the Mond Nickel Com- lates. Struik (1974) studied a series of air photo-
pany followed the Norwegian example by not graphs that showed the changes occurring in the
operating its roast beds in the summer (Peck vicinity of the O'Donnell roast yard (see Fig. 2.5),
1978), thereby reducing damage to crops which was isolated from smelting activities, after
and other vegetation (Wallace and Thomp- its closure in 1929. By 1946, there was patchy
son 1993). cover by shrubs, whereas by 1959 pioneer trees
22 Winterhalder
FIGURE 2.5. Roast yards in the Sudbury area. (Upper left) A 1920 view of the O'Donnell roast yard, showing
wood and ore piled before ignition. The O'Donnell (center left) and circa 1901 Victoria Mine (upper right) roast
yards during the roasting process. The Victoria Mine roast yard in 1979 (center right) and the O'Donnell yard in
1994 (lower left), showing the recovery of vegetation to the edge. (Lower right) A 1979 picture of the Coniston
roastbed, that operated from 1913 to 1918, set in a landscape that is still almost completely barren. (Photos
courtesy of Inco Archives, W. Mcllveen and E. Snucins.)
such as poplars and birches had begun to colo-

nize, again in a patchy manner. By 1973, a
Extent of Damage
mosaic of forest cover had developed, but still On April 20, 1944, representatives of govern-
with intermittent openings. Recent pictures of ment and industry met to discuss the smelter
the site are induded in Plate 2 (following emission problem and the forest damages al-
page 182) and Figure 2.5. legedly caused by sulfur dioxide in the Sud-
FIGURE 2.6. Historical pictures of Sudbury smelters. (Upper left) A 1900 picture of the Canadian Copper
Company's west smelter at Copper Cliff. (Upper right) The British-American Nickel Company smelter that
operated sporadically at the Murray Mine site between 1917 and 1924. (Center left) The Victoria Mine
smelter, built by the Mond Nickel Company in 1901, and operated until 1913. (Center right) A 1928 view
of the Coniston smelter, built by the Mond Company in 1913. This smelter was taken over by Inco Limited
in 1928 and operated until 1972. (Lower left) A circa 1973 picture of the Falconbridge Limited smelter.
(Lower right) Inco's Copper Cliff Smelter in 1960.(Photos courtesy of Inco Archives and Falconbridge
Limited.)
24 Winterhalder
bury area. Studies were initiated on meteor- in species numbers 6.4 km from the smelter.
ology, atmospheric sulfur dioxide levels, the Later, Freedman and Hutchinson (1980b) found
sulfur content of conifer foliage, lichen dis- that south-southeast of the Copper Cliff smel-
tribution, and forest damage. These studies ter, the number of forest floor species peaked
were conducted during the summers of 1942- at 15-20 km from the smelter, whereas the
1944 when the smelters were in high produc- number of tree species continued to increase
tion because of the war effort and thus may be up to a distance of 30 km.
considered peak conditions for industrial pol- H. Struik, a forester with Ontario Ministry
lutants during the first half-century of smelt- of Natural Resources (then Ontario Depart-
ing operations in Sudbury. The sulfur dioxide ment of Lands and Forests), produced the first
study used staff in fire towers and aircraft direct measure of the extent of vegetation
to determine the dispersal pattern of sulfur damage throughout the Sudbury area. He ex-
dioxide from the smelters. These personal amined air photographs and mapped areas
observations demonstrated that smoke from that he referred to as "zones of site and vege-
Sudbury smelters could be seen from fire tow- tational stability" (Struik 1973). The earliest
ers at least 120 km away, and the smell of photographs (1946) revealed a large area of
sulfur extended at least 60 km (Murray and vegetation damage around the three major
Haddow 1945). smelters at Copper Cliff, Coniston, and Fal-
The first report on vegetation damage (Mur- conbridge. This damaged area appeared to ex-
ray and Haddow 1945) indicated that "severe pand slightly in subsequent photographs in
bums" of tree foliage had occurred as far away 1959 and in a composite of pictures for 1970
as 35 km to the northeast, 20 km to the north, and 1973. From the maps that Struik pro-
and 20 km to the south of the smelters. The duced for the early 1970s, the period just be-
question of chronic effects was also addressed, fore major pollution reductions began (see
and a lichen study indicated that only crustose Chapter 4), the zones of damage can be mea-
lichens and Stereocaulon were to be found within sured and summarized into two categories:
the most highly polluted area, although Par- (1) barren areas around the three smelters that
melia physodes and P. saxatilis could be found had a total surface area of about 17,000 ha,
near the edge of this zone. At a greater dis- and (2) a large surrounding semibarren area of
tance from the smelters, where, effects of at- approximately 72,000 ha (Fig. 2.7).
mospheric pollution were less severe, it was
possible to find more-sensitive lichen species,
such as Parmelia conspersa and caribou lichen, Denuded Landscape-The Result
Cladonia rangiferina. The author of the lichen of Many Interacting Factors
study, R.E Cain, suggested that other factors
including frequency of fires might have inter- Soil erosion began with logging and intensified
acted with the fumigation in bringing about as plant litter was destroyed by fire and as
this distribution pattern. The use of lichen dis- plant cover was killed in the vicinity of roast
tribution in tracing change in atmospheric beds and smelters. Then, as the soil became
quality is further discussed in Chapter 6. poisoned and plant cover disappeared com-
A similar pattern with respect to higher pletely, erosion continued virtually unchecked.
plants was noted by Linzon (1958, 1971), who Much of the soil cover from the hillsides was
made observations on the extreme sensitivity washed into the valleys and often into the
of white pine to sulfur dioxide in the area and creeks and rivers. The only restraining feature,
detected increased mortality and decreased and a valuable one in many areas, was the
growth of white pine as far as 40 km northeast coarse material in the glacial till. The stony
of ore smelters. Gorham and Gordon (1960 and boulder-strewn slopes that we see today
a,b) reported the absence of white pine and (see Fig. 2.2) result from the removal of fine
velvetleaf blueberry (Vaccinium myrtilloides) material from the surface. Fortunately, how-
within 24 km of the smelter and a sharp drop ever, the till was deep enough in some areas
WaTUlpite.
Lake
~OKm ~
~UDBURY
.... ......... ~
.............
. .. . . .. (!)'Olcon
\:
~ bddge 1:::::
Hwy 144
. . . ~. . . . . . . 1
c20
Roost yard site
....... Semi-barren area :\1
- Barren area .' ~."" 4630'

..:"/
.:..,
Major smelter site
(. ....
.....
...........
Victoria Mine '

ODonnell .
\
FIGURE 2.7. The location of the Sudbury Basin and the major sites of roasting and smelting activity and
Struik's (1973) "zones of site and vegetational stability" based on air photographs.
that a soil base remained under the protection (Hutchinson and Whitby 1974; Freedman and
of the stones and boulders. Still, these boulder- Hutchinson 1980a; Hazlett et al. 1983) have
covered slopes were not entirely stable, due to identified the same pattern. In 1974, Whitby and
the effects of frost action, and each spring, Hutchinson showed that the soil from the Sud-
there was some movement of coarse material bury barrens was inhibitory to plant growth and
and the consequent washing-out of fines. As that the toxic components were water-soluble,
humus-rich surface horizons were lost, so was apparently including interacting ions of copper,
their microflora. nickel, aluminum (Wmterhalder 1983), and at a
Until relatively recently, it was assumed that lower leveL cobalt.
vegetation damage in the Sudbury area was The Sudbury landscape of today is the result
the direct result of sulfur dioxide impact. In of several environmental factors acting togeth-
the late 1960s, however, interest developed in er over a period of almost a century: sulfur
acidification and metal contamination of the dioxide fumigations; metal deposition; intense
soils. Studies by a local group of ecologists and logging; wild fires; water and wind erosion;
foresters (Winterhalder 1975) showed that soil and enhanced frost action (Winterhalder 1984).
acidity and concentrations of copper and nick- These environmental factors interacted one
el were highly elevated in soils near the smelt- with the other. Figure 2.9 attempts to suggest
ers and could be directly correlated with some of the broader interactions that have
1953-1968 air pollution zones (Fig. 2.8), as occurred, including both positive and negative
could soil pH (Table 2.1). Other publications feedbacks.
26 Winterhalder
8' 00 Lake
Timiskami ng

20
_-==::!Km

N
Fire Towers
f Smel ters
FIGURE 2.8 Mean sulfur dioxide concentrations used to categorize fumigation zones (1953-1968) (Dreisinger
and McGovern 1971). The locations of fire towers from which sulfur smoke was frequently seen and smelled
during 1939-1944 (Murray and Haddow 1945) are also indicated. See Table 2.1 for definition of zone
categories.
In essence, the soil of the barrens is toxic to and nickel (and possibly cobalt) become toxic.
plants because of the interaction of its low pH Aluminum is released from the clay minerals,
4.0) with its copper and nickel contami- augmenting soil toxicity. The toxic soil solu-
nants, which can exceed 1000 ppm, respec- tion inhibits root growth, and seedlings are
tively. At this pH, the contaminating copper readily killed by drought or by frost heaving.
TABLE 2.1. Chemical characteristics of surface soils from the sulfur dioxide
fumigation zones described by Dreisinger and McGovern (1971), as illustrated in
Figure 2.8. Sampling was conducted in 1969 with 10 sites sampled in each zone.
Mean total copper Mean total nickel
Fumigation zone MeanpHSD (mg/kg SD) (mg/kg SD)
Heavy 3.8 0.3 1250 500 1930 900
Moderate 4.3 0.1 900 300 750 300
Light 4.7 0.1 320 80 400 120
Perceptible 5.0 0.2 200 30 420 120
None 5.0 0.2 10020 200 30
FIGURE 2.9. Simplified repre-

sentation of some of the major
factor interactions leading to
the formation of barren land.
Iloss of N & pl----------.~ '--__L_A_N_D_--'
Although acidity and metal ions appear to Highly depauperate relict trees, mostly red
play the major role in the soil degradation, maple (Acer rubrum) but occasionally red oak
the sulfur itself may also play its part. Some (Quercus borealis) or American elm (Ulmus am-
preliminary work (Hutchinson and Whitby ericana), are found on some of the barren
1976) suggests that the fundamental struc- rocky slopes. Relict shrub species include blue-
ture of the organic matter fraction of Sud- berry, red elderberry (Sambucus pubens), and
bury soils has been changed by the high witherod (Viburnum cassino ides) . The moss Pohlia
sulfur content, giving it a very strong metal- nutans can be found in seepage areas on north-
binding capacity. facing slopes, and in moist depressions, tufted
hair grass (Deschampsia caespitosa) often domi-
nates, sometimes accompanied by patches of
Plant Communities of hair moss (Polytrichum commune). The relict red
Sudbury's Altered Landscape maples show a phenomenon best described as
In 1981, Amiro and Courtin provided the first "regressive dieback," in which the foliage be-
direct detailed and quantitative description of comes reddened prematurely and the amount
the vegetation surrounding the smelters today. of living biomass produced each year grad-
They described nine different plant commu- ually decreases, the plant being surrounded by
nity types within the Sudbury area, three of dead limbs of various sizes. Even in low moist
which were confined to the industrially dis- meadows with a surface cover of tufted hair
turbed land. Pitblado and Arniro (1982) showed grass, the red maples have the same appear-
a similar pattern using remote sensing from a ance, suggesting that moisture is not the limit-
satellite, in which an estimate of the density of ing factor.
the vegetation present was obtained by mea- Three of Amiro and Courtin's plant commu-
suring the ability of the landscape surface to nities together make up the "sernibarren" land
emit radiation of different wavelengths. more distant from the smelters. This area com-
The first of the Amiro and Courtin (1981) prises an open woodland structure, with a sparse
communities, referred to as "barren," broadly understory containing such acid- and fire-
coincides with Struik's (1973) barren areas tolerant plants as blueberry, sweet fern
(see Fig. 2.7) and is characterized by a soil pH (Comptonia peregrina), and bracken (Pteridium
of 4.0 and less. In this zone, the degree of aquilinum) alternating with extensive bare
denudation was partly dependent on topogra- areas. It is generally agreed that these stunted
phy, being most severe on hilltops and steep and depauperate woodlands, called by Amiro
slopes. the "Birch Transition," "Maple Transition,"
FIGURE 2.10. Birch Transition community.
FIGURE 2.11. Red maple in a Maple Transition community, showing regressive dieback. The large birches
exhibit premature marginal leaf chlorosis.
28
Box 2.2. The Term Add Rain
Although we think of the term acid rain as of the nature of acid precipitation and its ef-
modern, devised to describe a modem phe- fects on vegetation, soils, and surface waters in
nomenon, both the concept and the term are the United Kingdom and in Canada, but once
more than a century old. Robert Angus Smith again the work was largely ignored. A further
began publishing on the chemistry of rain step forward, which finally stimulated a scien-
around the industrial city of Manchester, En- tific and public response, was taken by Svante
gland, in 1852, and 20 years later he published aden, a Swedish soil scientist. aden managed
a book entitled Air and Rain: The Beginnings of a to integrate chemical, limnological, and agri-
Chemical Climatology, based on work in England, cultural perspectives on acid precipitation, and
Scotland, and Germany. He not only used the he presented to the European scientific com-
term acid rain, but he demonstrated that munity a picture of long-range transport of
precipitation chemistry is influenced by such atmospheric pollutants that had the potential
factors as the combustion of coal, the de com - to damage both aquatic and terrestrial envi-
position of organic matter, wind traject<,Hies, ronments. After a U.S. lecture tour by aden in
and the amount and frequency of precipita- 1971 and his presentation at the 19th Inter-
tion. In addition to discussing procedures for national Limnological Congress in Winnipeg,
the collection and analysis of precipitation, he Manitoba, in 1974, scientific and public inter-
described damage done to plants and materials est exploded in North America, and in 1975
by acid precipitation and recognized the atmo- the U.S. Forest Service sponsored the First In-
spheric deposition of copper and other metals ternational Symposium on Acid Precipitation
in industrial regions. and the Forest Ecosystem in Ohio.
A century later, Eville Gorham began to fur- A full historical perspective on acid precipi-
ther develop and integrate our understanding tation can be found in Cowling (1982).
30 Winterhalder
and "Red Oak" communities, respectively, are References

relict stands, a fact that is evident from the
predominantly coppiced form of the compo- Arniro, B.D., and G.M. Courtin. 1981. Patterns of
nent tree species. Both the Birch Transition vegetation in the vidnity of an industrially dis-
turbed ecosystem, Sudbury, Ontario. Can. J. Bot.
(Fig. 2.10) and the Maple Transition contain
59(9):1623-1639.
white birch and red maple, the relative im- Archibold, O.W. 1978. Vegetation recovery follow-
portance of each of the two species defining ing pollution control at Trail, British Columbia.
the community. Red maple shows the same Can. J. Bot. 56(14):1625-1637.
regressive dieback in the woodlands as on the Blainey, G. 1967. The Peaks of Lyell, 3rd Ed. Mel-
barrens (Fig. 2.ll), whereas the white birch is bourne University Press, Melbourne.
characterized by a premature yellowing of the Boldt, J.R., Jr. 1967. The Winning of Nickel. Long-
leaf margins in early summer, followed by the mans Canada Ltd., Toronto.
production of normal green leaves in late Carter, D.B., H. Loewenstein, and F.H. Pitkin.
summer. The three communities tend to form 1977. Amelioration and revegetation of smelter-
a series related to soil drainage status, with the contaminated soils in the Coeur d'Alene min-
red oak community clearly at the well-drained ing district of northern Idaho. Proceedings of
end and, according to Arniro and Courtin the Second Annual Meeting, Canadian Land
Reclamation Assodation, Edmonton, Paper 13.
(1981), Birch Transition at the moist end (a
CLRA, Guelph, Ontario.
surprising fact in view of the normal prefer- Cowling, E.B. 1982. An historical perspective on
ence of red maple for moist sites). The dynam- add predpitation, pp. 15-31. In R.E. Johnson
ics of these unique plant communities are (ed.). Proceedings of an International Sym-
described in more detail in Chapter 7. posium on Addic Rain and Fishery Impacts on
Northeastern North America. American Fisheries
Sodety Spedal Publication, Bethesda, MD.
Summary DeLestard, J.P.G. 1967. A History of the Sudbury
Forest District. District History Series 21. Depart-
Vegetation damage began with logging, fire, ment of Lands and Forests, Ontario.
and roasting beds, but the decades of intensive Dreisinger, B.R., and P.e. McGovern. 1971. Sulphur
fumigation from smelters caused most of the Dioxide Levels and Vegetation Injury in the Sud-
bury Area during the 1970 Season. Department
damage. The poisoning of soil by ,the addition
of Energy and Resources Management, Air Man-
of acid and toxic metals from smelter fumes agement Branch, Sudbury.
created conditions that were unlikely to allow Freedman, B., and T.C. Hutchinson. 1980a. Pollu-
rapid natural recovery. Damage to the terres- tant inputs from the atmosphere and accumula-
trial ecosystem reached its peak during the tions in soils and vegetation near a nickel-copper
1960s, well before damage to lakes received smelter at Sudbury, Ontario, Canada. Can. J. Bot.
attention. However, by the early 1970s, this 58(1):108-132.
emphasis changed when "acid rain" (Box 2.2) Freedman, B., and T.C. Hutchinson. 1980b. Long-
became a household word and the larger zone term effects of smelter pollution at Sudbury, On-
of ecological damage to surface water, de- tario, on forest community composition. Can. J.
scribed in the next chapter, became evident. Bot. 58:2123-2140.
Gordon, A.G., and E. Gorham. 1963. Ecological as-
pects of air pollution from an iron -sintering plant
at Wawa, Ontario. Can. J. Bot. 41:1063-1078.
Ackowledgments. Inco Archives, Fakonbridge
Gorham, E., and A.G. Gordon. 1960a. Some effects
Limited, and the Ontario Ministry of the Envi- of smelter pollution northeast of Falconbridge,
ronment and Energy kindly provided the his- Ontario, Canada. Can. J. Bot. 38:307-312.
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Gunn, Nels Conroy, James Kramer, and Marty ence of smelter fumes upon the chemical compo-
Puro provided review comments. Michael Con- sition of lake waters near Sudbury, Ontario, and
lon, Mary Roche, and Leo Lariviere assisted upon the surrounding vegetation. Can. J. Bot.
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of the subcommittee on the investigation of ceedings. CLRA, Guelph, Ontario.
sulphur smoke conditions and alleged forest Winterhalder, K. 1984. Environmental degradation
damage in the Sudbury region, February 1945. and rehabilitation in the Sudbury area. Laurent-
Unpublished report. ian Univ. Rev. 16(2):15-47.
3
Reading the Records Stored in the
Lake Sediments: A Method of
Examining the History and Extent of
Industrial Damage to Lakes
Sushil S. Dixit, Aruna S. Dixit, John P. Smol, and W. (Bill) Keller
In this chapter, the effects of air pollutants from 1950s and 1960s. However, long-term water
the roasting beds and smelters on Sudbury area quality data are lacking, because the actual
lakes are examined. A rather novel approach monitoring of water chemistry of some Sud-
has been used to track the lake water quality bury lakes only began in the 1970s. Recently,
changes that occurred in the past century. This it has been estimated that lakes in a 17,000-
approach uses the rapidly expanding science of km2 area (Fig. 3.2) have been measurably af-
paleolimnology, the study of the fossil record in fected by the Sudbury emissions. If pH 6.0 is
the lake sediments. In the absence of long-term considered the acidity level at which signifi-
data, paleolimnological techniques using bio- cant damage begins to occur to the most acid-
logical remains in lake sediment cores are being sensitive components of lake communities (e.g.,
used extensively to provide quantitative assess- some aquatic insects, crustaceans, and small
ments of past water quality in North, America fish species; see Fig. 5.2), then more than 7000
(Charles et al. 1990; Dixit et al. 1987, 1992c) and lakes within this zone have likely suffered bio-
Europe (Battarbee et al. 1990). logical damage (Neary et a1. 1990).
A large area around Sudbury is character-
ized by a geological environment that is highly
resistant to chemical weathering (see Chap- Paleolimnology and
ter 1). As a result, many lakes have low acid-
neutralizing (buffering) capacity, making them
Environmental Assessment
vulnerable to inputs of strong acids. The wide- Paleolimnology uses the physical, chemical,
spread acidification and metal contamination and biological information contained in lake
of area lakes are major environmental prob- sediments to assess past environmental char-
lems resulting from metal mining and smelt- acteristics (Smol and Glew 1992). This
ing activities near Sudbury. Acidification is multidisciplinary science has made a unique
also a global concern (Fig. 3.1). contribution to environmental assessment
The very acidic nature of some lakes in the studies by making data available that wouJd
Sudbury area was observed as early as the late otherwise be unattainable. It has provided an-
1950s (Gorham and Gordon 1960). Evidence swers to questions such as (1) Has there been
of fish population disappearance (Beamish a change in the lake? (2) If so, what was the
and Harvey 1972; Keller 1978; Kelso and magnitude and rate of change? (3) Is the ob-
Gunn 1984) indicates that the acidification of served change greater than the natural vari-
many Sudbury area lakes was severe by the ability? and (4) What caused the change?
33
34 Dixit et al.
~ SENSITIVE SOILS OPRESENT PROBLEM AREAS

?
~ PRESENT EMISSIONS <:::)POTENTlAL PROBLEM AREAS
FIGURE 3.1. The combination of add-sensitive terrain and high levels of add deposition has resulted in
widespread addification, with effects documented in areas of North America, Europe, and Asia. Other areas of
the world may develop addification problems in the future if industrialization increases (from Rodhe and
Herrera 1988).
Lake secliments contain many indicators of en- Diatoms are key components of nearly all
vironmental conditions, induding geochemical fresh and saline environments. They are ecolog-
markers, plant pigments, and the fossil remains of ically diverse and colonize virtually every micro-
aquatic organisms (Smol and Glew 1992). The habitat in lakes and rivers. Diatom spedes have
remains of diatoms (Fig. 3.3) are the most widely narrow optima and tolerances for many en-
used biological indicators of past lake water char- vironmental variables and respond quickly to
acteristics (Dixit et al. 1992c), although the fossil changes because of their ability to immigrate
remains of other organisms such as Chaoborus and replicate rapidly. Also, changes in diatom
(Box 3.1) have also provided much useful in- assemblages correspond dosely to shifts in other
formation. Within Canada, seclimentary diatoms biotic communities such as other algae,
have been used most extensively in Sudbury lakes zooplankton, aquatic macrophytes, and fish. Al-
to assess the impacts of industrial activities (Dixit et though paleolimnology and study of sedimen-
al. 1987, 1990, 1991). tary diatoms have become highly sophisticated
Diatoms are single-celled microscopic plants be- in recent years, refinements to paleolimnologi-
longing to the algal class Bacillariophyceae. They are cal approaches are constantly being sought and
made up of a highly ornarnented cell wall composed implemented as techniques and protocols are
primarily of glass (Si02 ). Each cell wall is made up of evaluated.
two pieces called valves and beltlike elements called
girdle bands that hold them together. The size,
shape, and sculpturing of the valve are spedes- Field and Laboratory
spedfic (Fig. 3.3) and provide the basis for identifica-
tion. Because diatom valves are made of silica, they
Methods
are generally well preserved in the lake secliments The approach commonly used for paleolimno-
(see Plate 3, following page 182). logical monitoring and assessments is summa-
3. Reading Records Stored in Lake Sediments 35
o
l
_ - =:1_I = .....50Km "
I
,
-
1 - - - - - - - - - - - , '. .
,,
r---""1 Loke domoge
L. ___ J area
D Vegeta t ion
damage aree
G Georgian
Bay
FIGURE 3.2. Approximate zone of influence of the Sudbury smelters on lake chemistry, based on water
quality surveys (from Neary et al. 1990).
rized in Figure 3.4. Sediment cores are ob- obtain information at annual or seasonal levels
tained from the deep basin of the lake using in some lakes (Simola 1977; Renberg 1981).
gravity or piston corers. Sediment cores of 30- The sections of the sediment cores are dated
40 em generally cover the past two centuries to determine the time when the sediment was
of sediment accumulation in Sudbury and so deposited at any particular depth (a depth-
are of sufficient length to study the post- time profile must be established for each sedi-
industrial environmental changes. The cores ment core). Although a variety of techniques
are slowly pushed out of the top of the core are available, the lead-2l0 radioisotope meth-
tube and sectioned at specified intervals. The od (Appleby and Oldfield 1978) is the most
thickness of the sections is set by the investiga- commonly used dating method for recent
tors to meet the goals of the project (Le., re- 150 years) lake sediments.
construct environmental conditions for the Diatoms are first cleaned and separated from
past 3 years, 10 years, a century, or thousands the rest of the sediment by using strong acids,
of years). The upper portions of the cores from followed by repeated washes in distilled water.
the Sudbury study were sectioned at fine in- The resulting siliceous slurries are then mounted
tervals (i.e., 0.25 cm) so that recent (<10 years) on glass slides for microscopic examination.
as well as long-term environmental trends could Identifications are made to the lowest possible
be established. Techniques are also available to level (e.g., variety), because it is not uncommon
36 Dixit et al.
FIGURE 3.3. Light micrograph of microfossils of two diatom spedes.
for species belonging to the same genus to have tions in the whole lake because the sediments
clifferent environmental tolerances and optima. integrate diatoms both in space and time from
different habitats within the lake.
Diatom assemblages present in the top O.25-cm
Diatom Calibration for sediment of 72 lakes located within a lOO-kIn
Sudbury Lakes radius of Sudbury have been calibrated (Dixit et
al. 1991). Diatom -based models were then de-
In many lake regions of North America and veloped to infer past lake water pH and conduc-
Europe, surface (recent) sediment studies (cal- tivity and concentrations of aluminum, nickel,
ibration or training sets) have shown that the and calcium. These models have been used to
distribution of most diatoms is significantly reconstruct past lake water characteristics of
correlated with variables such as lake water many Sudbury lakes (Dixit et al. 1991, 1992a,b).
pH, metals, nutrients, conductivity, and many
morphometric (e.g., lake size and depth) char-
acteristics. Using a variety of statistical treat- Environmental Shifts in
ments (Charles et al. 1993), mathematical Clearwater Lake: A
relationships (transfer functions) can be devel-
oped that quantitatively relate species distri- Case Study
butions to environmental variables, such as Clearwater Lake is located 13 kIn southwest of
lake water pH. Fortunately, a single sediment Sudbury. It is a moderate-sized lake (76.5 hal,
sample can provide a realistic picture of condi- with maximum and mean depths of 21.5 and
Box 3.1. records are available to indicate whether the

lake supported a viable fish population in the
past.
Diatoms deposited over the past 200 years
were analyzed from a sediment core retrieved
in 1984. The core was dated using the lead-
210 chronology method. The distribution of
common diatom taxa in the past (Fig. 3.5)
indicates that until about 1920, the diatom
community remained relatively unchanged;
however, since then major shifts have oc-
curred. The relative abundance of acid and
metal-tolerant species (e.g., Tabellaria quadri-
septata, Eunotia exigua, and Frustulia rhomboides
var. saxonica) increased, while Cyclotella stel-
ligera (a species characteristic of nonacidic wa-
ters) declined sharply. These species shifts
provide a strong indication that the lake has
experienced marked water quality changes dur-
ing this century.
Paleolimnological methods can be used to in-
Mathematical relationships (Dixit et al. 1991)
fer historical biological conditions as well as
for estimating past conditions of pH, alumi-
the chemical and physical characteristics of num, and nickel were then applied to the
lakes. In particular, the remains of hard above diatom data. The reSUlting diatom-in-
mouthparts (mandibles; shown in the photo- ferred pH profile (Fig. 3.6) indicates that the
graph) of larvae of the phantom midge, lake's preindustrial pH ranged between 5.7
Chaoborus (see Plate 4, following page 182), in and 6.1, whereas since 1920, the lake acidified
lake sediments can be used to reconstruct very rapidly to a pH of 4.7 in 1980.
general patterns in historical fish populations The acidification of Clearwater Lake appears
(Uutala 1990; Uutala et al. 1994). Some to be directly related to sulfur dioxide emis-
Chaoborus species can coexist with fish, sions from the smelters in Sudbury. The study
whereas others, notably Chaoborus americanus, also shows that acidification began about
cannot withstand fish predation. Thus, the 20 years after metal smelting commenced in
species of Chaoborus found at different levels Sudbury; this delay was likely due to the nat-
in the sediments indicate the presence or ab- ural buffering capacity of this lake and its wa-
sence of fish at that time. This technique has tershed. It is also possible that the open-pit
been used to show that the current absences roasting of ore, which started in the 1880s, did
of fish from lakes in Ontario and the Ad- not adversely affect the lake and that the acid-
irondack Mountains of New York are not nat- ification only started after tall stacks were in-
ural conditions but resulted from lake stalled in the 1920s. Between 1980 and 1984,
acidification. the inferred pH profile indicates that lake wa-
ter pH has recovered slightly. Recent pH recov-
eries have also been observed in many otper
Sudbury lakes (see Chapter 5).
8.3 m, respectively. Since 1973, this lake has The Sudbury region is one of the few re-
been monitored as a reference site for lakes gions in which fossil diatoms found in lake
manipulated by liming (see Chapter 15) and to sediments have been used to establish past
study seasonal and long-term changes in trends in lake water metal concentrations. In-
water chemistry and biota of an acidic lake ferred aluminum and nickel profiles indicate
(Yan and Miller 1984). Since the monitoring that lake water metal concentrations increased
began, the lake has remained fishless, and no greatly in Clearwater Lake after the smelters
38 Dixit et al.
Secllonln9 of
Core SedIment ,J
Core ~ RadioIsotoPIc
Recovery J 00tln9
'" , SedIment Oiges l Ion

and Slide Preparolion
,n
Cohbro/lon and
r[ 1"':;:"""""
-/ ~
and Count"'9
ApplIcatIon of
rt ~-
colicrollon models f Ouoh/o/lve
10 rnfer envIronmental .....
_--
Assessmen' of current AnalysIs of Core
and pas' enwronmentol conddlons
conditions
FIGURE 3.4. Microfossil inputs from various habitats to the lake bottom and the steps used in paleo-
limnological investigation of aquatic ecosystems (from Dixit et al. 1992c).
started operating (Fig. 3.6).Nickel and alumi- increases and declines in metal concentrations
num increases started about the same time have also been identified.
that the lake water began to acidify. In the
1970s, lake water metal concentrations stabi-
lized, and coincident with the pH recovery Changes in Lake Water
between 1980 and 1984, nickel and alumi-
num declines occurred in Clearwater Lake. Chemistry since
The recovery is undoubtedly a reflection of the Preindustrial Times
recent decline in smelter emissions. Paleo-
limnological inferences of the chemical history The analysis of complete sediment cores pro-
of Clearwater Lake agree well with actual vides continuous assessment (e.g., timing, rate,
chemistry monitoring data collected since and magnitude) of postindustrial changes in
1973 (see Chapter 20). lake water quality. However, this is very time-
Similar reconstructions of past lake water consuming work, and it is not logistically fea-
acidity have also been completed for 13 other sible to analyze complete sediment cores from
Sudbury lakes. From these studies, it is possi- a large number of lakes to provide regional
ble to generalize that in acidic lakes located assessments of lake water quality change. The
close to the smelters 15 km), acidity-related most effective approach for such a study is to
changes started early in this century (Le., analyze only the top (recent) and bottom (pre-
1920s-1940s), whereas in lakes located far- industrial) sediments of cores from a large
ther away from the emission sources, acidifi- number of lakes (Charles and Smol 1990). The
cation began in the late 1950s and 1960s. In difference between preindustrial and recent in-
some of the study lakes, recent lake water pH ferences provides an estimate of the change in
FIGURE 3.5. Relative percentage abundance of com-

.. . E.. a.~.,.
.... ci.
g-
. .. .
oo
mon diatoms in a sediment core from Clearwater 'Ou
'O'c 'a c
u
]! .co u ~ .!!!
l.ake (modified from Dixit et al. 1987). :> E ~ .c ;; 0
0;
. .. '6
.
:> :> c:
~
0;
..'" .c" ."....
'K
0"
~
.!!! .'3
!!!
,;
a
.!!!
~
:>
w
ci.
E
'3
;; :; u
.....
;; ;; .s:
u
o>
c:
w
:>
...2
c:
c:
0:
0;
.c ..
z
u
1980
1960
1940
1920
~ 1900
;;;
~ 1880
'" 1860
~
1840
1820
1800
1780
o 20 0 20 40 0 100 100 100 10 0 200 10
Percenl Abundance
Diatom -inferred pH
..-
4 .5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5
. o .......... ~
"'.
1980
1960 ...... ()
... .. .
'
.,
'
... ti
.'
1940
.0 .0
.0
(J)
Q)
1i>
1920
1900
0 .
..... ....
.
0
i- A
""
. ~.
~
1880
0
cP , ~
,
N
.D 1860
D-
1840 S
.;.
\ . pH
1820 0 AI
Ni

'".\
0
1800

1780 FIGURE 3.6. Diatom inferences of past changes in
50 100 150 200 250 lake water pH, aluminum, and nickel in Clearwater
Diatom -inferred AI and Ni (Jlg /U Lake.
lake water chemistry as a result of industrial presently acidic (pH <6.0) lakes. The region
activity. Moreover, inferences for the bottom also contains a few naturally acidic lakes;
samples also provide information on back- however, these lakes have acidified further as
ground or reference limnological conditions. a result of industrial activity. Lakes that have
The recent and preindustrial diatom-inferred current measured pH between 6.0 and 7.0
water chemistry for 72 lakes within a 100-km have either declined or increased in pH in the
radius of Sudbury (Dixit et al. 1992a) showed past, whereas high pH lakes (pH >7.0) have
that extensive acidification has occurred in become more alkaline. Aluminum has in-
40 Dixit et al.
creased in acidified lakes, whereas nickel in- sulfur dioxide enusslOns by almost 80%
creased in all study lakes. In general, in both within the past two decades (see Chapter 4).
acidic and nonacidic lakes, concentrations of The inferred aluminum data indicate that
dissolved elements (identified through in- since pre-1880, aluminum has consistently in-
ferred conductivity values, a measure of the creased in lakes that have current measured
total concentration of dissolved materials) pH of 5.6 or lower (Fig. 3.7). In other lakes,
have increased (Dixit et al. 1992a) because of aluminum has either increased or decreased.
direct atmospheric deposition to lakes and wa- Although by 1930 aluminum had increased in
tersheds (e.g., sulfate) and high leaching of some lakes, most of the increases occurred
watershed soils by acid deposition (e.g., cal- after 1950, the period of maximum acidifica-
cium). Patterns of elevated concentrations of tion. Between 1970 and recent time, alumi-
some dissolved elements in Sudbury lakes num has declined in those lakes where pH has
have been shown by water chemistry surveys increased, whereas in other low pH lakes, alu-
(Jeffries et al. 1984). In lakes close to the minum has increased further.
smelters, the loss of vegetation cover and re- The increase in nickel in almost all lakes
sulting erosion of soils (see Chapter 2) no (Fig. 3.7) suggests that these increases were
doubt contributed to the high loadings of some largely independent of pH changes. With the
elements to lakes. exception of Hannah Lake, increases in nickel
In addition to preindustrial and recent dia- generally occurred after 1930, and by 1970 the
maximum increase had occurred in most
tom assemblages, sediments deposited during
lakes. Generally the highest inferred nickel
about 1900, 1930, 1950, and 1970 were also
concentrations are for lakes located close to
studied for 22 Sudbury lakes to assess the rate
smelters and/ or for mine tailing ponds in a few
of change in lake water chemistry since pre-
cases. The decline of lake water nickel in these
industrial time. Diatom-inferred pH, aluminum,
lakes since 1970 follows the post-1970 reduc-
and nickel were computed for these six sedi-
tions in smelter emissions. The absence of a
ment levels of lead-2l0 dated cores. Differences close relationship between aluminum and
(increases or decreases) between preindustrial nickel increases was expected, because nickel
conditions (pre-1880) and the above time peri- inputs were mainly atmospheric, whereas alu-
ods are plotted in Figure 3.7. minum inputs were from the mobilization of
The inferred pH differences show that be- aluminum from watersheds and possibly lake
tween pre-1880 and 1900, lake water pH re- sediments.
mained relatively unchanged (Fig. 3.7). The
small declines or increases that occurred in
some lakes likely reflect natural variation, es-
pecially because there was no pattern of Temporal and Spatial
change with respect to current measured pH. Patterns in Lake Water pH
By 1930, the lakes had started to show some
pH decline, and in five of the 22 lakes, pH had Temporal and spatial patterns in lake water pH
declined 0.3 of a pH unit or more since pre- were further examined by drawing distribu-
1880. In three lakes, pH increased 0.3 of a pH tion maps for five inferred pH categories for
unit or more. Lakes continued to acidify dur- preindustrial time, about 1930 and 1970, and
ing 1950 and 1970. Although further acidifica- recent time (Fig. 3.8). These maps provide a
tion occurred in some lakes between 1970 and graphic display of lake water pH changes over
recent time, a distinct pH recovery occurred in space and time.
others. Marked pH recovery in Hannah and In the 22-lake data set (Fig. 3.8) during pre-
Middle lakes is a response to the liming of these industrial time and 1930, none of the lakes
lakes in the 1970s (see Chapter 15). The post- had pH less than 5.0, whereas 13.6% of the
1970 lake water pH recovery in Baby and Clear- lakes were in this category by 1970. In the pH
water lakes corresponds with the reductions in range 5.0-5.6, the percentage of lakes contin-
~
~
I\>
pH Aluminum (Pg/L) Nickel (Pg/L) S-

(JQ
.---------,-----y--T---T -,-
~
n
200 II
~ _~ [~~:~~~:::~:;:II' ::::3 100 I. I _.I w _
~
o ~[- ..~-~i1l
-2 t. j1 I _ I
2 I
I ~
~
o ================= 200
;0 1 S
100 ~.
o ~
i ~ -~ ~ -IIWI- ~ II .. 1 .....1. ~~. . . . 11.1 __ j i til
~
B -~ ~===============~ 9:
~
p-+ - ....-.... 3 ::~ ..........-....=-J ~~.. .1... ..J ~
~ -~ j
E
~ C1I
g 0
1 ~ __
l w_ __ I ....
w .w. ~ ffil--~- J
o -
t\i '_1 o
o 1~1================~
::ol - ...-h.. - - 1 1.1.
g 1 E
C1I 0 r_ _
_ _ .w ~j
'T 1
:~ t , , I, , I, , I, , I , 1 ",."",.,.1 ,"", ,T , ,
o 5 10 15 20 o 5 10
:~ t::: ,::~~::~~, ~~, :,J
Lake Numbers
15 20
-t;~ ~,
o 5 10 15 20
(arranged with increasing current measured pH)
FIGURE 3.7. Inferred changes in lake water pH, aluminum, and nickel in 22 lakes between preindustrial time, about 1900, 1930, 1950, and 1970, and recent
time. The lakes and their recent measured pH are (1) Clearwater, 4.5; (2) Daisy, 4.7; (3) Mountaintop, 4.8; (4) Wavy, 4.8; (5) Chiniguchi, 4,9; (6) Telfer, 5.0; (7)
Swan, 5,6; (8) Alphretta, 6.2; (9) Laura, 6,3; (10) Whitson, 6,4; (11) Horseshoe, 6,7; (12) Southeast Baby, 6.7; (13) Labelle, 6.8; (14) Hannah, 6.8; (15) Baby,
6.9; (16) Clarabelle, 6.0; (17) Middle, 7.1; (18) Emerald, 7.3; (19) Fairbank, 7.5; (20) Ramsey, 7.5; (21) Round, 7.5; (22) Little Panache, 7.8.
~
.....
42 Dixit et al.
A. Recent 8.-1970
o 10 20km 08
09 6. 09
0 0
/i? II
InfelTed pH 2
II
~ S.O
S.O 10 <5.6
S.610 6.0
C.-1930 8 >6.010 7.0 D. Pre-industrial
>7.0
3. 08 08
60 09 60 09
FIGURE 3.8. Spatial and temporal distribution of inferred pH for 22 lakes.
ued to increase from 9.1 in preindustrial time cent). In the pH category of more than 7.0, the
to 18.2, 22.7, and 22.7% in 1930, 1970, and percentage of lakes gradually increased from
recent time, respectively. Only two lakes were 18.2 (preindustrial) to 27.3 in recent time. In
naturally acidic (pH <5.6). In the pH range addition to identifying that many Sudbury
5.6-6.0, the percentage of lakes reached a lakes have acidified as a result of industrial
maximum of 22.7 in 1970. Only 9.1 % of the activity, this study has shown that almost all
study lakes are presently in this pH range, high-pH lakes have become more alkaline
most likely due to emission reductions. The during this century. Similar results were ob-
percentage of lakes in the pH range 6.0-7.0 tained for Adirondack region lakes (New
declined from 54.5 (preindustrial) to 18.2 in York) (Cumming et al. 1992). Various factors
1970 but since then increased to 27.3% (re- are responsible for the alkalization of high-
pH lakes (Cumming et al. 1992; Dixit et al. has not only provided answers to questions
1992a). that could not be answered in any other way,
The pH distribution maps show that, in gen- but it has also helped to refine paleolimnologi-
eral, maximum acidification occurred by 1970, cal techniques currently being used in other
and the lakes that experienced most acidifica- lake regions.
tion are located close to smelters andlor lie
within the northeast-southwest zone of im-
pact. However, not all lakes were affected. Acknowledgments. Our paleolimnological work
Alkaline lakes are often located in close prox- in Sudbury was mainly funded by the Natu-
imity to recently acidified lakes. This is ex- ral Sciences and Engineering Research
plained by the presence of acid-neutralizing Council of Canada. Lead-2l0 dating was
minerals in some watersheds, which allowed done at Chalk River Nuclear Laboratory. We
lakes to maintain a high pH despite high atmo- thank Dr. A. Uutala for the photograph of
spheric acid loadings. Inferred pH has even the Chaoborus mandible.
increased in these lakes since preindustrial
times.
References
Appleby, P.G., and E Oldfield. 1978. The calculation of
Summary and Conclusions 2lOPb dates assuming constant rate of supply of
unsupported 210Pb to the sediment. Catena 5: 1-8.
Lake sediments have revealed the history of Battarbee, RW., J. Mason, I. Renberg, and J.E Tail-
damages to Sudbury lakes from smelter emis- ing (eds.). 1990. Paleolimnology and lake acidifi-
sions. Inferred patterns of increasing lake wa- cation. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond.
ter acidity and metal concentrations began Beamish, R J., and H.H. Harvey. 1972. Acidification
about 1920 for many lakes close to the smelt- of the La Cloche Mountain lakes, Ontario, and
ers and later, in the 1950s and 1960s, in many resulting fish mortalities. J. Fish. Res. Board Can.
29:1131-1143.
lakes farther from the emission sources. Only
Charles, D.E, M.W. Binford, B.D. Fry, E. Furlong,
a few Sudbury lakes appear to be naturally
R.A. Hites, M.J. Mitchell, S.A. Norton, M.J. Pat-
acidic, and these acidified further after indus-
terson, J.P. Smo!, A.J. Uutala, J.RWhite, D.R.
trialization of the region. With high-acid depo- Whitehead, and RJ. Wise. 1990. Paleoecological
sition, some well-buffered lakes became even investigation of recent lake acidification in the
more alkaline over time. Recent increases in Adirondack Mountains, N.Y. J. Paleolimnol. 3:
pH and decreases in metal concentrations, re- 195-24l.
lated to reduced smelter emissions, are evident Charles, D.E, and J.P. Smol. 1990. The PlRLA IT
in the sediment record for several lakes. Project: regional assessment of lake acidification
Because paleolimnological techniques pro- trends. Verh. Int. Verein. Limnol. 24:474-480.
vide long-term data on ecosystem condition Charles, D.P., J.P. Smo!, and D.R. Engstrom. 1993.
and changes, they are being used as an integral Paleolimnological approaches to biomonitoring.
part of environmental monitoring and assess- In S. Loeb and A. Spacie (eds.). Biomonitoring
ment programs. The approach can be used to of Freshwater Ecosystems. Lewis, Ann Arbor,
detect and quantify lake water quality changes, MI.
Cumming, B.E, J.P. Smo!, J.C. Kingston, D.E
provide data on preindustrial (predisturbance)
Charles, H.J.B. Birks, K.E. Camburn, S.S. Dixit,
conditions, establish natural variability, iden-
A.J. Uutala, and A.R. Selle. 1992. How many
tify long-term trends, and monitor the effects lakes in the Adirondack Mountain region of New
of remedial action plans on aquatic environ- York (U.S.A) have acidified since preindustrial
ments. Although this chapter mainly deals with times? Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 49:128-14l.
lake acidification, this approach has been used Dixit, S.S., A.S. Dixit, and R.D. Evans. 1987. Pale-
to address a wide variety of environmental olimnological evidence of recent acidification in
issues, such as lake eutrophication and climate two Sudbury (Canada) lakes. Sci. Total Environ.
change. The research in the Sudbury region 67:53-67.
44 Dixit et al.
Dixit, S.S., A.S. Dixit, and J.P. Smol. 1990. Pale- Advancing Lake Acidification. Butterworth Pub-
olimnological investigation of three manipulated lishers, Woburn, MA.
lakes from Sudbury, Canada. Hydrobiologia 214: Neary, B.P., P.J. Dillon, J.R. Munro, and B.J. Clark.
245-252. 1990. The Acidification of Ontario Lakes: An As-
Dixit, S.S., A.S. Dixit, and J.P. Smol. 1991. Multi- sessment of Their Sensitivity and Current Status
variable environmental inferences based on dia- with Respect to Biological Damage. Technical Re-
tom assemblages from Sudbury (Canada) lakes. port. Ontario Ministry of the Environment Re-
Freshwater BioI. 26:251-266. port, Dorset, Ontario.
Dixit, S.S., A.S. Dixit, and J.P. Smol. 1992a. Assess- Renberg, I.G. 1981. Improved methods for sam-
ment of changes in lake water chemistry in Sud- pling, photographing and varve-counting of
bury area lakes since preindustrial times. Can. J. varved lake sediments. Boreas 10:255-258.
Fish. Aquat. Sci. 49 (Suppl. 1):8-16. Rodhe, H., and R. Herrera (eds.). 1988. Acidifica-
Dixit, A.S., S.S. Dixit, and J.P. Smol. 1992b. Long-
tion in Tropical Countries. John WIley & Sons,
term changes in lakewater pH and metal concen-
New York.
trations in 3 Killarney Provincial Park lakes, near
Simola, H. 1977. Diatom succession in the for-
Sudbury, Ontario (Canada). Can. J. Fish. Aquat.
mation of annually laminated sediment in Lovo-
Sci. 49 (Suppl. 1):17-24.
jarvi, a small eutrophicated lake. Ann. Bot.
Dixit, S.S., J.P. SmoL J.C. Kingston, and D.E Charles.
1992c. Diatoms: Powerful indicators of environ- Fennici 14:143-148.
mental change. Environ. Sci. Technology 26:22-33. SmoL J.P., and J.R. Glew. 1992. Paleolimnology,
Gorham, E., and A.G. Gordon. 1960. The influence of pp. 551-564. In W.A. Nierenberg (ed.). Encyclo-
smelter fumes upon the chemical composition of pedia of Earth System Science, vol. 3. Academic
lake waters near Sudbury, Ontario, and upon the Press, San Diego, CA.
surrounding vegetation. Can. J. Bot. 38:477-487. Uutala, A.J. 1990. Chironomidae (Diptera) as pale-
Jeffries, D.S., w,A. Scheider, and W.R. Snyder. 1984. olimnological indicators of acidification in some
Geochemical interactions of watersheds with pre- Adirondack Mountain Lakes (New York, USA). J.
cipitation in areas affected by smelter emissions Paleolimnol. 4:139-151.
near Sudbury, Ontario, pp. 196-241. In J. Nriagu Uutala, A.J., N.D. Yan, A.S. Dixit, and J.P. Smol.
(ed.). Environmental Impacts of Smelters. John 1994. Paleolimnological assessment of damage to
Wiley & Sons, New York. fish communities in three acidic, Canadian Shield
Keller, W. 1978. Limnological Observations on the lakes. Fish. Res. 19:157-177.
Aurora Trout Lakes. Ontario Ministry of the En- Yan, N.D., and G.E. Miller. 1984. Effects of deposi-
vironment Report, Sudbury, Ontario. tion of acids and metals on chemistry and biology
Kelso, J.R.M., and J.M. Gunn. 1984. Responses of of lakes near Sudbury, Ontario, pp. 244-282. In
fish communities to acidic waters in Ontario. In J. Nriagu (ed.). Environmental Impacts of Smelt-
G.R. Hendrey (ed.). Early Biotic Responses to ers. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Section B
Trends in Natural Recovery after
Emission Reductions
Harold H. Harvey and John M. Gunn
In the background of the picture on the previous page the scene

is one of desolation-the two smokestacks of the abandoned
Coniston nickel smelter, the bare hills blackened from decades of
intensive fumigation, and the dried remains of a fallen pine forest.
These are the results of destructive smelting activities described in
detail in earlier chapters of this book. However, this section deals
not with the past but with recent evidence that natural processes
are beginning to repair the damage to terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems in the Sudbury Basin. The focus is, therefore, on
recovery, represented in the foreground of the picture by a young
birch tree, one of the first tree species to recolonize the harsh
landscape of the Sudbury barrens.
Resilience or the ability to re-create are terms often used when
describing healthy ecosystems. Ecologists argue strenuously about
the appropriateness of such terms, but whether it is a seedling
pushing its way up through urban pavement or wind-blown
insects landing on a newly formed volcanic island, disturbed and
even severely damaged land does not remain empty of plants and
animals indefinitely. The Sudbury landscape was repeatedly
scoured of soil and vegetation by the passage of mile-high ice
during six glaciations in the past 190,000 years. This fact does not
make the current damage any more acceptable, but it does offer
hope through example that natural recovery can occur despite
what may appear to be irreparable damage. However, recovery
cannot happen unless something else happens-the cause of the
damage ceases. The Sudbury situation illustrates this point.
In recent decades, emissions of sulfur dioxide and metal partic-
ulates from Sudbury smelters have been reduced dramatically. As
the authors of the follOwing chapters show, controlling pollution
at the source not only protects sensitive ecosystems from being
damaged but also permits damaged systems to begin to recover.
Preventing damage from occurring is the ultimate solution to
47
48 B. Trends in Natural Recovery after Emission Reductions
pollution problems, but seeing evidence of recovery also provides

powerful support for the legislated effort to reduce present and
future emissions. Too often the argument has been made that,
although tragic, "the damage has been done." Evidence of natural
recovery after abatement programs at an internationally known
site such as Sudbury indicates clearly that damage can be undone
and that environmental degradation is not a license to continue to
pollute. Extensive remedial work may be needed to speed the
process, but the evidence of natural recovery indicates that we are
on the right track-that the corrective measures being taken
currently are effective indeed.
Studies in the Sudbury area have contributed to inter-
national awareness of environmental problems. This was the
case in the mid-1960s when one of us began working on some
of the many remote, seemingly pristine lakes in the LaCloche
Mountains, approximately 60 km southwest of the Sudbury
smelters. During the course of these studies, which initially had
nothing to do with air pollution, Beamish and Harvey discov-
ered that the lakes were acidifying and fishes of many species
were dying and disappearing from these lakes. These results
opened the eyes of many people in North America to the
problem of "acid rain." This finding was soon confirmed for
other lakes in Ontario near point sources of sulfur dioxide
pollution such as the Wawa area and for lakes in south-central
Ontario: Parry Sound, Muskoka, and Haliburton, which were
far removed from any point source. These findings, plus a
rapidly accumulating list of similar results from many places,
especially Scandinavia and northeastern United States, insti-
gated an enormous public campaign that propelled govern-
ments into restricting the use of the atmosphere as a dumping
ground for contaminants. Several important pieces of pro-
vincial and state legislation have been passed since, and more
important, Canada and the United States have signed an accord
requiring a large reduction in sulfur dioxide emissions within
10 years.
Chance also played a role in the observations of natural biolog-
ical recovery of damaged lakes in the Sudbury area when, in the
early 1980s, Gunn and Keller observed that a remnant population
of lake trout was starting to reproduce again. This time the obser-
vation came from a study site far to the north of the smelters, but
again links to Sudbury were made-water quality was improving,
which allowed reproduction to occur, and all this was related
directly to declining emissions. Unfortunately, on the global scale,
observations of recovery are, as of yet, far less common than were
the earlier reports of damage.
We thank the authors of the following chapters for their de-
scriptions of air quality improvements and for the evidence they
present of the beginnings of natural recovery of terrestrial and
aquatic biological communities. We do not exaggerate the prog-
ress made, given the severe problems that still exist near Sudbury,
B. Trends in Natural Recovery after Emission Reduction 49
but the evidence presented does provide encouragement and

strong support for continuing efforts to reduce atmospheric emis-
sions. The people who live and work in the Sudbury Basin are the
greatest benefactors of this progressive improvement in the qual-
ity of the natural environment. All Canadians will benefit from
the changing image of Sudbury from an international center of
pollution to that of a green and pleasant land.
4
Declining Industrial Emissions,
Improving Air Quality, and
Reduced Damage to Vegetation
Raymond R. Potvin and John J. Negusanti
During the century of mining and smelting deposition, are released in relatively small
activity in the Sudbury basin, more than 100 amounts from the Sudbury smelters.
million tonnes of sulfur dioxide and tens of
thousands of tonnes of copper, nickel, and iron
have been released into the atmosphere (On- Recognition of the Problem
tario/Canada Task Force 1982). In the early
1960s, Sudbury's copper/nickel smelting com- In Ontario, the Canadian province with the larg-
plex represented one of the largest point sources est population, more than 95% of the sulfur
of sulfur dioxide in the world (Summers and dioxide emissions are from large point sources,
Whelpdale 1976), contributing approximately predominantly smelters and electrical power
4% of the global emissions (Freedman 1989). plants. Of these, the nickel and copper smelters
During this peak period, Sudbury emissions of of Inco Limited and Falconbridge Limited in the
sulfur dioxide approached current-day emis- Sudbury area contribute slightly more than half
sions from the whole of the United Kingdom of the provincial and approximately 20% of the
(Table 4.1). Canadian emissions (Table 4.1).
Environmental improvements in the Sud- The damaging effects of smelter fumes on
bury area during recent decades illustrate the gardens, forests, and other vegetation were
importance of controlling the release of pollu- well known at the tum of the century (Barlow
tants into the atmosphere. In the middle part 1907; Haywood 1907), but early government
of this century, when the regional and global response to public complaints appears to have
nature of air pollution was not well under- been designed to protect the industry rather
stood, dispersing pollutants through tall stacks than people and ecosystems. Government leg-
was considered an acceptable solution to a islation passed in 1915 provided that all pa-
local environmental problem. In later years, it tents issued to settlers of land within a defined
was recognized that discharging pollutants high area include a clause exempting mining COJ)l-
into the atmosphere was simply creating prob- panies from liability due to smoke damage. In
lems elsewhere. 1921, The Damages by Sulphur Fumes Arbi-
This chapter describes progress in reducing tration Act was passed to facilitate the settle-
air pollutants from the Sudbury smelters. At- ment of claims of damage to agricultural crops
tention is focused on two main pollutants: sul- and other vegetation. This act was repealed and
fur dioxide and metal particulates. Oxides of replaced with a similar one in 1924, which led to
nitrogen, the other major precursors of acidic the hiring of a claims arbitrator in 1925.
51
52 Potvin and Negusanti
TABLE 4.1. Sulfur dioxide emissions from Govern 1964; Linzon 1971) demanded more
Sudbury smelters relative to total emissions from stringent controls.
selected countries
Total emissions
(WOOs of tonnes) Year First Control Orders
Sudbury
present 216 1994a The provincial government of Ontario final-
recent 700 1988 a ly responded to these concerns by impos-
historical 2560 1960 a ing annual limits on smelter sulfur dioxide
(Comparison of 1986-1988) emissions, with the first control orders is-
United States 20,700 1988b sued against Sudbury mining companies in
China 20,000 1987 c
1969 and 1970. This control program was
Soviet Uniond 9270 1988'
1988 e
solely directed at improving local air quality.
Eastern Germany 4365
Canada 3800 1981'1
It did not address the contribution of Sud-
Poland 3760 1988' bury sulfur dioxide emissions to worldwide
United Kingdom 3400 1988' acid precipitation. Thus, the 381-m "Super-
India 3070 1987' stack," the world's tallest smokestack, was
Spain 2925 1983 e constructed at the Copper Cliff smelter of
Czechoslovakia 2520 1988'
Inco Limited and began operating on August
Italy 2133 1986'
21, 1972 (Fig. 4.1). Inco's Coniston smelter
France 1368 1987 e
Western Germany 1350 1988' and Falconbridge's iron ore sintering plant
Netherlands 260 1988' (Fig. 4.2) were closed that same year, with
Sweden 198 1987 e the result that total emissions also declined
Switzerland 67 1988e after 1972.
Norway 67 1988' The combination of increased dispersal of
aUnpublished data for Ineo Limited plus Falconbridge pollutants, reduced emissions, and the closure
Ltd. of obsolete plants led to dramatic improve-
bU .S. EPA 1990. ments in air quality (Fig. 4.3). The concen-
'Kato and Akimoto 1992. tration of sulfur dioxide in the Sudbury area
dEuropean part of the former Soviet Union. dropped immediately by at least 50% after
eFrench 1990.
1972. During the 1980s, the annual average
'OECD 1991.
concentration of sulfur dioxide remained fair-
ly constant and well below the provincial ob-
jective of 0.020 ppm. There were also readily
As production of nickel increased, spurred observed visual signs of the improving air
on by increased demand during the two world quality. The occurrence of smoke and haze at
wars, so, too, did the air pollution problems the local airport, located 16 km northeast of
(Katz 1954; Dreisinger 1955; see Chapter 2). Sudbury, declined sharply after the early 1970s
The mining companies took some important (Fig. 4.4).
initiatives to reduce sulfur dioxide emissions However, despite the reductions in annual
through process improvements (e.g., rejection average sulfur dioxide concentrations, severe
of high sulfur pyrrhotite components of ore short-term ground-level fumigations still oc-
before smelting, development of oxygen flash- curred under certain climatic conditions. This
furnace smelting, and the capture of sulfur for continuing fumigation problem, together with
marketable byproducts such as sulfuric acid mounting concern about the impacts of acidic
and liquid sulfur dioxide) (see Chapter 21). deposition, led to further reductions in annual
However, continuing fumigation problems allowable emissions, starting in 1978, and re-
within nearby urban and rural areas and the quired that the smelters curtail daily produc-
mounting scientific evidence of extensive tion/emissions under weather conditions that
damage to area forests (Dreisinger and Mc- restricted the dispersal of the plumes. Under
FIGURE 4.1. Inco Limited Superstack (Sudbury Star Files) constructed in 1972 to reduce local impacts of
industrial emissions. Technologies at Inco to reduce the quantity of pollutants released into the atmosphere
are described in Chapter 21.
53
FIGURE 4.2. Falconbridge smelter (circa 1955). As

part of the emissions abatement program, the pyr-
rhotite plant (center, rear) was closed in 1972. The
sintering plant on the right was dosed in 1978. De-
tails of the abatement technology at Falconbridge
Limited are provided in Appendix 4.1 .
these requirements, production at the smelters

is significantly reduced to avoid hourly sulfur
0.05
dioxide ground-level concentrations greater
than 0.50 ppm. These more-stringent require-
ments reduced the occurrence of ground-level
0.04
fumigations but have still not eliminated them
E at all sites (Fig. 4.5).
Q.
Q.
;;- 0.Q3
.2
~
C Ai. QUalIty Objective (0.02 ppm) A Regional and
~
5o 0.021+t-I---nr - - - - - - - - - - International Problem
d'
(/)
The commissioning of the Superstack and the

0.Q1 other changes to deal with what was perceived
to be a local air pollution problem occurred in
the same year that Sweden brought the trans-
boundary problem of air pollution to the at-
Year
tention of the world. Sweden presented its
FIGURE 4.3. Annual average sulfur case history of the impacts of atmospheric pol-
dioxide concentrations recorded at lutants at the UN environment conference at
three sites in the Sudbury area Stockholm in 1972 (Anonymous 1972). By
over the period 1971-1993. the mid- to late 1970s, North American scien-
4. Declining Industrial Emissions 55
150
125
II)
>-
-.,.
oIII 100
o
75
.D
E 50
::l
Z
25
o ~=~O~NM~~=~=~O~NM~~=~=~O~NM~~=~=~O
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~==========~
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~r~rrr~rrrrr
FIGURE 4.4. Changes in the recorded instance of smoke or haze at the Sudbury airport weather station,
1957-1990 (courtesy of R. Pitblado).
tists were rapidly accumulating evidence that

air pollution was a regional rather than a local
problem. The words add rain and the chemical
250
reactions that were involved in the transfor-
mation of emissions from automobiles and
factories to acid precipitation quickly became
200 "common knowledge."
S0 2 + H2S04
(sulfur dioxide) (sulfuric acid)
150
on NO x + H20 -? HN03
:;
o (nitrogen oxide) (water) (nitric acid)
:c
100
From extensive monitoring studies conducted
during the 1970s, large point sources of sulfur
dioxide, such as the smelters of Sudbury, were
50
shown to be contributing to air pollution prob-
lems (e.g., acidified lakes) far from the sources
of the pollution. For example, computer mod-
O ~~~~~~LL~~~~~~~
els indicated that 19% and 5.5%, respectively,
71 75 80 85 90
of the total sulfur deposition in the Muskoka
Year (central Ontario) and Nova Scotia areas orig-
inated from Sudbury (Ontario/Canada Task
FIGURE 4.5. Frequency of short-term Force 1982). Within the Sudbury area itself,
sulfur dioxide fumigations with an dry deposition and fallout of metal particulate
hourly average in excess of 0.50 ppm at were primarily of local origins, but even the
Ontario Ministry of the Environment Sudbury area was subject to substantial inputs
monitoring stations, 1971-1993. of acid pollutants from far away (Jeffries 1984).
3,000 FIGURE 4.6. Sulfur dioxide emissions for the Sudbury area
(1960-1994). In addition to legislated changes, labor strikes
(1969, 1978, 1979) and periods of reduced nickel produc-
tion (1982, 1983, 1994) contributed to the decline in sulfur
dioxide emissions.
III
8o
.:; 1,500
c:
o
'Cij
VI
'E
w 1,000
0"
C/)
500
O' ~IIr--n~<nTn~~r-n-~
60 65 70 75 80 85 90 94
Year
From modeling studies, it has been estimated bury area sources and the success of control
that approximately 80% of the wet (snow and programs. Both mining companies were able
rain) deposition of acid in the Sudbury area to achieve the 1994 limit. In fact, because of
originated from industrial areas in the United additional reductions due to extended shut-
States and southern Ontario (Chan et al. 1984; downs and some initial problems with one of
Lusis et al. 1986). the new furnaces at Inco Limited, the 1994
New provincial and national emission control total of 216,000 tonnes was well below the
legislation was needed to address this inter- required level.
national problem. In 1985, the Ontario govern- In addition to regulating sulfur dioxide,
ment established a control program called the the control orders have resulted in lower
Countdown Acid Rain Program to meet nation- emissions of suspended particulates and
ally and provindally negotiated reduction objec- trace metals in the Sudbury area. During
tives for eastern Canada (Ontario Ministry of the 1973-1981, approximately 15,000 tonnes of
Environment 1985). Under this program, the particulate matter were released into the
annual legal lirnit for Sudbury area sulfur diox- atmosphere each year (Ontario Ministry of
ide emissions was set at 365,000 tonnes, to be the Environment 1982; Ozvacic 1982). These
achieved by 1994. This would bring the annual emissions included approximately 1800 tonnes
emission of sulfur dioxide down to about 14% of of iron, 700 tonnes of copper, 500 tonnes of
the highest emission year: 2.56 million tons in nickel, 200 tonnes of lead, and 100 tonnes of
1960 (Fig. 4.6). arsenic on an annual basis (Ozvacic 1982).
Average levels of suspended particulates at
two sites in the city of Sudbury ranged from
50 to more than 80 J..lg/m 3 during the early
Declining Industrial 1970s (Potvin and BalsiIlie 1976, 1978). By
Emissions the late 1980s, these annual averages had
dropped to less than about 30 J..lg/m 3, well
Historical trends in emissions of sulfur dioxide below the provincial objective of 60 J..lg/m 3
in Fig. 4.6 illustrate the magnitude of the Sud- (Dobrin and Potvin 1992). Among trace ele-
FIGURE 4.7. Frequency of potentially injurious sulfur 100

dioxide fumigations in the Sudbury area, 1960-1993. to
c:
The occurrence of potentially injurious fumigation .2
ii 80
events is calculated from the measured duration and 0>
concentration of sulfur dioxide at ground-level moni- E:J

LL
toring stations. Some international examples of the 0" 60
(/l
damaging effects of air pollutin on buildings, statues, to
:J
and rock surfaces are provided in Box 4.1 .Q
:; 40
E
~
l!
~ 20
"0
n.
70 75 80 85 90
Year
ments, nickel is probably the most suitable white birch (Betula papyrifera) (see Plates 5 and
indicator of temporal trends. In 1971, the 6, following page 182). Excellent color photo-
mean concentration of nickel in air samples at graphs of sulfur dioxide symptoms are also
a site 4 km east of the Copper Cliff smelter was available in Malhotra and Blauel (1980) and
0.37Ilg/m3; after abatement efforts of 1972, Skelly et al. (1987).
concentrations immediately dropped by at During the period before the major emission
least 50%. Additional reductions followed reductions, many cases of vegetation injury
ongoing abatement activities and by the associated with severe fumigations, sometimes
mid- to late 1980s, annual average concen- up to 80 km from the Sudbury smelters, were
trations of nickel at the monitoring station documented (McCallum 1944-1964; Dreisin-
were in the order of 0.05 Ilg/m3 (Dobrin and ger 1952-1971). The size of area where sensi-
Potvin 1992). By 1995, it is projected that tive species such as white pine were affected
total emission of particulate matter will be with severe-to-moderate injury covered more
approximately 1500 tonnes/year, equal to than 1800 km2, with an additional 4000 km2
approximately 10% of the levels in the early of sporadic injury (Linzon 1978). These direct
1970s. effects of air pollution, common in the 1960s,
were largely eliminated by the control pro-
grams of the 1970s and 1980s.
Terrestrial Effects The dramatic decline since 1971 in the
number of potentially injurious fumigation
Direct Damage to Vegetation events (Tebbins and Hutchinson 1961; Dreis-
inger and McGovern 1970) provides a quanti-
and Acidification of Soils tative measure of the improving conditions
Sulfur dioxide causes direct damage to vegeta- for vegetation in the Sudbury area (Fig. 4.7).
tion (Katz et al. 1939; Linzon 1978). The se- Another valuable indicator of the improving
verity of damage depends on the fumigation conditions for plants are the lichens, which
dosage and frequency, as well as the species have recolonized much of the Sudbury area
tolerance. Damage can range from discolor- in recent decades. Lichens are useful monitors
ation of leaves and needles to reduced growth because they are particularly sensitive to air
rate and mortality of plants (Linzon 1978). pollution (see Chapter 6).
Some observable damage to plants includes In addition to the direct damage to exposed
terminal necrosis on white pine (Pinus strobus) vegetation, the high emissions of sulfur from
foliage and interveinal necrosis on leaves of smelters also leads to the severe acidification
of soils (reviewed in Chaudhry et al. 1982). spite the apparent changes, the soils remain
Extremely add soils were found in the vicinity toxic to sensitive plant spedes (Gunderman
of the Coniston smelter (Hutchinson and and Hutchinson 1993), and it is difficult to
Whitby 1974; Hazlett et al. 1983). The pH determine what factors are responsible for the
values of surface soils up to 7.4 km from the chemical changes. For example, the organic
Coniston smelter were generally less than 3.0, content of the soil also declined during the
with values as low as 2.2. More extensive sur- same period, suggesting that the surface soils
veys between 1970 and 1979 at 70 sites in the are continuing to be eroded by wind and rain.
Sudbury area demonstrated that soils were Support for these findings was obtained from a
very addic throughout much of the area sur- recent extensive survey of Sudbury soils con-
rounding the smelter, with an average pH of ducted by Dudka et al. (1994).
4.1 (Negusanti and Mcilveen 1990). Monitoring of soil conditions and assessing
the process of natural recovery represent
important information needs. However, the
Trace Metal Accumulation in structural instability of the soil and the ex-
Soil and Vegetation treme temporal and spatial variability in soil
Although sulfur dioxide is generally recognized chemistry (Negusanti and McIlveen 1990)
as the most important cause of vegetation dam- make this a challenging research area.
age in the Sudbury area, many researchers have
studied and demonstrated the significance of the Other Air Pollution Problems
terrestrial effects of metals (Hutchinson and
Particulate fallout, espedally during smelter
Whitby 1974; McGovern and Balsillie 1975; Mc-
startups and shutdowns, has occaSionally
Ilveen and Balsillie 1978; Freedman and Hutch-
caused significant direct damage to vegetation
inson 1980; Negusanti and Mcllveen 1990).
and property (vehicles, patio decks, house sid-
These studies have shown that metal levels in ings, etc.) at sites near the smelters (Ontario
soil (see Chapter 2) and vegetation decline with Ministry of Environment 1978). The injury
increasing distance from the smelters. Extremely symptom, referred to as "black spotting," is
high metal levels have been recorded in soil and caused by particulate fallout consisting prind-
vegetation in close proximity to S,udbury smelt- pally of nickel, copper, and iron sulfates.
ers. Nickel and copper at localized sites in surface Leafy garden crops such as lettuce and cab-
soil near the Coniston smelter were determined bage, due to their large surface areas, have
to be as high as 12,300 J..lg/g and 9700 J..lg/g, been observed to be very susceptible to fall-
respectively (Hazlett et al. 1983), but generally out injury. Normal washing of affected gar-
heavily contaminated sites have metal concen- den produce was found to reduce metal levels
trations in the 200-500 J..lg/g range (Negusanti well below those considered safe for normal
and Mcllveen 1990). consumption. Fallout damage to vegetation
There is very little conclusive information still occurs but appears to have been greatly
available regarding the changes in soil condi- reduced since the early 1980s.
tions that may have occurred after the major Other air pollutants that have caused injury
industrial abatement programs of the early to vegetation on an episodic basis are sulfur
1970s. Gunderman and Hutchinson (1993) re- trioxide and ground-level ozone (Negusanti
cently reported that the concentration of and Mcilveen 1990). Isolated atmospheric re-
nickel and copper and the addity of soils near leases of sulfur trioxide resulting from mal-
the abandoned smelter at Coniston have de- functions at the sulfuric add plants have
clined substantially during the past 20 years. caused injury to sensitive spedes such as to-
This pattern has also been observed from soil mato, bean, and cucumber at downwind dis-
surveys conducted in the Sudbury area by tances greater than 20 km.
Ontario Ministry of Environment scientists Ground-level ozone, largely formed through
(Negusanti and Mcllveen 1990). However, de- the long-range transport of its precursors (oxides
Box 4.1. Fading Statues and Black Rocks of nitrogen and reactive hydrocarbons) from
southern industrial areas, has been reported to
exceed the I -hour provincial criterion of 80
ppb in the Sudbury area during the growing
seasons (Potvin and Balsillie 1976; Dobrin and
Potvin 1992). From 1975 to 1990, the crite-
rion was exceeded during slightly more than
1000 hours, or on average about 63 hours per
growing season. The injury noted in the Sud-
bury area has been minor and limited to spe-
des such as sweet com, grape, potato, and
Manitoba maple (Negusanti and Mc1lveen
1990).
Conclusions and Future

Projections
As illustrated in later chapters, the reductions
in industrial emissions have allowed the de-
nuded Sudbury landscape to begin slowly to
recover. Natural processes have begun to re-
pair the damage inflicted since before the tum
of the century. Improvements in air quality
have also allowed highly successful artifidal
reclamation programs to speed up the recov-
ery process (see Chapter 8). This is particularly
The corrosive effects of add-forming aIT pollutants evident in the successful re-establishment of
have created significant damage to buildings and white pine, which is among the most sensitive
statues throughout the world. The picture of the tree species to sulfur dioxide injury. With the
stone carvings in the front of the Confucian Tem- influx of vegetation into the denuded areas
ple in a suburb of Anshun, Guizhou Province, from natural growth and colonization, as well
China, illustrates this damage. (Photo by Xiong as from the reclamation efforts, the organic
Jilin.) Damage to the famous Taj Mahal, in India, content and pH of surface soil should increase;
is another example of this large-scale problem. soil metals should then become less bioavail-
Fortunately, recent pollution abatement pro- able and hence less toxic to plants.
grams in India appear to be effective at reducing The prospects for additional reductions in
or preventing further damage to the Taj. smelter emissions and further ecosystem re-
In Sudbury, the blackened rocks also bear wit- covery are promising. If antidpated progress in
ness to the severity of aIT pollution problems. ore processing and smelting technology is real-
The relative contribution of roast bed fumes ized (see Chapter 21), it will be possible to
reduce annual sulfur dioxide emissions in the
smelter emissions, or smoke from forest fires ~
Sudbury area to less than 250,000 tonnes.
creating this distinctive feature of the barren
Additional reductions in particulate and trace
landscape is unknown, but the combined effects
metal emissions would also occur, possibly re-
have created a substantial challenge for restor-
sulting in an annual particulate emission level
ation efforts. The blackened surfaces create
of about 1000 tonnes. However, there are still
extremely hot and dry conditions in summer,
concerns about the frequency and intensity of
microclimate conditions that exclude all but the
local site-specific fumigations. Further improve-
hardiest of plant species. ments will be required in the daily produc-
Box 4.2. Noril'sk, the World's Largest Point Source of Sulfur Dioxide
Noril'sk, a city of 260,000 built during the Noril'sk supplies roughly two-thirds of the
Stalin era to harvest the vast mineral re- total nickel production of Russia. At present,
sources in central Siberia, is no,w considered there is little information available on the ef-
one of the most polluted cities on earth fects of industrial emissions on the tundra eco-
(Saunders 1990; Peterson 1993). The cur- systems near Noril'sk. It has been estimated
rent emissions of sulfur dioxide from the that air pollution has severely affected 10,000
nickel, copper, and cobalt smelters and refin- km 2 of forests in Russia and other parts of
eries are estimated to exceed 2.5 million the former Soviet Union (cited in Peterson
tonnes/year (Saunders 1990). Located at ap- 1993). (Photo of the nickel smelting com-
proximately 300 km above the Arctic Circle, plex in Noril'sk by D.J. Peterson in 1992.)
tion/emission reduction program to reap the However, in contrast, the conditions at the
full benefits of continuing smelter sulfur di- giant Noril'sk smelting complex (B ox 4.2) and
oxide abatement initiatives. at other large Russian smelters are still very
Sudbury is not alone in its efforts to con- similar to historical conditions at Sudbury.
trol emissions. Significant reductions in sul- Also, significant increases in sulfur dioxide
fur emissions and deposition have been emissions are expected in China and India
achieved in several areas in North America where rapid industrial development is increas-
and in parts of Europe (Hedin et al. 1987; ing the use of high sulfur coal (Galloway
DillOn et al. 1988; Wright and Hauhs 1991). 1989).
Acknowledgments. We thank: D. Bouillon, A. Brad- centrations in the surface layer of Sudbury's soils.
shaw, J. Gunn, H. Harvey, and W. Keller for Sci. Total Environ.
providing review comments. M. Conlon and Freedman, B. 1989. Environmental Ecology. The
M. Courtin assisted with graphics. Impacts of Pollution and Other Stresses on Eco-
system Structure and Function. Academic Press.
San Diego.
References Freedman, B., and T.e. Hutchinson. 1980. Pollutant
inputs from the atmosphere and accumulation in
Anonymous. 1972. Sweden's case study for the United soils and vegetation near a nickel-copper smelter
Nations Conference on the Human Environment, at Sudbury, Ontario, Canada. Can. J. Bot. 58(1):
1972: Air Pollution across National Boundaries. The 108-132.
Impact on the Environment of Sulfur in Air and French, H.F. 1990. Cleaning the air, pp. 98-U8.In
Precipitation. Stockholm, Sweden. L.R Bown et al. (eds.). State of the World 1990.
Barlow, A.E. 1907. Origin, geology, relations and W.W. Norton, New York.
composition of the nickel and copper deposits of Galloway, J.N. 1989. Atmospheric acidification: pro-
the Sudbury mining district. Geol. Surv. Can. jections for the future. Ambio 18:161-166.
961:1-244. Gunderman, D.G., and T.C. Hutchinson. 1993.
Chan, W.H., RH. Vet, C.U. Ro, A.J.S. Tang, and Changes in soil chemistry 20 years after the closure
M.A. Lusis. 1984. Impact of Inco smelter emis- of a nickel-copper smelter near Sudbury, Ontario,
sions on wet and dry deposition in the Sudbury
pp. 559-562. R.L. Allan and J.O. Nriagu (eds.).
area. Atmos. Environ. 18:1001-1008.
Proceedings of the International Conference on
Chaudhry, M., M. Nyborg, M. Molina-Ayala, and
Heavy Metals in the Environment, vol. 2. Toronto.
R.W. Parker. 1982. Reactions of S02 emissions
CEP Consultants, Edinburgh.
with soils. Proceedings of the Symposium on Acid
Haywood, J .K. 1907. Injury to vegetation and ani-
Forming Emissions in Alberta and Their Ecological
mal life by smelter fumes. J. Am. Chem. Soc.
Effects, Edmonton, Alberta.
29:998-1009.
Dillon, P.J., M. Lusis, R.A. Reidand, and D. Yap.
Hazlett, P.W., G.K. Rutherford, and G.W. Van Loon.
1988. Ten year trends in sulphate, nitrate, and
1983. Metal contaminants in surface soils and
hydrogen deposition in central Ontario. Atmos.
Environ. 22:901-905. vegetation as a result of nickel/copper smelting at
Coniston, Ontario. Reclamation Revegetation Res.
Dobrin, D.J., and R Potvin. 1992. Air Quality Mon-
2(2): 123-137.
itoring Studies in the Sudbury Area. Ontario Min-
istry of the Environment, Northeastern Region, Hedin, L.O., G.E. Likens, and F.H. Borman. 1987.
Sudbury, Ontario. Decrease in precipitation acidity resulting
Dreisinger, B.R 1952-1971. Sulphur Dioxide Lev- from decreased S04concentration. Nature 325:
els in the Sudbury Area and the Effects of the Gas 244-246.
on Vegetation. Yearly reports 1952-1971. On- Hutchinson, T.C., and L.M. Whitby. 1974. Heavy me-
tario Department of Mines, Sudbury, Ontario. tal pollution in the Sudbury mining and smelting
Dreisinger, B.R 1955. Atmospheric Sulphur Diox- region of Canada. I. Soil and vegetation contamina-
ide Observations and the Effects of the Gas upon tion by nickel, copper and other metals. Environ.
Foliage in the Sudbury Area. Ontario Depart- Conservation 1:123-132.
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Dreisinger, B.R, and P.C. McGovern. 1964. Sulphur lutants in the Sudbury area, pp. 117-154. In J.
Dioxide Levels in the Sudbury Area and Some Nriagu (ed.). Environmental Impacts of Smelters.
Effects of the Gas on Vegetation in 1963. Ontario John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Department of Mines, Sudbury, Ontario. Kato, N., and H. Akirnoto. 1992. Anthropogenic
Dreisinger, B.R, and P.C. McGovern. 1970. Moni- emissions of S02 and NOx in Asia: emission in-
toring atmospheric sulphur dioxide and correlat- ventories. Atmos. Environ. 26A(16):2997-3017.
ing its effects on crops and forests in the Sudbury Katz, M. 1954. Atmospheric sulphur dioxide con-
area. Proceedings of Conference on Impact of Air ditions in the Sudbury region, May to October,
Pollution on Vegetation, Toronto, Ontario. 1953. Report of Special Sulphur Dioxide In-
Dudka, S., R Ponce-Hernandez, and T.C. Hutchin- vestigating Committee. Ottawa. Unpublished
son. In press. Current level of total element con- report.
Katz, M., (ed.). 1939. Effect of Sulphur Dioxide on the Environment, Northeastern Region, Sud-
Vegetation. National Research Council, Bill 815. bury, Ontario.
Ottawa, Canada. Ontario Ministry of the Environment. 1982. Sudbury
Unzon, S.N. 1971. Economic effects of S02 on forest Environmental Study Synopsis, 1973-1980. On-
growth. J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc. 21:81-86. tario Ministry of the Environment Acidic Precipita-
Linzon, S.N. 1978. Effects of airborne sulphur pol- tion in Ontario Study Coordination Office, Toronto.
lutants on plants, pp. 109-162. In J.O. Nriagu Ontario Ministry of the Environment. 1985. On-
(ed.). Sulphur in the Environment: Part 2, Eco- tario's Acid Gas Control Program for 1986-1994,
logical Impacts. John Wiley & Sons, New York. Countdown Acid Rain. Ontario Ministry of Envi-
Lusis, M.A., A.J.S. Tang, WHo Chan, D. Yap, J. Kurtz, ronment and Energy, Toronto.
P.K. Misra, and G. Ellenton. 1986. Sudbury impact Ozvacic, V. 1982. Emissions of Sulphur Oxides, Par-
on atmospheric deposition of acidic substances in ticulate and Trace Elements in the Sudbury
Ontario. Water Air Soil Pollut. 30:897-908. Basin. Air Resources Branch, Report ARB-ERTD-
Malhotra, S.S., and RA. Blauel. 1980. Diagnosis of Air 09-82. Ontario Ministry of Environment and En-
Pollutant and Natural Stress Symptoms on Forest ergy, Toronto.
Vegetation in Western Canada. Publ. no. NOR-X- Peterson, D.J. 1993. Troubled Lands: The Legacy of
228. Northern Forest Research Centre, Canadian the Soviet Environmental Destruction. Westview
Forestry Service, Environment, Edmonton, Al- Press, Boulder, CO.
berta, Canada. Potvin, RR, and D. Balsillie. 1976. Air Quality Mon-
McCallum, A.W. 1944-1964. Report on Field Ex- itoring Report for the Sudbury Area 1975. Ontario
amination of the Sudbury Area. Yearly reports Ministry of the Environment, Northeastern Region,
1944-1964. Ontario Department of Mines, Sud- Sudbury, Ontario.
bury, Ontario. Potvin, RR., and D. Balsillie. 1978. Air Quality As-
McGovern, P.C., and D. Balsillie. 1975. Effects of sessment Studies in the Sudbury Area-Vol. 1.
Sulphur Dioxide and Heavy Metals on Vegeta- Air Quality Monitoring for the Sudbury Area
tion in the Sudbury Area 1974. Ontario Ministry (1976-1977). Ontario Ministry of the Environ-
of the Environment, Northeastern Region, Sud- ment, Northeastern Region, Sudbury, Ontario.
bury, Ontario. Saunders, A. 1990. Poisoning the arctic skies. Arctic
Mcilveen, W.D., and D. Balsillie. 1978. Air Quality Circle 1(2):22-31.
Assessment Studies in the Sudbury Area. Vol. 2. Skelly, J.M., D.D. Davis, W. Merrill, E.A. Cameron,
Effects of Sulphur Dioxide and Heavy Metals on H.D. Brown, D.B. Drummond, and L.S. Dochin-
Vegetation and Soils, 1970-1977. Ontario Minis- ger (eds.). 1987. Diagnosing Injury to Eastern
try of the Environment, Northeastern Region, Forest Trees. Forest Response Program. U.S.D.A.
Sudbury, Ontario. Forest Service, Pennsylvania State University,
Negusanti, J.J., and W.D. Mcilveen. 1990. Studies University Park, PA.
in the Terrestrial Environment in the Sudbury Summers, P.W., and D.M. Whelpdale. 1976. Acid
Area. Ontario Ministry of the Environment, North- precipitation in Canada. Water Air Soil Pollut.
eastern Region, Sudbury, Ontario. 6:447-455.
OECD. 1991. The State of the Environment: Air Tebbins, B.D., and D.H. Hutchinson. 1961. Appli-
Quality. Paris. cation of air quality standards to a community
Ontario/Canada Task Force. 1982. Report of the problem. J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc. 11:53-
Ontario/Canada Task Force for the Development 56.
and Evaluation of Air Pollution Abatement Op- United States Environmental Protection Agency.
tions for Inco Limited and Falconbridge Nickel 1990. National Air Pollutant Emission Estimates
Mines Limited in the Regional Municipality of 1940-1988. Publication EPA-450/4-90-001. Of-
Sudbury, Ontario. Intergovernment Task Force fice of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Re-
Report. Toronto, Ontario. search Triangle Park, NC.
Ontario Ministry of the Environment. 1978. Report Wright, RE, and M. Hauhs. 1991. Reversibility of
on Particulate Deposition in Sudbury, August 30, acidification: soils and surface waters. Proc. R.
1978 and September 8, 1978. Ontario Ministry of Soc. Edinburgh 97B:169-191.
Appendix 4.1.
S02 Abatement at Falconbridge Sudbury Operations
(Mike Kozlowski, Fakonbridge Limited)
Falconbridge's efforts to address the sulfur dioxide permissable concentration measured at
(SOz) problem commenced in 1972 with the clo- ground level. Currently, this is 0.5 ppm, cal-
sure of a plant that had been used to bum sulfur culated on an hourly basis. Periods of high
and recover nickel from a pyrrhotite (Fe7 S8) con- ground-level concentration are usually due
centrate made at that time. to adverse weather conditions. The smelter
The biggest single reduction in SOz emis- uses a monitoring system and will shut down
sions was the result of building a new $ 300 the converter aisle if an exceedance is an-
million (in 1994 dollars) smelter in 1978. The ticipated. Complaints from nearby citizens
dramatic reduction was due largely to the con- are investigated immediately and appropri-
struction of a new acid plant that converts the ate action, including shutdown if necessary,
SOz to sulfuric acid-a salable commodity. is taken.
The processing of ore at the present A continuing decline in emissions of SOz has
smelter at Falconbridge Ontario begins with occurred since the new smelter was built. The
slurry received from the Strathcona Mill decline from 1988 to 1993 occurred even during
(Fig. A4.1). The moisture content is adjusted a period of a 22% increase in nickel production.
and the concentrate, together with sand, is This recent continued decrease in SOz for each
fed to two fluid bed roasters. Currently tonne of nickel produced was largely the result
about 60% of the sulfur is eliminated (oxi- of recent changes at the Strathcona Mill and the
dized) in the roasters, and the resultant cal- mines. These changes have been directed at re-
cinelflux fed to two electric furnaces. An jecting more of the pyrrhotite in ore and making
intermediate or "furnace" matte containing greater quantities of copper concentrate for sale
about 35% nickel is produced during electric (thereby reducing the sulfur load to the
smelting. This matte is processed in the con- smelter).
verter aisle where more sulfur and iron are A new magnetic separator allowed more
oxidized in conventional Peirce-Smith con- pyrrhotite to be passed to the pyrrhotite re-
verters to yield a cast matte containing about jection circuit. Improvements in the rejec-
52 % nickel for shipment to the company's tion circuit further increased the amount of
refinery in Norway. The key change that has pyrrhotite removed. Unfortunately, these
reduced SOz emissions is that off-gases from changes also led to an increase in the nickel
the roasters are tightly contained and there- lost in this circuit. In 1993, a recycle loop
fore rich in SOz-about 10%. This gas is suit- was added to the rejection circuit, which re-
able for treatment in the single-pass acid duces these losses to traditional levels.
plant, whereas the gases from the old smelt- At the same time that these improvements
ing process were too dilute to do this. in pyrrhotite rejection were being made, less
With the new smelter, most of the rest of the pyrrhotite was being supplied in the ore from
SOz is produced in the converter vessels, al- the mines. The combined effects were to de-
though the SOz from the electric furnaces and crease the pyrrhotite and increase the nickel
the acid plant tail gas make up a significant content of concentrate going to the smelter.
proportion. All three sources are vented to the The high-grade concentrate allowed an in-
atmosphere through the same 93-m stack. In crease in the electric furnace matte grade,
addition to the annual SOz emission limits im- which in turn led to a significant reduction in
posed by the control orders shown in Figure the amount of SOz produced per tonne of cast
A4.2, there is a control order regarding the matte.
CONCENTRATE SMELTER
SLURRY ACID SHIPPING
STACK
1
RECEIVING &
STORAGE ~
ACID PLANT
____________ __- J ~+
I-~Q
1
GAS 1
COOLER 1
1
,....--
FEED CYCLONE 1- - - - .
PREPARATION ELECTROSTATIC
1 -.. PRECIPITATOR
'. 1
SAND 1- - - - .. 1
_ J
1
~ 1
'--- '---
ROASTER
ELECTROSTATIC
PRECIPITATOR
...1
1 1 1 1 ----------l --
CALCINE 1
1
~ _1_
t
~~--~--~--~--~~--~--~I ~CL~:ER-
ELECTRIC FURNACE MATTE
~
COHV[IITEA
J. - .~!!.
:......------~
GRANULATED
GRAVEL ~~
---------+.,-./ SLAG
HAULER
SLAG MATTE CAST & SHIP

'<"'"",,
-::~_-_-' _-_ -_
_'-- -_ -
--_
--'
-7~
FIGURE A4.1.
Production of copper concentrate leads to Regulations and Future

nickel losses. To counteract this, several mil-
lion dollars were spent on flotation columns
Developments
and press filters in the Strathcona Mill. This The Falconbridge Sudbury Operations has con-
had led to a valuable reduction in those sistently stayed below government control or-
losses. ders. In addition to complying with the new
FIGURE A4.2. Changes in emissions of sulfur di- 400
oxide from the Falconbridge smelter. Note that the

limit set for emissions in 1994 was required under
Regulation 661/85.
.
c
=o
200
/'
.. AClual Control Order.
"~
0100

o ~~~~--~--~--~~--~~~--~
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
Year
100-ktonne order for 1994, Falconbridge has sulfur burned off in the roaster. Engineer-
voluntarily committed to keep emissions ing studies are needed to evaluate capacity
below 75 ktonnes by 1998. shortcomings in the roasters and acid plant.
Future efforts in the mill will focus on Increasing the degree of roast has a nega-
increasing both pyrrhotite rejection and cop- tive impact on metal recoveries, which has
per concentrate production, thus increasing to be counteracted by adding more reduc-
the concentrate grade to the smelter. Some tant in the electric furnaces. This, in turn,
of the issues that the research and develop- has serious implications for furnace opera-
ment work will need to address include: tions (bottom build-up, higher tempera-
tures, increased off-gas volume), which
1. increased complexity of the mill circuits
require extensive research and develop -
and the need for reliable advanced pro-
ment programs and additional capital ex-
cess control
penditures.
2. impoundment of pyrrhotite tailings to
Falconbridge has spent more than $40 mil-
prevent acid run-off
lion in the past 5 years on S02 abatement and
3. increased sensitivity to the mine feed grade
continues to work on a long-term basis with
In the smelter, more S02 will be captured for all levels of government to reduce the envi-
acid production by increasing the amount of ronmental impact of its operations.
5
Lake Water Quality
Improvements and Recovering
Aquatic Communities
W. (Bill) Keller and John M. Gunn
In the remote areas to the northeast and south- of acidification on waterfowl (see Chapter 16)
west of Sudbury, the environmental damage is and amphibians (Glooschenko et al. 1992) have
less visible than in the denuded landscapes also been reported for the area.
near the smelters but is no less severe. These A simplified illustration of some of the bio-
hilly forested areas, underlain by granitic bed- logical changes that occur in a typical Sudbury
rock (Fig. 5.1), contain most of the more than lake between pH 5.0 and 6.0 is provided in
7000 lakes estimated to have been damaged Figure 5.2.
by smelter emissions (see Fig. 3.2).
Perhaps the most striking example of bio-
logical damage to these lakes is the loss of A New Question-
sportfish species, such as lake trout (Salvelinus
namaycush), brook trout (S. fontinalis~, walleye
Reversibility
(Stizostedion vitreum), and smallmouth bass (Micro- More than 35 years ago, Gorham and Gordon
pterus dolomieui) (Beamish and Harvey 1972; (1960) began scientific studies of lakes and
Matuszek et al. 1992). Most of Ontario's est- ponds near Sudbury. Since then, a vast amount
imated sportfish losses from acidification oc- of information has been collected that clearly
curred in this area (Matuszek et al. 1992). In established the damaging effects of smelter emis-
fact, excluding the losses of Atlantic salmon sions on the chemistry and biology of water
(Salmo salar) from Nova Scotia rivers (Watt et bodies. This information has been widely used
al. 1983), almost all Canada's well-documented nationally and internationally in the debate for
cases of fisheries losses from acidification are cleaner air. In recent years, research findings
in the Sudbury area (Kelso et al. 1990). How- from studies of Sudbury lakes have been used to
ever, a century of industrial emissions has re- answer another controversial question: Are
sulted in far more extensive biological damages acidification damages reversible?
than the loss of sportfish. Losses of acid or In the 1970s, there was uncertainty, which
metal-sensitive species, leading to reduced com- continues to some degree, whether acidified
munity richness, occurred for organisms at lakes would recover without the addition of
various aquatic trophic levels, including zoo- lime or other artificial sources of alkalinity. It
plankton (Sprules 1975; Keller and Pitblado was assumed that the acid-neutralizing capac-
1984), phytoplankton (Kwiatkowski and Roff ity of watershed soils, once exhausted, could
1976; Nicholls et al. 1992), and benthic inver- not recover or that the renewal of buffering
tebrates (Roff and Kwiatkowski 1977). Effects capacity through the geochemical weathering
67
68 Keller and Gunn
FIGURE 5.1. Acidified lake within the area affected

by the Sudbury smelter emissions. (Photo by
W. Keller.)
of watershed minerals would take a very long (Wright and Hauhs 1991). The box inserts in this
time (Barth 1987; Steinburg and Wright 1994). chapter (Boxes 5.1 and 5.2) provide some experi-
Recent studies, however, have shown that mental evidence from lake and watershed manip-
some natural systems are highly resilient and ulation studies supporting the findings of lake
can recover rapidly. It appears that the buffer- monitoring programs in the Sudbury area.
ing capacity of many acidified aquatic systems Figure 5.4 illustrates some of the general
was overloaded, not exhausted. chemical trends observed in remote Sudbury
lakes since the mid-1970s. As emissions of
sulfur dioxide declined (see Fig. 5.3), lakes
Lake Chemistry have shown marked increases in pH and alka-
The condition of lakes around Sudbury has been linity and declines in sulfate. Reduced acidic
improving in response to declining emissions deposition has also reduced the mineral leach -
(Fig. 5.3) at the smelters. Results from detailed ing of watershed soils, resulting in reductions
studies of individual lakes (LaZerte and Dillon in calcium and magnesium concentrations in
1984; Hutchinson and Havas 1986; Gunn and lake waters. Very similar results have been
Keller 1990) as well as extensive survey data reported from a regional survey of lakes in
(Keller and Pitblado 1986; Keller et al. 1992b) southwestern Scotland (Battarbee et al. 1988)
have demonstrated this trend. These observed and from Nova Scotia and Newfoundland riv-
chemical changes have provided probably the ers (Thompson 1987) after reductions in acid
best direct evidence in the world that abatement deposition.
programs not only protect sensitive systems but Reductions in the degree of metal contami-
allow for the recovery of damaged ecosystems nation of lake waters (Keller and Pitblado
pH 6.0 pH 5.0
!>$o...e- DoI$oo common shiner
fathead minnow
Benthos yellow perch Benthos
Snail
(Amnlcola)
cisco
~f7E
cisco
M.~ ~g.nia) Dr.gonilies
Zooplankton
~
Dapllnia
galeat3
Bosmlna
IongirOSlliS
mendota. Llptodlaplomus
~I".
mlnutu.
Eplochur. mlnu!u. Bosmin.

laeustris Iongilosllis
PHYTOPLANKTON ZOOPLANKTON FISH
&0 6!1 70
4!1 ~ 5.5 60 6.& 4!1 lI.o 55 6.0 6!1
pH pH pH
FIGURE 5.2. Simplified illustration of some of the biological changes that accompany lake addification. Patterns
shown are based on findings from Sudbury area studies and the general literature. The dominant trend is the
loss of add-sensitive spedes at various aquatic trophic levels, leading to an impoverished community.
FIGURE 5.3. Average daily sulfur dioxide emissions

for metal smelters in the Sudbury area for 5-year
intervals beginning in the mid -1 940s. The final in- O JL~~,,~~dU~~ I
terval is an average for 1991-1994 using projected ' ..... 200 IUt ~U ",. .. I", .tt , ""0 Iltl. n , ., ....10 tNt n ltH" 1" 1' "
emissions of 1000 tonnes/day for 1994. Years
69
70 Keller and Gunn
Box 5.1.
Lake 223
Experimental Lakes Area
The whole-lake manipulation experiments at were remarkably similar to effects observed in

Canada's Experimental Lakes Area in north- Sudbury and other areas of high-acid deposi-
western Ontario have provided an important tion. Algal mats appeared, and sensitive spe-
demonstration of acidification effects and the cies such as crayfish (Orconectes virilis), slimy
recovery potential of damaged lakes (Schindler sculpins (Cottus cognatus), opossum shrimp (Mysis
et al. 1991). By direct addition of sulfuric acid to relicta), and fathead minnows (Pimephales pro-
the water column of Lake 223, the pH of the lake melas) disappeared. Reproductive failure occurred
was progressively reduced from 6.5 in 1976 to among lake trout at pH 5.6 and white suckers at
5.0 in 1981. Since then, pH has been allowed to pH 5.0. The recovery part of the experiment
increase steadily. Researchers were initially sur- continues, but preliminary results indicate that
prised by the amount of acid needed to acidify many of the adverse effects are being eliminated
the system. Significant internal alkalinity gen- as the water quality improves (K. Mills, Cana-
eration was occurring through the activities of dian Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Win-
sulfate-redudng bacteria. The experimental nipeg, Manitoba, personal communication).
acidification produced biological responses that
1986; Fig. 5.4) and surficial sediments (Nriagu reversal of the pattern of recovery; a decline in
and Rao 1987) have also been reported. The water quality, probably caused by climatic fac-
changes in concentrations of potentially toxic tors, occurred after 1987 (Fig. 5.4; Keller et al.
metals deposited by the atmosphere have been 1992b). It appears that extensive storage and
most dramatic near the smelters, where con- oxidation of sulfur occurred in lake water-
centrations of nickel and copper are highly sheds during the very dry years of 1986 and
elevated. Concentrations of aluminum and 1987. After abundant precipitation in 1988,
manganese, metals abundant in soils, have lake pH values decreased somewhat as sulfate
generally decreased in lake waters as the concentrations increased, apparently in re-
acid leaching of watersheds was reduced and sponse to high sulfur and acid exports from
the pH of acidic lakes increased (Keller et al. lake watersheds. Further details of the mecha-
1992b). nism of sulfur storage and release are provided
Although the general chemistry trends since in Chapter 24.
the 1970s reflect improvement, these trends Nevertheless, despite weather-related fluc-
leveled off by the mid-1980s as emissions sta- tuations and the stabilization of emissions, the
bilized, confirming the link between pollution overall chemistry pattern through the late
abatement and environmental recovery. In 1970s and the 1980s demonstrates dramatic
the late 1980s, many lakes actually showed a improvements in water quality. This greatly
5. Lake Water Quality Improvements 71
Box 5.2.
RAIN PROJECT
, Reversing Acidification In NorwaV
Domed dties may be a far-fetched solution to machines, a variety of experiments were con-
survival in a contaminated atmosphere, but ducted: (1) sulfuric add addition to a pristine
greenhouses or other such shelters are often site; (2) 1:1 mixture of sulfuric and nitric add
used to conduct controlled experiments on the addition to a pristine site; (3) add removal
effects of addic predpitation. In Norway, re- from a contaminated site; and (4) control
searchers conducted a unique experiment in watersheds, with and without greenhouses.
which the greenhouses were moved to the site These experiments showed that add predpita-
with the soil and plants rather than vice versa tion led to the rapid leaching of base cations
(Wright et al. 1988). In a long-term experiment (e.g., calcium, magnesium) and toxic forms of
funded by Norwegian, Swedish, and Canadian aluminum from watershed soils. Reduction in
environmental agendes, sdentists from the add inputs reduced these effects. The RAIN proj-
RAIN (Reversing Addification in Norway) project continues to generate important findings on
ect altered the chemical composition of predpi- recovery rates and processes. A similar approach
tation falling on small experimental watersheds. is now also being used to assess the effects of
Using covered and uncovered watersheds, other atmospheric contaminants such as carbon
sprinklers, irrigation systems, and snow-making dioxide.
expanded the potential resource base of add- important, because the protection/restoration
sensitive spedes such as lake trout (Fig. 5.5). of aquatic communities is a major objective of
However, the restoration of aquatic systems emission abatement programs.
around Sudbury is still at an early stage. Many
lakes remain addic and metal-contaminated. Algae
Some lakes more than 100 kID from Sudbury
Fossil records of algal remains in sediments
are still highly addified, with pH less than 5.0.
provide clear evidence of the rapid recovery of
Highly elevated concentrations of copper and
planktonic diatoms and chrysophytes with in-
nickel are currently restricted to nearby lakes.
creased pH and reduced metal levels in Sud-
However, within about 20 km of Sudbury,
bury lakes (see Chapter 3). Examination of the
concentrations of these metals in most lakes changes in phytoplankton community compo-
exceed suggested safe values for the protection
sition in lakes sampled in the mid-1970s or
of fish and other aquatic life (see Chapter 20). early 1980s, and again in the mid -1980s, also
indicates that positive responses of phytoplank-
Biological Recovery ton communities have accompanied water
quality improvements (Nicholls et al. 1992).
Observations of biological improvements in Examples of the changes in phytoplankton com-
Sudbury lakes have been steadily mounting munity richness observed in several of these
(Keller et al. 1992a). These findings are very lakes are shown in Figure 5.6.
72 Keller and Gunn
E FIGURE 5.4. Time trends in lake chemistry as Sud-
:~~
.s.c bury area smelter emissions declined. Values for
.,
0
chemical characteristics are annual averages for a
~
<>.
group of seven acidic lakes distant (48-105 krn)
~<>. 700 from Sudbury but within the zone of smelter influ-
ence. Total annual precipitation is also shown.
,. Sulfil,. 6
..
~
n
~
.s. 12
+
3:
"
:
'"3"
10 <e.
:;
(/) .!:
.:[ pH

;c
!!!.
~ I:' t'"
;.
:t: ~
<>.
' .8 -G.' 3"
'.6 -G.8
~ ::[ \-.~~ /\ I::

i: 1970
~ ::~
1975 1980 1985 1990
Year
....... 0\
1980 1990 (_.'
/_.... .
" .
..... :z
,..'!
\
.e: '. \ () "~ Temagaml
\
-.!
\ '., ' ...-
\
I'
!
:.. :,. " }
'" Q ~ .'
Sudbury j"....
FIGuRE 5.5. Number of lake trout lakes too acidic to support viable populations (solid dots) has declined
from 86 in 1980 to 38 in 1990. Most of these changes occurred early in the 1980s.
FIGURE 5.6. Changes in annual aver- Phytoplan kton

age pH (solid line) and the richness 80
(shaded bars) of phytoplankton (Nich- (/)
r--
olls et al. 1992) and zooplankton (Kel- Ql 50 r--
r-
ler and Yan 1991) communities in

three Sudbury lakes.
o
Ql
a. 40
-
00
15 30
r- -
'-
Ql - r--
..c l 11 ;--
20 Ii
E :o.,' r-
:::l : ',
Z I'
10
I'
o
Zooplankton
10 6 .5
(/)
Ql
'0
Ql
a.
8 jJPH -
r-
6
-
00
0
6
r-
;--
(
~ 5 .5
- -
'- :I:
;-- r-- 0..
... 'rl
Ql
..c 5
E I'
:::l - .J- f-4
Z 2 4 .5
I' ' ~
0
'016 1116 181$ 18 ,en 1878 "1$ I , ,.74 UI85 e
Joe Laundrie Wavy
Many acidified Sudbury lakes have exten- 1982-1984 (MacIsaac et al. 1986). Dominance
sive benthic growths of filamentous algae, a shifted from Keratella taurocephala to Polyarthra
response to acidified conditions (Fig. 5.7). and other species as water quality improved.
During the natural recovery of Swan Lake from This change is consistent with survey results
pH 4.8-5.4 (1982-1987), the community com- indicating dominance by a variety of species,
position of benthic algae changed, and the particularly Keratella cochlearis ahd Polyarthra,
extent of shoreline coverage declined greatly in non-acidic lakes, and strong dominance by
(Vandermeulen et al. 1993). As pH increased, K. taurocephala and Gastropus in acidic lakes
the dominance of Zygogonium gave way to (MacIsaac et al. 1987).
dominance by a mixture of Spirogyra, Oedogon- Increased average species richness of crusta-
ium, and Desmidium. cean zooplankton has been observed in many
lakes (Locke et al. 1994), including Laundrie,
Wavy, and Joe (Keller and Yan 1991; Fig. 5.6).
Zooplankton These patterns followed the negative relation-
Some natural recovery of planktonic rotifer ship generally observed between species rich-
communities was documented in Swan Lake, ness and lake acidity (see Fig. 5.2). New species
as pH rose from 4.0 in 1977 to 4.8-5.1 in that became important in these lakes as chem-
74 Keller and Gunn
FIGURE 5.7. Filamentous green

algae accumulation in the near-
shore zone of an acidic lake. Such
growths are widespread in acidi-
fied lakes and are a major concern
for recreational users. (Photo by W.
Keller.)
istry improved included Hoiopedium gibberum, Benthic Invertebrates

Eubosmina, Daphnia pulex, Skistodiaptomus or-
egonensis, Epischura lacustris, and Tropocyclops ex- Recovery of the invertebrate communities
tensus. With the exception of H. gibberum, that occupy the lake bottom has been reported
which is metal-sensitive, these recolonists are for Whitepine Lake and Laundrie Lake (Gunn
considered acid-sensitive, and all are relatively and Keller 1990; Griffiths and Keller 1992) . In
common in northeastern Ontario lakes. Based these lakes, as pH increased, the abundance
on a comparison of species richness in these and the number of species collected generally
lakes and nonacidic southcentral Ontario lakes, increased, suggesting higher survival under
natural recovery was not complete. However, less acidic conditions. Acid-sensitive organ-
recolonization by common widespread species isms first collected in the most recent survey
made zooplankton community composition included several mayfly species (Hexagenia,
much more typical of natural, Precambrian Ephemerella, Caenis) in Whitepine Lake and the
Shield lakes. amphipod Hyalella azteca in Laundrie Lake.
10
...,
'u
~ 6
FIGURE 5.8. Changes in the average number of ben- '"

thic invertebrate species per sample in littoral (shal-
low) and profundal (deep) soft-sediment habitats of
E
Ii
::>
4
Z
Whitepine and Laundrie lakes (Griffiths and Keller
1992). Over the period, pH increased from about 5.4 2
to 5.9 in Whitepine Lake and 4.9 to 5.6 in Laundrie
Lake (northern basin). Note that species richness did
o
not increase in the deep areas of Whitepine Lake, tlI2 'I" "12 ""
,.75 1111 "75 , 7
where predation by an expanding lake trout popula- Shallow Deep Shallow Deep
tion was intense. Whitepine Laundrie

FIGURE 5.9. Spawning brook trout in Joe Lake, 28

kID north of Sudbury. The historical trout popula-
tion was eliminated from Joe Lake by addilication
and metal contamination, but water quality im-
provements have allowed successful restocking and
reproduction. (Photo by V. Liimatainen.)
Other acid-sensitive recolonists included the required to assess the adequacy of control
worms Areteonais lomondi, Stylaria laeustris, and measures and determine the need for addi-
Dero nivea, the midge Cladotanytarsus, and the tional steps. Based on previous findings, the
clams Museulium seeuris and Pisidium. Changes interpretation of monitoring data must care-
in the species richness of these lakes are fully consider climatic fluctuations, which can
shown in Figure 5.8. greatly affect time trends in lake chemistry.
In time, under a regime of reduced deposi-
tion of atmospheric contaminants, many cur-
Fish rently acidic Sudbury lakes should improve
Improved water quality has allowed successful such that water quality conditions will no
restocking of extinct fish species in several longer constrain aquatic biological communi-
Sudbury lakes (Fig. 5.9). But there are rela- ties. Other lakes may show less significant
tively few cases of natural recovery among fish chemical changes, but even in these lakes,
communities. The best-documented case is the some improvement in biological communities
resumption of successful reproduction by rem- is expected. Given suitable water quality con-
nant lake trout after pH increased in Whitep- ditions, biological improvements will be sub-
ine Lake (Gunn and Keller 1990). In'this lake, stantial, based on evidence from experimental
the very abundant population of acid-tolerant neutralization studies (see Chapter 15) as well
yellow perch (Perea flaveseens) decreased rap- as observations of natural recovery. Benthic
idly as lake trout populations were re -estab- filamentous algae respond almost immediately
lished. Not all residual populations, though, to decreased lake acidity, through dramatically
responded to improved water quality. The very reduced abundance and shifts in community
sparse remnant populations of white suckers composition. Phytoplankton communities also
(Catostomus eommersoni) and burbot (Lota lota) respond rapidly to chemical improvements,
became extinct despite the pH increase. with increased community richness and shifts
to types considered more typical of near-
neutral Precambrian Shield lakes. Many com-
Expectations mon zooplankton species and mobile species
of benthic invertebrates show relatively rapid
It is expected that further chemical and biolog- (within a decade, and often much less) recolo-
ical improvements will result from the large- nization rates.
scale additional abatement measures being
implemented by the Sudbury smelting indus-
try. The ultimate environmental effect of these Complications
emission control programs cannot be pre-
dicted using present knowledge. Close mon- It has been suggested that the benefits of re-
itoring of environmental responses will be duced acid emissions may be temporarily off-
76 Keller and Gunn
set by corresponding decreases in calcium mately eliminated when more usual open-water
concentrations in lake waters, resulting from species re-invade the plankton (Fig. 5.10). The
reduced leaching rates of watershed minerals occurrence of such transition communities
(Hemiksen et a1. 1989; Skeffington and Brown among other groups of organisms has not yet
1992). Declining calcium is a concern because been documented for Sudbury lakes, but they
calcium reduces the toxic effects of acid and may occur.
various metals in soft waters. Calcium limita- In some cases, the biological communities
tion, although perhaps of concern for some existing in acidic lakes may resist recovery to
Ontario lakes or in other regions with ex- more typical communities, even under suit-
tremely dilute lakes such as southern Norway able water quality conditions (Fig. 5.10). In
(calcium <1 mg/L), does not appear to be a fishless lakes, high abundances of predatory
major problem for Sudbury lakes or Precambr- invertebrates such as larvae of the phantom
ian Shield lakes in general, where calcium midge Chaoborus, which are normally controlled
concentrations are usually higher. Of 250 lakes by fish predation, may prevent or retard the
sampled within about 250 km of Sudbury, only re-establishment of normal invertebrate com-
9 had calcium concentrations of less than munities (Nyberg 1984; Stenson et al. 1993). In
2 mg/L and the average for these lakes was particular, zooplankton in small, nutrient-rich,
1. 7 mg/L (Pitblado and Keller 1984). These fishless lakes with high Chaoborus abundance
values are well above the requirements for may be affected by invertebrate predation
normal physiological functions in fish. (Yan et a1. 1991). In such lakes, the recovery of
Communities in recovering Sudbury lakes natural invertebrate communities may depend
are becoming more typical of those in non- on the re-establishment of fish communities
acidic Precambrian Shield lakes, although it is that will control invertebrate predators. In the
impossible to demonstrate a return to the case of fish communities themselves, it ap-
exact community that prevailed historically in pears that in lakes with high abundances of
individual lakes. The establishment of typical acid-tolerant fish species, interspecific compe-
communities is expected, because species im- tition may inhibit the successful re-establish-
portant in the natural restructuring of com- ment of some species. Examples of this type
munities are residual acid -sensitive species that of negative competitive interaction between
have persisted in reduced abundance and re- acid-sensitive and acid-tolerant species in-
colonizing species that are common in the clude brook trout and yellow perch and lake
area. Predatory and competitive interactions, trout and cisco (Coregonus artedii). Expanding
as well as acid-sensitivity and recolonization fish populations may limit the recovery of
sources, may, however, influence the recovery some invertebrate prey species (see Fig. 5.8).
process (Fig. 5.10). Many species, if given suitable water quality
In the transition phase, between communi- and sufficient time, are undoubtedly capable
ties typical of acidic lakes and those typical of of re-establishing themselves in aquatic eco-
nonacidic lakes, community structure may be systems. Other species are much less mobile
variable (Locke et a1. 1994) and somewhat and may not be able to recolonize former
atypical. For example, based on both obser- habitats. For many fish species, natural re-
vations of natural recovery (Keller and Yan colonization may depend on the existence of
1991) and experimental lake neutralization connections with unaffected water bodies or
studies (Yan et al., under review), among crus- other refuge areas (Bergquist 1991). The re-
tacean zooplankton, some species normally establishment of recreational fisheries will, in
considered characteristic of nearshore (litto- many cases, require restocking and the devel-
ral) habitats, including Sida crystallina, Chy- opment of protective management strategies.
dorus sphaericus, Orthocyclops modestus, and For some nonmobile invertebrate or small fish
Simocephalus serrulatus, may invade open species, re-introductions may also be neces-
water (limnetic) habitats early in the recovery sary to achieve a desired aquatic community
process. These opportunistic invaders are ulti- structure within a reasonable period of time.
Low Competition High Competition

I .................
yellow perch (t)

.
cisco (t)
. ..... ...
..c , , . ..c
en
en '-
I '
LL LL
I
,,
I
lake trout (s)
-_ ... .. ,,
lake trout (s)
---------
Acidic Nonacidic Acidic Nonacidic
Fish Predation Invertebrate Predation

...................
c c
,. -
limnetic (t)
o
-tJ
o
-tJ
~ ~
'( C littoral (t)
C
I Cd
Cd J
0- 0-
o limnetic (s) "
.. , o
o o
----- ----
limnetic (s)
N
- - .. littoral (t) '" N
Acidic Nonacidic Acidic Nonacidic
FIGURE 5.10. Some of the expected charges and interactions in fish and zooplankton communities that
may occur during recovery in lakes with different biological characteristics. Conditions are low competition
between add-tolerant (t) forage fish and add-sensitive (s) sportfish (upper left); high competition between
add-tolerant forage fish and acid-sensitive sportfish (upper right); changing fish predation from small
add-tolerant planktivores to large acid-sensitive piscivores (lower left); and, fishless conditions with intense
invertebrate predation (lower right).
Summary and Conclusions associated with the smelter emissions, were

observed, although decreases in concentra-
Studies in the Sudbury, Ontario, area have tions of these metals did occur between the
shown that water quality changes have occurred mid-1970s and early 1980s.
in many lakes in response to substantial reduc- Biological changes have accompanied these
tions in sulfur and associated metal emissions in chemical improvements. At least partial recov-
the 1970s. These changes, including decreased ery has been observed for benthic filamentous
acidity, and decreased concentrations of sulfate, algae, phytoplankton, zooplankton, benthic in-
calcium, magnesium, aluminum, and manga- vertebrates, and some fish species. The patterns
nese, continued into the mid-1980s. By the late of recovery show movement toward the re-
1980s, these trends leveled off or reversed some- establishment of communities typical of Pre-
what. During the 1980s, no clear trends in con- cambrian Shield lakes in this area. For some
centrations of copper or nickel, metals directly nonmobile species, however, natural recoloniza-
78 Keller and Gunn
tion is unlikely (Bergquist 1991) and restock- Ron Griffiths, Harold Harvey, Hugh MacIsaac,
ing efforts will be necessary. Ken Nicholls, Roger Pitblado, John Smol, and
Based on our current understanding of NormYan.
aquatic systems, a pH of at least 6.0 is needed
for the protection of healthy aquatic commu-
nities (see Fig. 5.2). To date, only a small num- References
ber of Sudbury lakes have recovered above
Barth, H. 1987. Reversibility of Acidification. Elsev-
this chemical threshold. In those lakes nearest ier, London.
Sudbury, the biological effects of elevated con- Battarbee, R.W., R.J. Flower, A.C. Stevenson, V.J.
centrations of metals related to smelter emis- Jones, R. Harriman, and P.G. Appleby. 1988. Dia-
sions, particularly copper and nickel, must also tom and chemical evidence for the reversibility
be considered. Large reductions in metal con- of acidification of Scottish Lochs. Nature 332:
centrations as well as decreases in acidity 530-532.
will be required to permit ecosystem res- Beamish, R.J., and H.H. Harvey. 1972. Acidification
toration in some lakes. Such concurrent of the La Cloche Mountain lakes, Ontario, and
elevations in surface water acidity and con- resulting fish mortalities. J. Fish. Res. Board Can.
centrations of some airborne metals, how- 29:1131-1143.
ever, occur in other regions experiencing Bergquist, B.C. 1991. Extinction and natural colo-
high deposition of atmospheric contami- nization of fish in acidified and limed lakes. Nor-
nants, including areas of Scandinavia and dic J. Freshwater Res. 66:50-62.
Russia near smelters (Nost et al. 1991). Thus, Glooschenko, V., W. Weller, P.G.R. Smith, R. Alvo,
observations in Sudbury provide very useful and J.H.G. Archbold. 1992. Amphibian distribu-
tion with respect to pond water chemistry near
comparative data for areas influenced by re-
Sudbury, Ontario. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 49
gional sources of acid and metal deposition (Suppl. 1):114-121.
as well as areas subjected to the long-range Gorham, E., and A.G. Gordon. 1960. The influence
transport and deposition of contaminants. of smelter fumes upon the chemical composition
The widespread chemical and biological im- of lake waters near Sudbury, Ontario and upon
provements seen in lakes of the Sudbury area the surrounding vegetation. Can. J. Bot. 30:477-
demonstrate the resiliency of aquatic systems 487.
and provide strong support for th.e use of emis- Griffiths, R.W., and W. Keller. 1992. Benthic macro-
sion controls to combat aquatic acidification. invertebrate changes in lakes near Sudbury, On-
However, many area lakes are still acidic and tario following a reduction in acid emissions.
metal-contaminated. Further recovery is ex- Can. J. Fish Aquat. Sci. 49(Suppl. 1):63-75.
pected to result from the additional, recently Gunn, J.M., and W. Keller. 1990. Biological recovery
implemented controls (Ontario Ministry of the of an acid lake after reductions in industrial emis-
Environment 1987). sions of sulphur. Nature (Lond.) 345:431-433.
Henrikson, A., L. Lien, B.O. Rosseland, T.S. Traaen,
and I.S. Sevaldrud. 1989. Lake acidification in
Norway: present and predicted fish status. Ambio
Acknowledgments. Much of the work de-
18:314-321.
scribed here was supported under the Acidic
Hutchinson, T.C., and M. Havas. 1986. Recovery of
Precipitation in Ontario Study (APIOS) of
previously acidified lakes near Coniston, Canada
the Ontario Ministry of Environment and following reductions in atmospheric sulphur and
Energy and the Ontario Ministry of Natural metal emissions. Water Air Soil Pollut. 29:319-333.
Resources. Many researchers were involved Keller, W., J.M. Gunn, and N.D. Van. 1992a. Evi-
in the work summarized. In particular, we dence of biological recovery in acid -stressed lakes
acknowledge the following individuals for near Sudbury, Ontario, canada. Environ. Pollut.
their contributions to an understanding of 78: 79-85.
lakes in the Sudbury area: Jim Carbone, Nels Keller, W., and J .R. Pitblado. 1984. Crustacean
Conroy, Peter Dillon, Sushil Dixit, Peggy Gale, plankton in northeastern Ontario lakes subjected
to acidic deposition. Water Air Soil Pollut. 23: Nriagu, J.O., and S.S. Rao. 1987. Response of lake
271-291. sediments to changes in trace metal emissions
Keller, W., and J.R. Pitblado. 1986. Water quality from the smelters at Sudbury. Environ. Pollut.
changes in Sudbury area lakes: a comparison of 44:211-218.
synoptic surveys in 1974-76 and 1981-83. Water Nost, T., V. Yakovlev, H.M. Berger, N. Kashulin, A.
Air Soil Pollut. 29:285-296. Langeland, A. Lukin, and H. Muladal. 1991. Im-
Keller, W., J.R. Pitblado, and J. Carbone. 1992b. pacts of Pollution on Freshwater Communities
Chemical responses of acidic lakes in the Sud- in the Border Area between Russia and Norway.
bury, Ontario, area to reduced smelter emissions, 1. Preliminary Study in 1990. Report 26. Norsk
1981-89. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 49(Suppl.l): Institutt for Natureforskning. NIVA, Trondheim,
25-32. Norway.
Keller, W., and N.D. Van. 1991. Recovery of crus- Nyberg, P. 1984. Impact of Chaoborus predation on
tacean zooplankton species richness in Sud- planktonic crustacean communities in some acid-
bury area lakes following water quality ified and limed forest lakes in Sweden. Rep. Inst.
improvements. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 48: Freshwat. Res. Drottningholm. 61:154-166.
1635-1644. Ontario Ministry of the Environment. 1987.
Kelso, J.R.M., M.A. Shaw, C.K. Minns, and K.H. Countdown Acid Rain, Summary and Analysis
Mills. 1990. An evaluation of the effects of acid of the Second Progress Reports by Ontario's
deposition on fish and the fisheries resources Four Major Sources of Sulphur Dioxide. On-
of Canada. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 47:644- tario Ministry of the Environment Report, To-
655. ronto, Ontario.
Kwiatkowski, R.E., and J.C. Roff. 1976. Effects of Pitblado, J.R., and W. Keller. 1984. Monitoring of
acidity on the phytoplankton and primary pro- Northeastern Ontario Lakes, 1981-1983. Techni-
ductivity of selected northern Ontario lakes. Can. cal report. Ontario Ministry of the Environment,
J. Bot. 54:2546-2561. Sudbury, Ontario.
LaZerte, B.D., and P.J. Dillon. 1984. Relative im- Roff, J.e., and R.E. Kwiatkowski. 1977. Zooplankton
portance of anthropogenic versus natural sources and zoobenthos communities of selected northern
of acidity in lakes and streams of central Ontario. Ontario lakes of different acidities. Can. J. Zool.
Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 41:1664-1677. 55:899-911.
Locke, A., W.G. Sprules, W. Keller, and J.R. Pit- Schindler, D.W., T.M. Frost, K.H. Mills, P.S.S. Chang,
blado. 1994. Zooplankton communities and wa- I.J. Davies, L. Findlay, D.F. Malley, J.A. Shearer,
ter chemistry of Sudbury area lakes~ changes M.A. 'furner, P.G. Garrison, C.J. Watras, K. Web-
related to pH recovery. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. ster, J.M. Gunn, P.L. Brezonik, and W.A. Swen-
51:151-160. son. 1991. Comparisons between experimentally
Madsaac, H.J., T.C. Hutchinson, and W. Keller. 1987. and atmospherically acidified lakes during stress
Analysis of planktonic rotifer assemblages from and recovery. Proc. R. Soc. Edinburgh 97b: 193-
Sudbury, Ontario area lakes of varying chemical 227.
composition. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 44:1692- Skeffington, R.A., and DJ.A. Brown. 1992. Time-
1701. scales of recovery from acidification: implications of
Madsaac, H.J., W. Keller, T.C. Hutchinson, and N.D. current knowledge for aquatic organisms. Environ.
Van. 1986. Natural changes in the planktonic Ro- Pollut. 77:227-234.
tifera of a small acid lake near Sudbury, Ontario Sprules, G.W. 1975. Midsummer crustacean zoo-
following water quality improvements. Water Air plankton communities in acid stressed lakes. J.
Soil Pollut. 31 :791-797. Fish. Res. Board Can. 32:389-395.
Matuszek, J.E., D.L. Wales, and J.M. Gunn. 1992. Steinburg, C.E.W., and R.F. Wright. 1994. Acidifica-
Estimated impacts of S02 emissions from Sud- tion of freshwater ecosystems, implications for
bury smelters on Ontario's sportfish populations. the future. Proceedings of the 69th Dahlem
Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 49(Suppl. 1):87-94. Workshop. Wiley, New York.
Nicholls, K.H., L. Nakamoto, and W. Keller. 1992. Stenson, J.A.E., J.-E. Svensson, and G. Cronberg.
Phytoplankton of Sudbury area lakes (Ontario) 1993. Changes and interactions in the pelagic
and relationships with acidification status. Can. J. community in acidified lakes in Sweden. Ambio
Fish. Aquat. Sci. 49(Suppl. 1):40--51. 22:277-282.
80 Keller and Gunn
Thompson, M.E. 1987. Comparison of excess sul- Wright, R.F., and M. Hauhs. 1991. Reversibility of
phate yields and median pH values of rivers in acidification: soils and surface waters. Proc. R.
Nova Scotia and Newfoundland. Water Air Soil Soc. Edinburgh 97b:169-191.
Pollut.35:19-26. Wright, R.E, E. Lotse, and A. Semb. 1988. Reversibil-
Vandermeulen, H., M.B. Jackson, A. Rodrigues, ity of acidification shown by whole-catchment ex-
and W. Keller. 1993. Filamentous algal com- periments. Nature (Lond.) 334: 670-675.
munities in Sudbury area lakes: effects of Yan, N.D., W. Keller, H.J. Madsaac, and L.J. Mc-
variable lake acidity. Cryptogamic Bot. 3: Eachern. 1991. Regulation of zooplankton com-
123-132. munity structure of an acidified lake by
Watt, W.D., C.D. Scott, and W.J. White. 1983. Chaoborus. Ecol. Appl. 1:52-65.
Evidence of acidification of some Nova Scotian Yan, N.D., W. Keller, K.M. Somers, T.W. Pawson,
rivers and its impact on Atlantic salmon, Salrno and R. Girard. (submitted). The recovery of zoo-
salar. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 40:462-473. plankton from acidification: Comparing manipu-
lated and reference lakes.
6
Lichens: Sensitive Indicators of
Improving Air Quality
Peter J. Beckett
Biological monitoring is the application of ganisms with both an algal and a fungal
assessment techniques using plants or other partner; approximately 90% of the mass is
biological material to gain information about made up of the slow-growing fungal part-
the quality and condition of the envi- ner. The fungus supplies structural support,
ronment (Cairns 1980). Plants are greatly and the algal cells support nutrition through
affected by the physical and chemical envi- photosynthesis.
ronment in which they live. If conditions There is a long history of lichens being used
become altered, the exposed plant commu- as a sensitive indicator of air quality, particu-
nity can accurately reflect these changes and larly with regard to sulfur dioxide in urban
can thus be important indicators of the state areas or near point source emissions (Ferry et
of the environment (Nash 1988). Plants also a1. 1973; Burton 1986; Richardson 1992). Nat-
collect contaminants from the air, and soil uralists first observed the disappearance of li-
and can be sampled from various geographic chens from polluted areas soon after the start
locations to assess the amount of contami- of the Industrial Revolution (Turner and Bor-
nant present. rer 1839). In 1859, Grindon observed that "the
This chapter discusses the value of lichens as quality [of lichens near Manchester] has been
biomonitors and documents their increased much lessened ... through the influx of fac-
abundance in Sudbury after reductions in sul- tory smoke which appears to be singularly
fur dioxide emissions. This reinvasion by li- prejudicial to these lovers of pure air." As air
chens represents some of the best evidence of quality has improved in many industrial
the natural recovery of the terrestrial ecosys- centers in western Europe, there has been a
tem and thus the importance of the industrial marked improvement in lichen abundance
pollution abatement programs that began in (Seaward 1989).
the early-1970s. Although lichens are generally very sensi-
tive to air pollutants, not all lichen species are
equally affected. At a given sulfur dioxide con-
Lichens centration, certain species disappear while
others remain. In Europe, Hawksworth and
Lichens form conspicuous gray, green, Rose (1976) developed a scale that relates the
orange, or red patches on trees or rocks occurrence of particular lichens to winter sul-
(Fig. 6.1). They are composite symbiotic or- fur dioxide levels.
81
82 Beckett
FIGURE 6.1. Examples of typical lichens associated with pollution studies in the Sudbury area. Top row
(L-R): Usnea hirta (epiphyte), Stereocaulon sp. (rock), Cladina rangiferina (soil). Center: Parmelia sulcata
(epiphyte). Bottom row (L-R): Evernia mesomorpha (epiphyte), Cetraria dliaris (epiphyte), Umbilicaria mul-
henbergia (rock). The coin provided for scale is a $1 Canadian "Loonie."
Characteristic of Lichens as to their sensitivity to air pollution. Crustose

forms cover and tightly adhere to the substrate;
Sensitive Biomonitors foliose lichens are leaflike with many lobes and
The suitability of using lichens in biomonitor- loosely adhere to the substrate; fruticose lichens
ing studies is summarized in Table 6.1 and grow vertically upward or hang down from
briefly discussed in the following section. twigs (Fig. 6.1). Because of their elongated
Lichen spedes may be conveniently grouped growth form, fruticose lichens (see Plate 8 fol-
into three morphological forms that are related lowing page 182) are generally more exposed to
contaminants than crustose and foliose lichens.
A particularly important morphological
characteristic of lichens, with regard to their
TABLE 6.1. Advantages of using lichens use as biomonitors, is the absence of an outer
as biomonitors
protective waxy cuticle; this allows contami-
1. Accumulate substances in measurable quantities nants to move freely into the lichens. Because
2. Available in sufficient quantities over a wide lichens are adapted to obtaining nutrients
geographic area to ensure unbiased sampling
3. Present throughout the year with relative ease of from rain, they possess the ability to take up
collection. May be sampled repeatedly elements both passively and directly from the
4. Have various sensitivities to a contaminant to surrounding environment. The cell walls act
allow a series of communities to form in response like the ion-exchange resins found in water
to the concentration of the contaminant
softeners and bind with substances found in
6. Lichens 83
rainwater. Also, the open spongelike structure of Box 6.1. Chernobyl Accident and Lichens
the fungal partner allows gases such as oxygen,
carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxide to readily Lichens can effectively monitor radioactive iso-
diffuse into the body of the lichen. The surface topes. This was shown on April 26, 1986, when
structure of the lichen also traps a variety of an explosion occurred in the Chernobyl nuclear-
airborne particulates that range from harmless powered electricity generating plant in the
dust particles to radionuclides (Box 6.1).
Ukraine (Smith and Clark 1986). The explosion
The outstanding ability of lichens to accu-
and subsequent fire released a plume of radioac-
mulate substances either from the air or other
tive particles for several days before controls
parts of the environment has allowed wider
were implemented. The main plume moved
application than indication of air quality (Nie-
west over Poland and the Alps and reached
boer and Richardson 1981). For instance, these
Britain I week later. It then moved north to
organisms have been exploited for geobotani-
deposit significant amounts of radioactive ma-
cal prospecting (BOX 6.2).
terial over Scandinavia (Steinnes and Njastad
1993), with subsequent economic consequences
for Lapp reindeer herders. High levels of cesium
Studies Involving Lichen (137Cs) were found in the meat of many rein-
Biomonitors in the deer; up to 10,000 Bq cesium per kilogram
Sudbury Area was documented. The legal limit for sale is 300
Bq/kg. Most of this radionuclide was ingested by
reindeer feeding on highly contaminated li-
Lichen Distribution and chens. In Poland, there was a startling increase
Changes over Time of cesium (165-fold) in Umbilicaria after the pas-
Three surveys have been made of lichens sage of the Chernobyl cloud across the country.
growing on mature balsam poplar (Populus In this case, heavy rain washed out some of the
balsamifera) tree trunks in the Sudbury area. radioactive material, which was subsequently
The first survey was conducted in 1968 (Le- taken up by the lichen. The radioactive cloud
blanc et al. 1972) 4 years before the major arrived in Canada II days after the accident.
pollution control initiatives of 1972 ('See Chap- Samples of reindeer/caribou lichen, Cladina
ter 4). The post-emission-reduction surveys rangiferina, were collected across the Maritime
were conducted in 1978 (Beckett 1984) and provinces. Using computer simulation models
1989-1990 (Pappin and Beckett in press). for deposition, investigators estimated that the
Consistent survey techniques were main- cloud crossed the Maritimes at a height of
tained throughout. Ten trees were chosen at 10,000 m (Smith and Ellis 1990). Once again,
each site, and each tree was carefully exam- lichens were shown to be excellent collectors of
ined from the base to a height of 2 m. Lichen aerosol-size particles owing to their high sur-
species present and percentage cover of each face/mass ratio and slow growth rates.
species were recorded. Species richness was
estimated for each site using the method of
Leblanc and De Sloover (1970) to provide an
index value for classifying air quality effects on shown in the upper panel of Figure 6.2. The
lichen communities. This classification method most heavily affected area, zone I, covered
assigned a score or index of atmospheric purity much of the barren area described in Chapter 2.
(lAP) values to lichen communities at each site. Zero to four species of lichen were found in this
The lAP values were then plotted and joined by zone, which is commonly referred to as a "lichen
isometric lines to delineate various zones (1-5) desert." In the next zone, zone 2, fewer than 10
of atmospheric contamination. species of lichens were observed. This slightly
The results of the LeBlanc et al. (1972) sur- better but still heavily damaged area corre-
vey in 1968 (pre-emission reduction) are sponds generally to the semibarren vegetation
84 Beckett
Box 6.2. Geobotanical Prospecting
The recognition that some plants grow on soils Foliose lichens are often used for geobo-
rich in metals (metallophytes) has led to the tanical prospecting because they are easy to
development of the science of geobotany, sample. Lichen samples taken from serpen-
whereby a prospector searches for particular tine rocks are often found to accumulate
plants while investigating the geology in the nickel. Around Contwoyoto Lake, North-
anticipation of finding mineral deposit. An- west Territories, high levels of copper were
other strategy is to determine the metal con- found in Cetraria (Tomassini et al. 1976).
tent of plants as an indication of nearby Later, a mining company independently
mineral deposits. The physical appearance of found an economic copper deposit in the
the plant can also be an important clue. For same area. Cladina (reindeer or caribou li-
example, crustose lichens growing near min- chens) removed from a rocky outcrop in the
eralized rocks may develop characteristically Elliot Lake area of Ontario contained high
colored thalli (Easton in press), whereas the levels of uranium that had been accumu-
dark green thalli of certain Lecanora species is lated from a vein containing high levels of
associated with copper-rich rock. the radioactive metal.
zone described in Chapter 2 and by Amiro and dIe panel Fig. 6.2). At this time, the lichen
Courtin (1981). Species diversity and numbers desert (zone 1) had shrunk dramatically (20%
of particularly sensitive species increased proof 1968 area). There were now 10 species
gressively through zones 3 to 5. Zone 5 growing in zone 2. Farther away from the
showed only minor effects caused by sulfur working smelters (zone 3), 20 species were
dioxide emissions from Sudbury and was de- found. Still farther away in zone 4, 25-30
scribed by Leblanc et a1. (1972) as the undis- species were present, and in the outer area of
turbed or background condition. lowest pollution, more than 35 species were
The survey of 1978, which occurred 6 years present (Beckett 1984).
after the major emission reductions and plant By 1990 (lower panel Fig. 6.2), the lichen
closures, dramatically demonstrated the bio- desert had completely disappeared, and zone 2
logical benefits of improving air quality (mid- was reduced to two small areas around each of
,
1968
I
, I I
, / I I
I
I
4,. J 5
3
, ,. ,.
I
11
.. .- -- . _ ._.- - .....,
1978 "\
I
\
5
,
I
4 ,
!
I
I
......
1990 .... ....

,,
,,
5
" \
\
\
I
, /
Lichen Distribution ,,
1 . Lichen Desert
2 Few
3 Common
4 Abundant
5 . Very Abundant
-------------------' ... 25km

I ()pe,., Sme '" AbandOned SInet,.,
FIGURE 6.2. Zones of atmospheric purity from the 1968, 1978, and 1989-1990 lichen surveys. Note the laxge
zone 1, lichen desert, around the three operating smelters in 1968 (upper panel). In 1978, zone 1 has decreased
and has been replaced by zone 2 through lichen re-invasion (middle panel). In 1989-1990, zone 1 has been
eliminated and zone 2 has split into two small zones around the existing two smelters (lower panel).
85
86 Beckett
the currently operating smelters. Zone 3 also TABLE 6.2. Lichen species observed on balsam
poplar in the vicinity of Sudbury, Ontario,
showed a significant constriction. Overall, the
Canada, in 1989-1990
effect was that of a general constriction of the
classified zones as more and more lichens col- Growth
onized the area. Many of the observed lichens Species form
in the newly established areas were very small Biatora (Lecidea) helvola (Korber ex Crustose
young lichens; further evidence that the colo- Hellbom) H. Olivier
Buellia stillingiana J. Steiner Crustose
nization was a relatively recent event.
Caloplacaflavovubescens (Hudson) Laundon Foliose
Near Sudbury more than twice the cover Candelaria concolor (Dickson) B. Stein Foliose
was recorded in the 1989-1990 study (Table Candelariella vitellin a (Hoffm.) MuelL Arg. Foliose
6.2) as was observed during the 1968 survey. Cetraria ciliaris Ach. (var. halei) Foliose
In 1968, no lichen species occurred within a C. pinastri (Scop.) S. Gray Foliose
radius of 7 km from the three smelters (Le- C. sepincola (Ehrh.) Ach. Foliose
Cladina rangiferina (L.) NyL Fruticose
blanc et al. 1972). Between 7 and 15 km, only
Cladonia botrytes (K. Hagen) Willd. Fruticose
the crustose lichens Bacidia chlorococca, Lepraria C. coniocraea (Flk.) Spreng. Fruticose
aeruginosa (incana) , and Lecanora saligna and C. cristatella Tuck. Fruticose
the foliose lichen Parmelia sulcata (foliose) C. jimbriata (L.) Fr. Fruticose
were present. By 1990, no sampled trees were C. rei Schaer. Fruticose
found to be devoid of lichen epiphytes, and a Evemia mesomorpha NyL Fruticose
Hypogymnia physodes (L.) NyL Foliose
majority of the sulfur dioxide-tolerant species
Lecanora pulicaris (Pers.) Ach. Crustose
(listed above) were found within 2 km (the Lecanora symmictera NyL Crustose
minimum sampling distance) of the two exist- Lepraria incana (L.) Ach. Crustose
ing smelters (Pappin and Beckett in press). Melanelia subaurifera (NyL) EssL Foliose
Some pollution-sensitive species re-invaded Parmelia exasperatula Ny!. Foliose
the area much faster than expected, and recol- P sulcata Taylor Foliose
Parmelina aurulenta (Tuck.) Hale Foliose
onization did not follow an orderly sequence,
Pertusaria aphthalmiza (NyL) Ny!. Crustose
with pollution-tolerant species invading ahead Phaeophyscia adiastola (EssL) EssL Foliose
of sensitive species (also see Hawksworth and P pusilloides (Zahlbr.) EssL Foliose
McManus 1989). Results from the 1990 sur- P rubropulchra (Degel.) EssL Foliose
vey indicated that fruticose species, previously Physcia adscendens (Fr. H. Olivier) Foliose
reported as rare and sulfur dioxide-sensitive P aipolia (Ehrh. ex Humb.) Fumr. Foliose
Physconia detersa (NyL) Poelt Foliose
(Usnea hirta and Evernia mesomorpha), occurred
Rinodina dakotensis Magn. Foliose
much closer to the smelter (5 km) than ex- Scoliciosporum bacidia chlorococcum Crustose
pected (Sigal and Johnston 1986). (Graewe ex Stenh.) Vezda
Overall, an increase in the abundance and Usnea hirta (L.) Weber ex Wigg. Fruticose
diversity of lichens in the area closest to the Xanthoria fallax (Hepp in Am.) Am. Foliose
sources of sulfur dioxide has been observed
during the past two decades. During this pe-
riod, annual average concentrations of sulfur ity rather than microdimatic changes (Hawks-
dioxide have dropped by two-thirds and short- worth and McManus 1989).
term fumigations have also declined (see Chap- In the 1968 study (Leblanc et al. 1972), the
ter 4). Recolonization by lichens was rapid drastic reduction in epiphytic lichens was ob-
6 years); confirming studies in England where served where the mean level of sulfur dioxide
lichens re-invade an area within 5-10 years after was more than 0.02 ppm, with slight reduc-
pollution reductions (Seaward 1989). In Lon- tions where the sulfur dioxide levels were
don, there was a marked increase in lichens about 0.01 ppm. The improvement from 1978
through 1970-1988, and recolonization occurred to 1990 coincides with sulfur dioxide levels
at a faster rate than expected. This was attrib- across the whole area, dropping to about 0.01
uted to rapid improvement in London's air qual- ppm on an annual basis (see Chapter 5). How-
6. Lichens 87
4 00 , - - - - - - - - =-Rib
- -Cont
- en-t ,
FIGURE 6.3. Sulfur and copper content plus standard
deviation of Parmelia sulcata collected from 10 trees in eoPpIII com ~ nt
each of the 1990 pollution zones.
3 00
E
Q.
.c:. (f).
Q.~
~o
Q)"O
.... c:
c: ., zoo
o c:
t) .,
- Q)
2c: E
~
Q)
E
Q) 100
o
70ne 2 lone 3 lone oil lone S
Pollution zon e
ever, substrate pH can also influence the rich- found. Closer than 12 km is considered as
ness of the lichen community. Bark with more complete destruction of the epiphytic lichens
alkaline pH is better able to buffer the acidity by Gorshkov (1993a) and corresponds to lAP
and supply calcium ions to the lichens. The zone 1 in Sudbury. Between 12 and 60 km
acidity of balsam poplar bark has only dean increasing diversity of lichens is found,
creased slightly from 1978 to 1990 (pH 3-4) corresponding to lAP zones 2-4. Typical spe-
and is still considered inhibitory to lichen cies richness (over 70 species) occurs at dis-
growth. tances greater than 60 km (equivalent to lAP
Although improvements are apparent in zone 5). This pattern corresponds to the Sud-
sites close to the smelters, there is evidence bury pattern when emissions were at a max-
that at sites in zone 5, there is a reduction in imum in the 1960s.
total lichen diversity. This may be due to
changes in the habitat, including age of trees,
shading, or effects of long-range transport of Comparison to Lichens
contaminants from locations other than Sud-
bury. No simple causal relationships for the
Growing on Soil or Rock
observed changes in lichen communities can Although epiphytic lichens suspended in the
be established, but there are strong cor- air have shown a recovery in the past 20 years,
relations between the described IAP zones and lichens on rocky outcrops (saxicolous) and on
air quality parameters related to smelter emis- soil (terricolous) have been much slower to
sions. For example, there is a direct relation- respond (Fig. 6.4). In 1945, Cain reported that
ship between sulfur or copper content of only crustose lichens and Stereocaulon were
lichens and the pollution zone from which the found in the most highly polluted zone (ap-
lichens were sampled (Fig. 6.3). proximately 20 km around the smelters). Per-
There are few epiphytic lichen studies manent plots (established in 1977) throughout
around nickel smelters with which to com- the inner Sudbury area have demonstrated
pare Sudbury. In Russia, around the Severo- the slow colonization of rocks by tolerant
nickel smelter, there is an epiphytic lichen crustose species of Lecidea, Lecanora, Porpidia,
desert (no lichens) within 4 km of the and Rhizocarpon and by the nitrogen-fixing
works. Between 8-12 km only 4 species are Stereocaulon (fruticose). Other fruticose species
88 Beckett
40 ~---------------
FIGURE 6.4. Comparison of re-invasion rates of li-
chens for 15 tree plots and nearby ground plots
within 25 kIn of the Copper Cliff smelter between
1978 and 1993. Results are expressed as percentage
U'l 30 of the maximum number of expected species for
~
u each community type.
~
a.
U'l
E
:J
-~ 20
X(f)
., +
E~
.J
c::
~
U
I...
~
10
0.
epiphytes untreated limetreated

ground ground
such as Cladonia rei, C. pleurota, C. deformis, and Metal Particulates

C. cristatella have invaded soil, especially
where some moss (Pohlia nutans) is present. in Lichens
Reindeer or caribou lichens (Clad ina rangi-
ferina and C. mitis) occur 20-25 km from the Lichens are able to accumulate metals by
smelters (Cox 1993) with little change in dis- trapping particulates (normally sulfates, sul-
tribution since 1977. This sequence is similar fides, and oxides). Also, dissolved metal ions
to the distribution that was observed by bind to exchange sites on cell walls, and
Folkeson (1984) around a brass foundry in there is a slow uptake of metals into the algal
Sweden. In the Kola peninsula (Russia), no cells and fungal hyphae (Richardson et al.
soil or rock lichens occur within 3 km of the 1980). Less than 50 % of the total metal con-
Severonickel smelter complex (Gorshkov tent is located within the cell or hypha
1993a). Cladonia are abundant beyond 8 km (Brown 1985). From industrial processes,
and Cladina is found at 12 km (Gorshkov metal-rich emissions are typically in the form
1993b), a situation similar to Sudbury. of insoluble particulates. The small particu-
The iron-rich black encrustation on the lates become entrapped between the hyphae
rock, a characteristic of sites within 25 km of and often build up in the central (medulla)
the Sudbury smelters, may inhibit lichen colo- region of the thallus. The linear correlation
nization. Continuing high soil acidity and between metal content of lichens and that
metal contamination (see Chapter 4) may con- found in collected particulates of filters
tribute to much slower ground recolonization (Saeki et al. 1977) is used as evidence of
rates as compared with recolonization by epi- particulate accumulation in lichens. Further
phytes. Despite having similar acidity, metals, evidence of particulate trapping is the com-
in particular aluminum, are less available in parison of iron/titanium ratios. In lichens,
bark to inhibit colonization. On soils treated these ratios are generally of the same magni-
with limestone, where metals are less avail- tude as those found in regional rocks or in
able, many more lichens are found compared industrial areas as detected in industrial
with untreated soil (Fig. 6.4). emissions (Richardson and Nieboer 1981;
6. Lichens 89
FIGURE 6.5. Changes in nickel concentration in the 350

foliose lichen StereocauZon collected along a transect
northwest of the Copper Cliff smelter in 1972, 1984,
and 1991 (1972 data from Tomassini et al. 1976). 300
250
eCo
~ 200
C
:l
c
...
C>
150
Ql
-"I
~
100
50
O+---~---r~~~--r-~~~~
o 20 40 60 80 100 120
Distance (km)
Nieboer et al. 1982). Scanning electron mi- from the smelters. Suspended particulates in air
croscopy has facilitated examination of partic- and associated nickel content is estimated to
ulates trapped in thalli. have decreased by 50% (see Chapter 5). This
Figure 6.5 shows the typical trend,for nickel discrepancy may be partly explained by pre-
content of Stereocaulon, a fruticose lichen com- viously emitted particles containing metals being
mon on rock outcrops, at various distances redistributed as wind-blown dust rather than
northwest of the Copper Cliff smelter. Close to just reflecting the actual long-term changes in
Copper Cliff, the nickel content is high (ap- deposition of metals. Studies by Walthier et al.
proximately 300 ppm) but then drops rapidly (1990) demonstrated that residence time for
with distance, reaching background levels of a metals in lichens is between 2 and 4 years.
few parts per Inillion (Richardson et al. 1980; Thus, lichens can be expected to show signifi-
McIlveen and Negusanti 1994) beyond 100 cant changes in elemental content 2-3 years
km. In addition to distance from sources, pre- after a reduction in metal emissions.
vailing wind direction and topography may
also affect the pattern of fallout. Prevailing
winds in the area are from the north in the Summary
winter and southwest in the summer months
(Chapter 1). The improvement in lichen abundance is at-
Over the past 20 years, there has been a tributable to the atmospheric cleanup, particu-
small but steady decline in the metal content larly the reductions in sulfur dioxide emissions
of the lichens (Fig. 6.5). The observed change that have occurred since 1972. The changes in
(by 25-30% near the smelter and by 10% at lichen abundance clearly demonstrate that
distant localities) is less than might be ex- terrestrial systems show resiliency and can ex-
pected given the reduction in metal emissions hibit positive responses to emission controls.
90 Beckett
This study shows that the distribution of Gunn, and for suggestions made by D.H.S.
sensitive lichen species and the overall lichen Richardson.
community structure were useful measures to
delineate areas of poor air quality and to mon-
itor improvement after reductions in atmo- References
spheric emissions. Lichens were the first biota Amiro, B.D., and G.M. Courtin. 1981. Patterns of
to respond to changes (before aquatic commu- vegetation in the vidnity of an industrially. dis-
nities, Chapter 5) and, as such, provide an turbed ecosystem, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada.
important sensitive measure or "barometer" of Can. J. Bot. 59(9):1623-1639.
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Additional legislation further tightening emis- spheric pollution. Laurentian Univ. Rev. 16:50-
sion controls became effective in 1994. These 57.
Brown, D.H. (ed.). 1985. Recent Advances in Li-
new measures should cause a further im-
chen Physiology. Plenum Press, London.
provement of the Sudbury area ecosystem as a
Burton, A. 1986. Biological Monitors of Environ-
whole and further constrict the damaged li- mental Contamination (Plants). MARC report
chen zones around Sudbury. If current trends 32. King's College MOnitoring Assessment Cen-
continue, perhaps by the year 2000, there will tre, London.
be at least 10 lichen species on trees around Cain, R.F. 1945. First Report of the Subcommittee
the smelters. Also, as soil conditions improve, on the Investigation of Sulphur Smoke Condi-
there should be a gradual invasion by ground- tions and Alleged Forest Damage in the Sudbury
dwelling lichens, provided that lichens can Region. Unpublished report.
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be rapid provided there are sources of coloniz- tario. M.Sc. thesis, Laurentian University.
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around other similarly affected areas when (eds.). 1973. Air Pollution and Lichens. Athlone
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Folkeson, L. 1984. Deterioration of the moss and
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metals. Ambio 13(1):37-39.
Acknowledgments. I thank 1. Brodo and P. Wong Gorshkov, V.V. 1993a. Epiphytic lichens in polluted
for their assistance in identification of critical and unpolluted pine forests of the Kola penin-
specimens. The project could not be completed sula. pp. 279-289. In M.V. Kozlov, E. Haukioja,
without the assistance of S. Pappin and many and V.T. Yarrnishko (eds.). Aerial Pollution in
other student summer assistants. Finandal Kola Peninsula: Proceedings of the International
contributions were gratefully received from Workshop, April 14-16, St. Petersburg. Kola Sd-
the Ontario Ministry of Northern Develop- entific Center, Apatity, Russia.
ment and Mines (Environmental Youth Corps) Gorshkov, V.V. 1993b. The state of moss-lichen
and Laurentian University Research Fund. cover in polluted and unpolluted pine forests of
the Kola peninsula. pp. 290-298. In M.V. Kozlov,
The assistance of M. Courtin (Elliot Lake Field
E. Haukioja, and V.T. Yarmishko (eds.). Aerial
Research Station) in preparation of lichen Pollution in Kola Peninsula: Proceedings of the
distribution maps and the Ontario Ministry International Workshop, April 14-16, St. Peters-
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script reviewers, G.M. Courtin and J.M. London.
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viron. PoUut. (B)4:181-190. Lichenographica Britannica. Yarmouth, privately
Pappin, S., and P.J. Beckett. (in press). Changes in printed.
epiphytic lichen abundance: tracking air quality Walthier, D.A., G.J. Ramelow, J.N. Beck, J.e. Young,
improvements in the mining region of Sudbury, J.D. Calahan, and M.E Marcon. 1990. Temporal
Ontario, Canada. Lichenologist. changes in metal levels of the lichens Parmotrema
Richardson, D.H.S. 1992. Pollution Monitoring praesorediosum and Ramalina stenospora, south-
with Lichens. Naturalists' Handbooks 19. Rich- west Louisana. Water Air Soil Pollut. 53:189-
mond Publishing, Slough, England. 200.
7
Natural Recovery of Vascular Plant
Communities on the Industrial
Barrens of the Sudbury Area
Keith Winterhalder
In 1972, the Coniston smelter and the Falcon- began to colonize plots that had been treated
bridge iron ore sintering plant were closed, with an N-P-K fertilizer, a treatment that was
Inco Limited commissioned its 381-m Super- ineffective in detoxifying the soil for the non-
stack, and other emission cutbacks came into native experimental grass species (Winter-
effect. This led to expectations of rapid re- halder 1974). Tickle grass had formerly been
establishment of vegetation on the barrens, noted in the Sudbury area along roadsides and
because it was widely believed that sulfur di- creeks and in wet depressions. During the next
oxide fumigation was the main factor directly 20 years, this weak perennial became increas-
impeding vegetation recovery. It was ob- ingly common in the barren zone, at first ap-
served, however, that immediate recovery in pearing mostly on the flood plains of creeks,
the barren zone was at first confined to moist, where it formed a cover so dense that poten-
sheltered, nutrient-enriched sites" such as tial new growth in the second year was smoth-
stream channels (Fig. 7.1). In more exposed ered by the dead remains of the previous
barren areas, recolonization did not begin year's growth. It was also found under relict
until at least 10 years after the initiation of birches, poplars, and blueberries, where the
atmospheric improvement. The foreground of soil had been enriched with organic matter, as
Figure 7.2 shows a site close to the Coniston well as in rock crevices on patches of the
smelter, photographed at 19-year intervals, in metal-tolerant moss Pohlia nutans (Beckett
which the only change has been minimal col- 1986). In 1991, Archambault demonstrated
onization by tickle grass (Agrostis scabra), tufted that the Sudbury population of tickle grass
hairgrass (Deschampsia caespitosa), and sorrel possessed enhanced metal tolerance.
(Rumex acetosella). The next native grass to colonize the barrens
In the case of the relict woody plants on the was tufted hairgrass (Fig. 7.3). The appearance
barrens, described in Chapter 2, all species ex- of this grass in the Sudbury area was first
cept red maple either maintained or increased noticed in 1972 and was documented by Cox
their size and vigor in the 20 years after 1970, and Hutchinson in 1980. Even as early as
whereas the red maple continued to undergo 1974, dense, partly senescent stands of this
"regressive dieback." grass occurred in moist depressions in the bar-
The first hint that certain native vascular ren zone, and it is likely that it began to colo-
plant species might be capable of establishing nize certain sites several years before its formal
themselves on acid, metal-contaminated soils documentation. Hutchinson (personal commu-
became evident in 1972, when tickle grass nication) has hypothesized that the origin of
93
94 Winterhalder
FIGURE 7.1. (Upper photo) Valley

of Coniston Creek, 4kIn north of
the Coniston smelter in 1972,
showing a narrow zone of un-
identified sedges bordering the
creek, with scattered relict shrubs
in the background. (Lower photo)
The same site 12 years later (Au-
gust 1984), the edge of the
stream colonized by Carex aqua-
tilis, C. retrorsa, tufted hairgrass,
field horsetail, Solidago gramini-
folia, prairie willow, and meadow
willow.
the Sudbury population of Deschampsia caespitosa Two introduced grass species that have
might be 80 Ian to the southwest, on Goat Is- colonized barren sites to a more modest de-
land, near Little Current on Manitoulin Island. gree are redtop (Agrostis gigantea) and Can-
He suggested that seeds may have been trans- ada bluegrass (Poa compressa) . Although
ported to Sudbury with coal shipments on their commercially available seed of both of these
way from the Lake Huron port of Little Current species is currently used in the revegetation
to the Sudbury smelters. An isozyme variation operations described in Chapters 8 and 10,
study by Bush and Barrett (1993) has cast some the populations seen colonizing barren land
doubt on the likelihood of such an origin but has are often distant from revegetation site's, and
not disproved the hypothesis. Another metal- it is likely that they have arisen from popu-
tolerant population of tufted hairgrass, at the lations that predate revegetation activities .
mining center of Cobalt 150 Ian northeast of Both species favor heavier soils, and Canada
Sudbury, has been shown by Bush and Barrett bluegrass is a major colonist of the sides of
(1993) to be genetically distinct from the Sud- the deeply gully-eroded "badlands" land-
bury and Goat Island populations. scapes that characterize soils dominated by
7. Natural Recovery of Vascular Plants 95
FIGURE 7.2. (Upper photo) Bar-

ren site 2 km north of the Con-
iston smelter in July 1967. (Lower
photo) The same site in July
1986, showing colonization by
tickle grass, tufted hairgrass, and
sorrel.
silty clays, whereas redtop is often found in iston roast bed surface itself, but this species
the bottom of erosion gullies. proved not to be metal-tolerant; its presence
Enhanced metal tolerance has been demon- had presumably been fadlitated by the high
strated in both of these grasses. Hogan et al. pH and caldum content of this particular roast
(1977) found copper-tolerant strains of redtop bed surface.
on the copper- and nickel-rich surface of a A Carex from the species group Ovales some-
roast bed west of Sudbury, some of which times invades the drier lowland barren soils
were later found (Hogan and Rauser 1979) to with the metal-tolerant grasses and, on occa-
be nickel-tolerant, whereas Rauser and Win- sion, can even colonize rocky slopes. It is not
terhalder (1985) found enhanced zinc toler- always easy to distinguish the species in the
ance in some Canada bluegrass individuals field, but in most cases, it appears to be
near the old Coniston roast bed. Rauser and C. aenea.
Winterhalder also found the alien grass foxtail The sedges commonly colonizing the creek
barley (Hordeum jubatum) invading the Con- flood plains are wool sedge (Scirpus cyperinus),
96 Winterhalder
FIGURE 7.3. (Upper photo) Bar-

ren area 2.5 km northeast of
the Copper Cliff smelter in
July 1979. (Lower photo) The
same site in August 1990,
showing colonization by tufted
hairgrass.
Carex retrorsa, and a Carex from the species few broadleafed plants also playa role. Sorrel,
group Ovales, probably C. scoparia. These sedges a highly acid-tolerant plant, occasionally colo-
are often accompanied by willows, especially nizes barren ground along with tickle grass.
balsam willow (Salix pyrifolia), prairie willow This species is a common colonizer of industri-
(S. humilis) , meadow willow (S. gracilis), and ally disturbed sites in other parts of the world,
shining willow (S. lucida). invading very acidic (pH 3.4) coal measure
On metal-contaminated organic barren sites, spoils in the United Kingdom (Rees 1953-
the principal invaders since the 1970s have 1954), and sulfur dioxide-fumigated land near
included a rush (Juncus brevicaudatus) , wool Trail, British Columbia (Archibold 1978). It
sedge, and tickle grass. Figure 7.4 shows the also occurs on metal-rich soils of the Hartz
changes that have taken place on a large bar- region of Germany (Schubert 1953-1954) and
ren peatland since 1974. has been used as a geobotanical tool in north-
Although grasses and grasslike plants are ern Greece in exploration for metal sulfide
the most common colonists of barren sites, a deposits (Kelepertsis and Andrulakis 1983).
FIGURE 7.4. (Upper photo) A

large barren peatland 4.5 km
northwest of the Coniston
smelter, July 1974, with cattail
(Tjpha latifolia) in the moat,
concentric rings of rattlesnake
grass (Glyceria canadensis) and
wool sedge around the margin,
and a predominantly barren
center. (Lower photo) The same
peatland in July 1993, showing
almost complete colonization
of the center by Juncus brevi-
caudatus and tickle grass. Note
the increased size and vigor of
the white birches in the fore-
ground. By 1993, the largest of
these birches was dead, pre-
sumably as the result of bronze
birch borer infestation of a
drought-weakened tree.
Bladder campion (Silene cucubalus), known in ren stony slopes from a small fen in the early
Europe to be capable of selection for metal toler- 1980s (Fig. 7.5). Somewhat later, the same
ance (Ernst 1974; Lolkema et al. 1986), some- spedes began to spread onto barren soil and
times becomes established on silty subsoils also into an open tufted hairgrass meadow
exposed by erosion. Among the non-flowering from a single relict individual in a different
vascular plants, both field horsetail (Equisetum locality. Roshon (1988) has shown that there
arvense) and wood horsetail (E. sylvaticum) are has been some genetic selection for metal tol-
occasional colonizers of barren soils of a silty erance in the Sudbury population of dwarf
texture. It is clear that research is needed on the birch, but it is suspected that its success is at
above spedes with respect to the possibility of least partly due to lack of competition and the
genetic-based metal tolerance. enhanced moisture supply provided by run-off
The shrub spedes dwarf or bog birch (Betula from the many rock outcrops.
pumila) has shown a spectacular ability to col- The colonization phenomenon that is clos-
onize barren land. It began to move onto bar- est to normal boreal zone vegetation succes-
98 Winterhalder
FIGURE 7.5. Dwarf birch colo-

nizing a barren slope 4 kIn
northeast of the Copper Cliff
smelter, August 1988.
sion is that which is taking place in the vicinity While attempting to explain the greater ten-
of the Coniston smelter, which has been closed dency of tufted hairgrass to spread near the
since 1972. Here, white birch (see Plate 7, fol- Coniston smelter than near the operating
lowing page 182), a typical boreal forest pio- smelters, Cox and Hutchinson (1981) found
neer, began to colonize vigorously in the that the soluble copper and nickel content of
mid -1980s. Figure 7.6 shows colonization by Coniston area soils were just as high 5 years
white birch in a grove of dead maples near after closure as those near active smelters, but
Coniston, where scattered relict birches were that the soluble aluminum content was low-
the seed source. Presumably, the cessation of er-an observation that would correlate well
emissions not only improved the quality of the with the reduced acidity of the Coniston soils
atmospheric environment to wh\ch the above- observed by the author. Presumably, the dif-
ground component of vegetation was exposed ferential would be even greater 10-15 years
but also reduced the level of dry deposition of after closure, facilitating white birch coloniza-
sulfur dioxide and copper, nickel, and iron tion. Cox and Hutchinson (1981) also sug-
particulates into the barren and partially bar- gested that the atmospheric deposition of
ren soils around the smelting operations. Soil copper and nickel particles onto the leaves of
pH changes of up to one unit have been ob- plants in an acid environment might have a
served in the vicinity of the Coniston smelter direct toxic effect through the foliage.
(K. Winterhalder, unpublished data). Although It is interesting to contrast the behavior of
the predominant cause was probably the leach- white birch and red maple seedlings on barren
ing of free acids, it is possible that weathering of sites under current improved soil conditions.
residual glacial till material released bases such The birch seedlings develop in a normal fash-
as calcium and potassium, which displaced some ion, except for the development of the mar-
of the adsorbed hydrogen ions, which were, in ginal chlorosis syndrome described in Chapter
tum, lost through leaching. The role of microor- 2, whereas the maple seedlings produce a sin-
ganisms in regulating pH in well-drained upland gle pair of foliage leaves that tum red within a
soils is likely to be insignificant when compared month and rarely survive past the first sum-
with that in lake sediments and wetland soils, mer dry period. Healthy red oak seedlings are
which act as sulfur sinks and experience alkalin- found within oak stands but not on the bar-
ity generation through the activities of sulfur- rens, probably as a result of their large seed
reducing microorganisms. size and specialized mode of dispersal by ro-
FIGURE 7.6. (Upper photo) Site

3.5 km northwest of the Con-
iston smelter in July 1980,
showing scattered relict white
birches with marginal chlorosis
syndrome and many dead red
maples. (Lower photo) Same site
in June 1989, showing coloni-
zation by white birch seedlings.
dents such as squirrels. Single healthy pine plain why some sites suitable for pine seed
seedlings are occasionally seen on barren germination exist.
sites, sometimes a great distance from the It is clear that one of the factors determining
seed source, despite their large small-winged the order in which plant species colonize the
seeds. The rarity of such occurrences may soil is the composition of the "rain" of seeds
have as much to do with seed predation and that land on the soil surface. Species that have
soil toxicity as with lack of dispersal. Bare the lighter wind-dispersed seeds and those
mineral soil is normally considered to pro- that are present as relicts each have an initial
vide an ideal seed bed for pines, but in the advantage. However, after seed deposition, a
case of the Sudbury barrens, a relatively non second limiting factor comes into play-that of
toxic site would also be necessary. As the the plant's ability to grow on the metal-toxic
result of differential erosion, surface soils on soil. The differentiating effect of the second
the barrens show great variability in their factor is illustrated well by white birch and red
chemistry and phytotoxicity, which may ex- maple. The former has light wind-dispersed
100 Winterhalder
Box 7.1. Colonization of Barren Sites Created by Volcanic Eruption:

Krakatau and Mount St. Helens
The most famous historical account of coloniza- (Lupinus lepidus), a rather sUIprising occurrence
tion of a newly created patch of barren land is because its seeds are relatively large and not
that which followed the eruption of the Indo- wind-dispersed. It is a symbiotic nitrogen-fixer
nesian island of Krakatau in 1883. Most of the and, as such, plays an important role in nitrogen
original island disappeared, leaving only the buildup in the ecosystem that develops on new
smaller, barren, pumice-covered island of Ra- growth material.
kata. Nine months after the explosion, the only Against the advice of scientists, the Soil Con-
living organism seen by a French expedition was servation Service (SCS) has dispersed seeds of
a small spider, presumably carried to the island introduced revegetation species such as birds-
as part of the "plankton of the wind." By 1886, foot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus) by helicopter
there were 15 plant species, by 189749, and by over 32,000 ha, including 2400 ha of the bar-
1928 nearly 300. Yet even today, although the ren land, in an attempt to stabilize the surface
island is covered by what seems to be typical and reduce soil erosion. Not only were the
tropical rainforest, not a single tree species char- introduced plants ineffective in mitigating
acterizing the primary forest of neighboring Java channel erosion, but they attracted small ro-
and Sumatra is to be found (Wilson 1992). dents, which, during the winter, killed estab-
On May 18, 1980, Mount St. Helens in lished conifers by chewing the bark. Also, the
Washington State, U.S.A., erupted for the first Army Corps of Engineers, the Weyerhaeuser
time since 1921. The north side of the moun- Corporation, and the Washington State De-
tain collapsed into the north fork of the Toutle partment of Natural Resources dispersed seeds
River Valley, and 550 km 2 of forest was de- of exotic species to the west of Mount St.
stroyed by the force of the explosion. Addi- Helens, and seeds were carried onto the slopes
tional areas scorched by the heat of the blast or by wind and elk. The presence of these non-
buried by mud flows (lahars) resulting from native plants, especially birdsfoot trefoil, proved
the melting of glaciers brought the total extent to have a negative effect on conifer establish-
of the damage to 600 km 2 In August 1982, the ment and survival. As a consequence of these
U.S. Congress set aside 44,000' ha of the af- results, the SCS has established a native plant
fected area for education and scientific study, seed collection and nursery program.
to be known as the Mount St. Helens National The inhibitory effect of vigorous nitrogen-
Volcanic Monument (Franklin et al. 1988). fixers in the early stages of succession may
In the extensive area of forest blow-down, not be confined to exotics. Morris and Wood
recovery from surviving root systems began al- (1989) found that Lupinus lepidus had an ef-
most immediately. In the 96-km2 area of scorched fect that could either facilitate or inhibit sur-
trees, many of the deciduous trees were able to vival and growth of two other herbaceous
leaf out fairly normally, whereas the conifers colonizers-fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium)
suffered relatively high mortality. Of particular and pearly everlasting (Anaphalis margarita-
interest to the restoration ecolOgist, however, is cea), and del Moral and Bliss (1993) suggested
the 20-km2 barren area to the north of the vol- that the lupine only facilitates colonization
cano, known as the Pumice Plains, which was after its demise. Overall, primary succession
first buried by a debris slide, then by pumice, on the pumice was slow, and there. was a
leading to a complete destruction of plant life. In surprising paucity of algal, lichen, or moss
a small spring-fed oasis on the Pumice Plains, pioneers (Dale 1992).
willow (Salix commutata), with its light wind- An interesting observation has been that
dispersed seeds, was a rapid colonizer. The only "late successionals" (Le., plants that would not
species that has established itself abundantly on normally be expected to attain dominance in
the drier pumice is the sub-alpine lupine the forests of the Pacific Northwest for centu-
Box 7.1. (continued).
ries after disturbance) such as hemlock and sequence from pioneer to climax that Clem-
true fir are able to colonize the debris slide ents hypothesized. To quote del Moral and
within the first decade after the eruption. This Bliss (1993): "Stochastic elements and low-
phenomenon is in keeping with Egler's theory probability events playa greater role than has
of initial floristic composition, which suggests been realized in determining the early devel-
that plant succession is not always the orderly opment of devastated landscapes."
seeds and sufficient tolerance to become es- tinue at a very slow rate compared with the
tablished on Coniston area soils, whereas red rapid colonization that occurs after soil amel-
maple, with its heavier seeds but more fre- ioration (see Chapters 8 and 14). Based on the
quent relict individuals, is relatively metal- present state of knowledge, grasses and decid-
intolerant. uous trees and shrubs such as birch, poplar,
The richer of the wooded sites discussed later, and willows will take the lead. Conifers are
whether dominated by birch or by oak, are cur- likely to be later colonists, especially those that
rently characterized by the presence of wavy require a mineral soil seed bed, because much
hairgrass in the understory, and this species is of the mineral soil is still heavily contaminated
just beginning to appear in previously barren with toxic metals. However, there is already
sites that have been colonized by white birch. tangible evidence of conifers such as white
Wavy hairgrass was not mentioned by Gorham pine becoming established from seed at dis-
and Gordon (1960) as an understory component tances far removed from a seed source. The
northeast of the Falconbridge smelter, although vector is not known, but it is unlikely to be
they commented on the presence of less con- birds because most birds digest the seeds that
spicuous grasses such as poverty grass (Dantha- they eat. It is equally unlikely that pine seeds
nia spicata) and rice grass (Oryzopsis asperi/alia). It would remain attached to animal fur, but a
seems likely, therefore, that the wavy qairgrass is distinct possibility is transport by wind drift over
a relatively recent arrival in Sudbury's partially the surface of hard-packed snow in winter.
barren woodlands. In contrast, Gordon and Gor- It should not be forgotten that colonization
ham (1963) recorded wavy hairgrass as present (Box 7.1) and possibly ecological succession
in the "fume-kill" area near the iron smelter at are not the only dynamic processes occurring
Wawa, Ontario, but only beyond 6.4 km from during the natural recovery of a damaged eco-
the smelter, whereas today it is a widespread system. Genetic selection in one or more of
dominant at that site. In comparing Sudbury the colonizing species may also be taking
and Wawa seed sources of wavy hairgrass, Arch- place, the implications of which are thorough-
ambault (1989) found no difference in copper or ly discussed by McNeilly (1987). The impov-
nickel tolerance between the two populations. It erished plant communities that are currently
is likely that it is the species' well-known toler- found in the Sudbury area are not only struc-
ance of low pH (Larcher 1975) rather than of turally and floristically different from the nor-
metals that allowed its spread on both of these mal plant communities in the region, but they
sites after the reduction of atmospheric pollutant are likely to have a different genetic make-up.
inputs to the soil. As the unweathered glacial till components
still present in these contaminated soils break
Conclusions and Prognosis down and release their bases and contribute to
the soil's sand, silt, and clay fractions, the soils
Natural recovery of plant communities on will become less toxic and there will be the
acid, metal-contaminated soils is likely to con- opportunity for colonization by less metal-tol-
102 Winterhalder
erant species and less tolerant ecotypes. It is Gordon, A.G., and E. Gorham. 1963. Ecological as-
difficult to estimate the amount of time that a pects of air pollution from an iron-sintering plant
at Wawa, Ontario. Can. J. Bot. 41:1063-1078.
naturally recovering contaminated site might
Gorham, E., and A.G. Gordon. 1960. Some effects
take to reach a stable quasi-natural community of smelter pollution northeast of Fa!conbridge,
structure and floristic composition, especially in Ontario, Canada. Can. J. Bot. 38:307-312.
view of the possibility of global climate change. Hogan, G.D., G.M. Courtin, and W.E. Rauser. 1977.
It would seem likely, however, that the time Copper tolerance in clones of Agrostis gigantea
frame might be in the order of at least a century. from a mine waste site. Can. J. Bot. 55:1043-
1050.
Hogan, G.D., and W.E. Rauser. 1979. Tolerance and
References toxicity of cobalt, copper, nickel and zinc in clones
of Agrostis gigantea. New Phyto!. 83:665-670.
Archambault, D.J.-P. 1989. Metal tolerance studies
Kelepertsis, A.E., and I. Andrulakis. 1983. Geo-
on populations of Deschampsia jlexuosa (L.) Trin.
botany-biogeochemistry for mineral exploration
(wavy hair grass) from northern Ontario. Hon-
of sulphide deposits in northern Greece-heavy
ours B.Sc. thesis, Laurentian University.
metal accumulation by Rumex acetosella L. and
Archambault, D.J.-P. 1991. Metal tolerance studies Minuartia verna (L.) Hiern. J. Geochem. Explora-
on populations of Agrostis scabra Willd. (tickle tion 18:267-274.
grass) from the Sudbury area. M.Sc. thesis, Lau-
Larcher, W. 1975. Physiological Plant Ecology.
rentian University.
Springer-Verlag, New York.
Archibold, O.W. 1978. Vegetation recovery follow- Lolkema, P.e., M. Doornhof, and W.H.O. Ernst. 1986.
ing pollution control at Trail, British Columbia. Interaction between a copper-tolerant and a cop-
Can. J. Bot. 56(14):1625-1637. per-sensitive population of Silene cucubalus. Physio!.
Beckett, P.J. 1986. Pohlia moss tolerance to the acid- Plantarum 67:654-658.
ic, metal-contaminated substrate of the Sudbury, McNeilly, T. 1987. Evolutionary lessons from de-
Ontario, Canada, mining and smelting region, graded ecosystems. pp. 271-286. In W.R. Jordan,
pp. 30-32. In Environmental Contamination- M.E. Gilpin, and J.D. Aber (eds.). Restoration
Second International Conference. CEP Consul- Ecology: A Synthetic Approach to Ecological Re-
tants Ltd., Edinburgh. search. Cambridge University Press, New York.
Bush, E.J., and S.e.H. Barrett. 1993. Genetics of mine Morris, W.E, and D.M. Wood. 1989. The role of
invasions by Deschampsia cespitosa (Poaceae). Can. J. lupine in succession on Mount St. Helens: facili-
Bot. 71:1336-1348. tation or inhibition? Ecology 70(3):697-703.
Cox, R.M., and T.C. Hutchinson. 1980. Multiple Rauser, W.E., and E.K. Winterhalder. 1985. Evalua-
metal tolerances in the grass Deschampsia cespitosa tion of copper, nickel, and zinc tolerances in four
(L.) Beauv. from the Sudbury smelting area. New grass species. Can. J. Bot. 63:58-63.
Phyto!. 84:631-647. Rees, W.J. 1953 to 1954. Some preliminary obser-
Cox, R.M., and T.e. Hutchinson. 1981. Environ- vations on the flora of derelict land. Proc. Bir-
mental factors influencing the rate of spread of mingham Nat. History Philos. Soc. 18(5):119-129.
the grass Deschampsia cespitosa invading areas Roshon, R.D. 1988. Genecological studies on two
around the Sudbury nickel-copper smelters. Wa- populations of Betula pumila var. glandulifera,
ter Air Soil Pollut. 16:83-106. with special reference to their ecology and metal
Dale, Y.H. 1992. The recovery of Mount St. Helens. tolerance. M.Sc. thesis, Laurentian University,
World and I 7(6):262-267. Sudbury, Ontario.
del Moral, R., and L.e. Bliss. 1993. Mechanisms of Schubert, R. 1953 to 1954. Die Schwennetallpflanz-
primary succession: insights resulting from the erup- engesellschaften des ostlichen Harzvorlandes.
tion of Mount S1. Helens. Adv. Eco!. Res. 24: 1-66. Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift der Martin-Luther-
Ernst, W.H.O. 1974. Schwermetallvegetation der Universitiit Halle-Wittenberg 3:51-70.
Erde. Fischer, Stuttgart. Wilson, W.O. 1992. The Diversity of Life. w.w. Nor-
Franklin, J.E, P.M. Frenzen, and EJ. Swanson. 1988. ton and Co., New York.
Re-creation of ecosystems at Mount S1. Helens: Winterhalder, K. 1974. Reclamation studies on in-
contrasts in artificial and natural approaches. pp. 1- dustrial barrens in the Sudbury area. Proceedings
37 In J. Cairns, Jr. (ed.). Rehabilitating Damaged of the Fourth Annual Workshop, Ontario Cover
Ecosystems. Vol. 2, CRC Press Inc., Boca Raton, FL. Crop Committee, Guelph.
Section C
Goals of Restoration
Anthony D. Bradshaw
If we were to take a broad view of the world, there is no reason

why the degradation of Sudbury could not be left as it is, as a
monument to the destructive way in which resources were ex-
ploited in the past. Although the degraded area is very large in
relation to other degraded areas, it is small in relation to the
whole of North America, and although there is some pollution
leaving the area, most of the effects of the degradation are self-
contained. To many visitors, the area is extraordinary and fasci-
nating. At the same time, it is a sharp lesson for us all about the
ease with which we can degrade our environment completely.
But it is unlikely to be acceptable to most people, particularly
those who live in the Sudbury area. There is plenty of experience
from other areas that because, above all else, environmental
degradation leads to loss of attractiveness of a region, there is a
vicious spiral of economic and social degradation. Industries
leave, new industries find sites elsewhere, unemployment in-
creases, the more active members of the work force move out,
incomes decline, and the total economy of the area crumbles. As
a result, the area becomes less and less able to improve itself.
The primary goal of restoration is therefore, for most people,
an aesthetic one-to restore the visible environmental quality
of the area. This could be done either by restoring the quality
of the built environment or the quality of the natural environ-
ment. However, the former is unlikely to happen without a
restored confidence in the area bringing in new capital. It is
therefore restoration of the quality of the natural environment
that is the key.
But, except in exceptional circumstances and at great ex-
pense, the natural environment cannot be bought off the shelf
and carried in by truck; it has to be carefully created from what
is there. This is not easy. The primary goal is made up of several
separate but related goals, all aimed toward the re-creation of a
105
106 c. Goals of Restoration
viable functioning ecosystem-the community of soils, water,

plants, and animals that live and interact together in one place.
The first of these goals must be a chemical one-to restore the
invisible quality of the environmental background of the area. In
an intensely degraded area such as Sudbury, the soil has been
almost completely lost and with it the store of organic matter and
plant nutrients without which plants cannot grow. These have to
be painstakingly rebuilt by the use of fertilizers and the growth of
the plants themselves. At the same time, there can be continuing
pollution-problems of acidity and metal contamination in the
soils and tailings and in leachates from them and dust-blow from
the tailings and degraded land surfaces. These have to be elimi-
nated by soil treatments and plant growth so that the release of
pollutants is prevented at source. This will then improve the
quality of the water bodies that receive their water from the
polluted land.
The second goal is then a biological one-to set about creat-
ing ecosystems that grow and prosper. This means establishing
plants that will grow vigorously and clothe the denuded hill-
sides. In doing this, they will stabilize the eroded soils, add
organic matter, tie up the metal pollutants, and so progres-
sively make conditions better for themselves as well as for
other more-sensitive species. In the water bodies, the commu-
nities have to re-establish similarly.
The third goal, which stems from the first two, is biological and
aesthetic-to restore the biological diversity of the area. In its
degraded state, the area supports only a very few terrestrial plants
and animals, those tolerant of the extreme conditions. The miss-
ing plant and animal species must be encouraged to recolonize. In
part, this will be brought about.by achievement of the first two
goals. In particular, most of the animals will come back if the
conditions are right, but some of the plants and other less mobile
organisms such as the fish may require help. None of the missing
species should be considered as unimportant; the fish, for exam-
pIe, have profound effects on the feeding (trophic) structure of
the aquatic communities.
In the end, the measure of success is the degree to which
ecosystems are created that have satisfactory structure and func-
tion. What this entails can be most easily demonstrated in the Fig.
C.I, in which there are two dimensions, representing the nega-
tive changes in structure and function that have occurred in the
degradation and therefore the positive changes that restoration
must entail. Onto this diagram, the goals that have been discussed
can be readily superimposed, because improvement in ecosystem
structure and function are the two processes that underlie all the
other goals.
The contributions in this section show very clearly and ele-
gantly what this entails in practice and how possible it is to
achieve the ultimate goal of total environmental improvement,
C. Goals of Restoration 107
Ecosystem function
(biomass and nutrient content)
Aesthetics
i\
Vegetation
growth
Pollution ORIGINAL
control ECOSYSTEM
Soil
stabilization
R"""a"M ........................ ....
.... "
...,,','" Degradation
"
...
"
" "
"
"
DEGRADED
ECOSYSTEM
Ecosystem structure
(species and complexity)
Aesthetics
Vegetation quality
Sensitive fish species
Biodiversity
FIGURE C.l. Degradation and restoration of an ecosystem (developed from Bradshaw, 1987, in Restoration
Ecology, W.R. Jordan et al. (eds.), Cambridge University Press).
even from such an extreme starting point as that to be found at

Sudbury. But the contributions also show that achievement de-
pends on people. Goals can only be, reached if the community
takes part, and if people, whether in industry, townships, or
schools, understand the goals and are prepared to participate.
8
Municipal Land Restoration Program:
The Regreening Process
William E. Lautenbach, Jim Miller, Peter J. Beckett,
John J. Negusanti, and Keith Winterhalder
Many dties and towns throughout the world (Betula papyrifera) and red maple (Acer rubrum).
suffer from environmental problems that af- Most highway and railway view corridors and
fect the quality of life of their residents. Unfor- many areas around neighborhoods and towns
tunately, there are relatively few examples in were severely affected. This blackened land-
which the communities have been effective at scape, described in the media as "moonscape"
reducing or eliminating these problems. Sud- and "dead wne" (Young 1992), limited the abil-
bury's land reclamation and air pollution re- ity of the munidpality to attract people and cor-
duction program, Los Angeles's (Leuts and porations to the area.
Kelly 1993) and Tokyo's (Nishimura 1989) Despite the air pollution controls initiated in
smog reduction programs, the cleaning of the 1972, there was little positive response in veg-
Thames River in London (Andrews 1984), etation growth (see Chapter 7). The damages
Singapore's multifaceted environmental im- to the vegetation and soil that had occurred
provement program (Jee 1988), and land recover the past century were not going to recov-
lamation in the lower Swansea Valley of Wales ery quickly without direct human actions. A
(BOX 8.1) are some examples where measur- large-scale remedial program was needed.
able success has been achieved.
Program Beginnings
Community Challenge
In early 1974, the Regional Municipality of
The destructive influence of past mining activi- Sudbury, a political entity that brought to-
ties not only left Sudbury with a severe gether the City of Sudbury and six adjoining
environmental problem, but its 160,000 inhabi- towns (an area of 2800 km2 ) began its restora-
tants also inherited conditions that greatly re- tion effort with the creation of a technical
stricted their socio-economic prospects. In the advisory committee composed of representa-
early 1970s, approximately 17,400 ha of land tives of university, industry, government, and
lacked vegetation, much of the soil had been the general public. This group was given the
acidified and metal-contaminated, and severe challenge of providing the elected members of
erosion had occurred on steep slopes and hill- the regional council with advice on how to
tops (Amiro and Courtin 1981; Freedman restore area vegetation.
1989). An additional 72,100 ha of land was One of the first tasks was to identify and
semibarren, consisting mainly of stunted birch map the areas needing treatment. At the same
109
110 Lautenbach et a1.
Box 8.1. Lower Swansea Valley Project
From 1717 to the end of the First World War, ray Mine. After the collapse of the metallurgi-
Swansea, in southern Wales, was the world cen- cal industries, the dty of Swansea was left
ter of non-ferrous metal smelting (Weston et al. with the legacy of 325 ha of completely dere-
1965). At different times, copper, lead, zinc, sil- lict land, consisting of huge piles of slag, ash,
ver, and arsenic were smelted in 22 works along and coal shale. The dust, fumes, and physical
the tidal area of the River Tawe. Later, 10 steel appearance of the area were a depressing mix-
and tin plants were established, making this one ture. In 1961, a community-based program
of the highest concentrations of metal works in was begun to reclaim this derelict land in the
Britain. Ore came from various parts of Britain lower Swansea Valley. The program succeed-
as well as Chile, Mexico, Norway, Spain, Portu- ed, over the next 30 years, after a great deal of
gal, and Australia. A small amount of ore was hard work, money, and technical assistance to
also shipped to Swansea from Sudbury in 1900 revegetate the land while revitalizing the com-
by the Vivian Company that operated the Mur- munity (Bridges 1991).
time, experimental vegetation plots were in- etation could form a nucleus for spread into
stalled at several locations to test various soil treated areas.
additives and grass mixtures. These small-scale Unlike restoration efforts on mine site wastes
test plots successfully demonstrated that fu- in North America (Daniels and Zipper 1988;
ture large-scale program implementation should Rossner 1988) and Europe (Bradshaw 1983),
be possible (Fig. 8.1) . Also, relict patches of veg- Sudbury's damaged landscape still possessed
8. Municipal Land Restoration Program III
FIGURE 8.I.(a and b) Example

of vegetation plots used to test
treatment procedures for land
reclamation in Sudbury. (Photo
and studies by WinterhaIder
[1984] .)
many of the characteristics of its original form. ees and curtailed all summer student hirings. In
The topography consisted of rocky Precambr- response, the municipality explored several pro-
ian Shield hillsides with patchy soils and wet- grams to create or provide summer employment
lands. Standard mechanical reclamation for students. Land reclamation was chosen as
techniques (Down and Stocks 1977; Peters one of the principal programs to address these
1984) were not suitable for treating such land- socio-economic needs. Funds were obtained
scape. Other methods were required. Use of from various government agencies and local
two local elementary school groups to reclaim mining companies (Lautenbach 1987).
trial plots near their school site successfully
demonstrated that an alternate manual recla-
mation method was possible. Scientific Underpinnings
In 1978, the municipality began a large-
scale reclamation program. In that year, the The challenges for an effective reclamation pro-
local mining companies laid off 3500 employ- gram were many (Wmterhalder 1984; Freed-
112 Lautenbach et al.
man 1989). On barren sites near the smelters, second to introduce tree and shrub species
soil pH ranged from about 3.0 to 4.5, whereas that did not colonize spontaneously.
copper, nickel, and aluminum frequently
reached 1000 J.lg/g (see Chapter 4). Also, the
blackened sites had extreme surface tempera-
Initial Grassing
tures (>50C) and were arid in summer and Soil pH was first measured to determine the
subject to severe frost heaving in winter (see amount of crushed limestone required to neu-
Chapter 18). Laboratory experiments demon- tralize soil acidity. An application of approxi-
strated that root growth of seedlings in these mately 10 tonnes of agricultural-grade calcitic
toxic soils was inhibited, resulting in dehydra- or dolomitic limestone was required per hect-
tion and death (Whitby et al. 1976; Winterhal- are to raise the pH of these soils from 3.0-4.5
der 1984). to the desired level of 5.5-6.0.
There was little scientific information to Limestone was bulk-shipped to reclamation
guide the design and implementation of an staging areas, where it was bagged for subse-
effective reclamation program for this type of quent transport to barren hillsides. The most
landscape. Restoration ecology was and still is practical and economical means of transporta-
a very new and developing field of study tion to the work site was used. Equipment
(Bradshaw 1983; Cairns 1988). Therefore, used included pickup and flatbed trucks, rail
testing and monitoring were essential for flatbeds, helicopters, and all-terrain vehicles.
achieving the objectives of the reclamation After the bagged limestone was moved to the
program. The objectives were to work site, it was carried by employees up the
hills for spreading. Lime bags were placed at
create a self-sustaining ecosystem with I-m intervals to ensure adequate area cover-
minimal maintenance age, then spread (Fig. 8.2). Approximately
use plant species that are tolerant of acidic 80% of the workforce's time in grassing was
soils and low nutrient concentrations required to bag, move, and spread lime. Most
use seed application rates that allow for of this work took place early in the spring and
natural colonization and thus increase summer months.
species diversity Later in the summer, after the crushed lime-
give preference to the use of Q.ative species stone had reacted with the soil for several
restore nutrient cycles and pools by the weeks, workers returned to limed sites and
use of species that fix nitrogen (legumes) spread a high-phosphorus fertilizer (6N-24P-
use species that attract and provide cover 24K) at a rate of 400 kg/ha. After the applica-
for wildlife tion of fertilizer, a seed mixture of grasses and
undertake initiatives that speed up natu- nitrogen-fixing legumes (Table 8.1) was sown
ral successional changes (Fig. 8.3) at a rate of 45 kg/ha. Seeding was
done in mid-August to coincide with fall rains.
No attempt was made to create an even cover-
Restoration Process age of grasses and legumes (Winterhalder
1983). In fact, a patchy cover of approximately
One of the main reclamation goals was to re- 24-40% of grasses and legumes was preferred
establish a forest similar to that which once because it allowed subsequent invasion and
covered the barren hills. However, initial field colonization by native herbs, shrubs, and
trials had demonstrated that liming was trees, thus encouraging species and genetic
needed to detoxify the soils and that a herba- diversity.
ceous grass cover was desirable before shrubs Between 1978 and 1993, 3070 ha of barren
and trees could be successfully established (Wm- land was limed, fertilized, and seeded. This
terhalder 1984). Therefore, two major pro- represented most of the barren lands im-
gram components evolved: the first to conduct mediately adjacent to major road corridors
liming and initiate grass-herb cover, and the and nearly all the areas within urban neigh-
8. Municipal Land Restoration Program 113
FIGURE 8.2. Spreading of crushed

limestone.
TABLE 8.1. Summary of land reclamation treatment used on barren

land affected by industrial emission in Sudbury
I. Limestone (usually dolomitic limestone)
Applied at a rate of 10 tonnes/ha to raise pH to more than 5
Applied several weeks before fertilizer and seed
2. Fertilizer-usually 6N-24P-24K
Applied at 390-400 kg/ha
3. Seed mixture
Several grasses and two legumes; applied at 30-50 kg/ha
Mixture (by weight)
Redtop Agrostis gigantea 20 %
Creeping red fescue Festuca rubra 10%
Timothy Phleum pratense 20%
Canada bluegrass Poa compressa 15%
Kentucky bluegrass Poa pratensis 15%
Birdsfoot trefoil Lotus corniculatus 10%
Alsike dover Trifolium hybridum 10%
Grass-legume mixture is sown in mid-late August after start of cooler nights and
autumn rains
4. Trees and shrubs-plant 1-2 years later
Commonly used species include jack pine (Pinus banksiana), red pine (P. resinosa),
white pine (P. strobus), white spruce (Piceaglauca), tamarack (Larix laridna), red oak
(Quercus borealis), and black locust (Robinia pseudocada)
borhoods. In total, it represented approxi- Tree Planting

mately 20% of the barren land in the region.
Also, both mining companies have operated Although grass-legume establishment was ra-
their own restoration projects to cover tailings pidly followed by spontaneous colonization of
with vegetation and to rehabilitate land around birch, poplar, and willows (see Chapter 13), no
their operations (see Chapters 9-11). coniferous spedes appeared in the first few years
.~;::' . . . "::: ;"~ FIGURE 8.3. Cyclone seeding

of grass and legumes after an
.. area has been treated with
limestone.
after treatment. Early attempts to plant coni- work crews have planted more than 1.5 mil-
fers directly into untreated barren areas were lion trees on previously grassed sites (Fig. 8.4).
also largely unsuccessful. However, with lim- The basic goal of the municipal tree planting
ing and the establishment of an herbaceous program is to create a self-sustaining ecosys-
cover with its associated nutrients, soil mois- tem by matching tree species to the unique
ture, and shade, successful tree planting of habitat features (soil moisture, exposure,
conifers and other trees became possible. Test slope, etc.) of the site being reclaimed. In an
plots in 1978-1982 demonstrated good growth effort to create informal natural-appearing
and survival of trees planted on reclaimed sites landscapes, plantation-style plantings have
(Lautenbach 1985). been avoided, and trees are planted in groups
The first main planting, consisting of at fairly low densities to allow for natural in-
228,000 trees, occurred in 1983. Since then, filling. Often, several different types of conifer
FIGURE 8.4. Tree planting.

90
FIGURE 8.5. Survival rates (+1 SD) after 3 years
(1984-1987) of a sample of 300 trees for species
used in reclamation work in the Sudbury area. The
species included Ce, white cedar; Pj, jack pine; Pr, 75
red pine; Pw, white pine; Sb, black spruce; Sn, Nor-
way spruce; Sw, white spruce; Ta, tamarack; Le,
European larch; Lj. Japanese larch; Aw, white ash; 60
Mh, sugar maple; Ms, silver maple; Lb, black locust;
Or, red oak. (Data from Beckett and Negusanti
[1990].)
-
CI)
C1I
a:: 45
iV
>
.~
::J 30
en
1S
Ce p) p, Pw 5b 5n Sw Ta Le L) Aw Mh Ms Lb 0,
Tree Species
60
50
e-
~
40
CD
-;
a: 30
~
...0 20 FIGURE 8.6. Mean annual growth in height of major
(!) tree spedes used in reclamation work in the Sud-
bury area. Measurements made in 1987, 3 years
after planting. Means + SE are indicated for a sam-
ple of 300 trees for each spedes. Spedes included in
Ce, white cedar; Pj, jack pine; Pr, red pine; Pw, white
Ce P J P r Pw 5w T. LbO r pine; Sw, white spruce; Ta, tamarack; Lb, black lo-
cust; Or, red oak. (Data from Beckett and Negusanti
Tree Species [1990].)
and deciduous trees are planted in each loca- than three-quarters of the planted material
tion. Species that have shown good survival has been conifers, with an emphasis on pines
(Fig. 8.5) and growth (Fig. 8.6) and are readily (red pine [Pinus resinosa], white pine [P. stro-
available from nurseries are selected. Planting bus], and jack pine [P. banksiana]) that have
stock mainly consists of 2- or 3-year-old bare- high survival and growth rates. The general
root seedlings and 6-month- to l-year-old aim is to plant species typical of mature north-
containerized or paper pot seedlings. More ern Ontario forests to accelerate the slow pro-
EUlern R~t1 JHck White

Whil" Pine Pine Pint Spruct
FIGURE 8.7. Principal tree species used in revegetation. The trees are not drawn to scale.
gression through successional birch and poplar planting survival and the measurement of var-
woodland stages (Fig. 8.7). Planting of conifers ious chemical and physical site characteristics.
also provides winter greenery and achieves Key findings include (1) pH values have re-
part of the aesthetic goals of the program. mained elevated after liming; (2) metal uptake
The black locust (Robinia pseudoacada) is by plants declines after liming; (3) insects,
used for its nitrogen-fixing ability and toler- birds, and small mammal populations have
ance in very dry and exposed sites. Although a increased in reclaimed areas; (4) spontaneous
non-native species, black locust has been use- colonization of herbaceous and woody species
ful in other reclamation efforts (Ashby et a1. has occurred on treated sites; and (5) the per-
1980) because of its rapid growth and good centage of grass cover has tended to decrease
survival characteristics (Figs. 8.5 and 8.6). In relative to the percentage cover of legumes
addition to improving the nitrogen content of and woody species. Greater details of these
the soil, it also appears to be a useful "nurse" studies are provided in Chapter 13.
tree, providing shelter for more-sensitive spe- Findings for tree planting activities have been
cies planted beneath it. equally encouraging. Survival rates after 3 years
At present, all tree planting activity is lim- have averaged 70% across all species (see Fig.
ited to the spring season of the year. Trees are 8.5), and growth rates have been similar to those
shipped from nurseries as soon as the ground from less-disturbed areas (Figs. 8.8-8.10).
thaws and are stored in refrigerated vans for
planting. Planting generally occurs during the
months of May and June.
Program Results
In the past few years, many school classes, During 1978-1993, 3070 ha of barren land
clubs, and environmental groups have volun- were reclaimed by grassing. During this pe-
teered their time and labor to assist in grassing riod, 1,692,000 trees were planted on pre-
and tree planting activities. Many of these or- viously grassed sites (Fig. 8.11).
ganizations are now volunteering each year Total cost of the reclamation program dur-
and are being encouraged to adopt areas for ing 1978-1993 has been approximately $15
longer-term reclamation activity. million Canadian, with about 80% of the funds
spent for salaries of the employees. Given the
rough topography in which restoration was
Monitoring needed, manual grassing and tree planting
Field crews working under the supervision of techniques appeared to be the most cost-effec-
faculty at Laurentian University monitor re- tive means of restoring the landscape. On av-
sults of the reclamation program. Monitoring erage, treatment of a hectare of land costs less
involves assessment of grass, shrub, and tree than $5000.
FIGURE 8.8. Cumulative growth of jack pine

700
planted in 1979 compared with a non-polluted re- -- reclaimed
forestation stand planted in the same year (n = 100 600 .......... control
at each site). (Unpublished data of P. Beckett and
J. NegusantL) 500
400
300
200
100
o +-~~~~~~~~~.---.-~~
1979198119831985198719891991 1993
Year
--
700
reclaimed
E
600
500
- conlrol
.!:!.
&:
i0 400
c:;
'II
~
300
<0
'S
E 200
:3
0
100
o+-~~~~~~--,---,---,---,-~
19791981 19831985198719891991 1993 FIGURE 8.9. Cumulative growth of red pine planted in
1979 compared with a non-polluted reforestation
Year stand planted in the same year (n = 100 at each site).
(Unpublished data of P. Beckett and J. NegusantL)
In comparison with many mechanized resto-

ration techniques, the program has the added
Future Initiatives
benefit of providing needed employment, being Considerable barren land and many other
labor- rather than capital-intensive. More than challenges remain for the municipal reclamation
3340 individuals have been directly employed program. As the areas near road corridors are
through the municipality's land reclamation completed, additional costs and perhaps new
program over the past 15 years. This has in- approaches are needed to treat the more-remote
cluded 1600 students and 1740 individuals who areas. The newly forested areas are also poten-
were unemployed or on social assistance. tially vulnerable to insect pests, fire, and expand-
lIB Lautenbach et al.
FIGURE 8.10. Picture of reforested area near Hannah Lake (1994) showing natural-type placement oftrees.
(Photo by P. Beckett.)
ing urban development and nee~ to be pro- aside a major barren area as a reminder of the
tected. environmental changes the community has
One of the potential benefits of large-scale made. Such a preserve will also provide scien-
land reclamation activities that was not recog- tists with the opportunity to study natural suc-
nized at the start of this program is the im- cession and barren land ecology (Watson and
provement in the quality of drainage water Richardson 1972; Jordan et al. 1987).
from the treatment areas (Skraba 1989). To
date, watershed liming treatments have con-
tributed to increased pH and alkalinity in two Socio-Economic Benefits
area lakes (see Chapter 15). This discovery has
prompted the Technical Advisory Committee The municipality's and mining companies'
to look at reclaiming several whole water- land reclamation programs have fundamentally
sheds in the municipality to achieve the added changed the physical appearance and psycho-
benefit of improved aquatic environments. logical "mindscape" of the community. It is now
Similar watershed liming is being used on an increasingly difficult to find completely barren
experimental basis in the United States (Gu- landscapes within public view corridors. This
bala and Driscoll 1991), United Kingdom transformation (see Plates 9-11, following
(Howell and Dalziel 1992), and Scandanavian page 182) and the process used to achieve this
countries (Olem et al. 1991). success have been widely published, and the
The Technical Advisory Committee is also munidpality has been the redpient of several
pursuing the idea of conserving or setting prestigious environmental awards (Table 8.2).
FIGURE 8.11. (a-d)A site in Sudbury before and after liming, grassing, and tree planting.
International program recognition and land- greater emphasis on vegetation enhancement

scape transformation have been a tremendous throughout all neighborhoods. This has led
source of pride for area residents and munici- many private citizens to improve and green
pal officials. As the municipality reclaimed their own properties.
barren sites, the community in turn placed a Although a direct linkage is difficult to es-
tablish, the land reclamation appears to have
had a major influence in the economic diversi-
TABLE 8.2. Program awards fication of the area over the past 15 years. The
1992 United Nations Local Government Honours visual improvement of the area has been sig-
Award, presented to 12 municipalities at the Earth nificant enough to allow the municipality to
Summit in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992 now market itself as a summer and winter
1992 Chevron Conservation Award, presented in
Washington, D.C.
tourism destination based on the establish-
Government of Canada Environmental Achievement ment of a northern sdence center (Fig. 8.12).
Award for Municipal Leadership 1990, presented in It has also made it easier to market the com-
Ottawa by Governor General Ray Hnatyshyn munity to prospective businesses that are
1990 Lieutenant Governor's Conservation Award looking to establish facilities in northern
from the Conservation Council of Ontario,
presented in Toronto by Lieutenant Governor
Ontario. Land reclamation has removed a
Lincoln Alexander negative community stigma that formerly af-
1990 Arboricultural Award of Merit, presented by the fected some corporate decisions. This pro-
International Society of Arboriculture Ontario Inc. gram is an important example of how
1986 Community Improvement Award, presented by environmental improvement can contribute
the Ontario Horticultural Association
to economic development.
FIGURE 8.12. Aerial view of Science North, with the Uly Creek wetland in the background and the sailing
club in the foreground.
problem-solving aspects of the program, it was

Lessons Learned essential to have a host organization (in this
case, the municipality) to carry it out. The
Overall, the program has been successful be-
munidpality, in effect, became the general con-
cause most program activities drew on the
tractor to ensure that required reclamation tasks
lessons learned from pilot test plots and occurred. In this role, the munidpality provided
small demonstration project findings. This logistic support for the program and was respon-
has led to a very simple treatment recipe sible for hiring and supervising all the program's
being adopted (see Table 8.1). With continu- employees, for purchasing or acquiring all sup-
0us monitoring of performance, adjustments port materials, and for all payroll and accounting
have been made as the need arose (e.g., seed functions. It also appointed a land reclamation
mixture altered, and supervisor/field crew co-ordinator to oversee each year's program. For
ratios adjusted). the program to progress as far as it has, this
The existence of a volunteer Technical Advi- organizational and catalytic role was essential.
sory Committee has also demonstrated the Finally, this program demonstrates the ben-
value of having a broadly based community efits of being committed to achieving stated
support group spearheading problem-solving goals and objectives and rigorously pursuing
assignments. This group has also been able to them. These goals have included the rehabili-
focus on many other vegetation enhancement tation of barren land, improvement of a nega-
initiatives in the community. tive regional image, and a commitment to a
However, in addition to having the volun- labor-intensive approach. In the process, time
teer advisory committee spearheading the was not wasted on attributing blame but on
solving a community problem and in provid- Bridges, E.M. 1991. Reclaiming contaminated land
ing the necessary community leadership to in the city of Swansea. Agric. Eng. 46:Ir5-117.
achieve this. This program also demonstrates Cairns, J., Jr. (ed.). 1988. Rehabilitating Damaged Eco-
the benefits of an ecosystem approach under- systems. Vol. 1. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
pinned by scientific principles in recreating a Daniels, w.L., and C.E. Zipper. 19~8. Improving
coal surface mine reclamation in the central Ap-
self-sustaining local environment.
palachian region, pp. 139-162. In J. Cairns, Jr.
(ed.). Rehabilitating Damaged Ecosystems. Vol.
1. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Acknowledgments. This Technical Advisory Com- Down, C. R, and J. Stocks. 1977. Environmental
mittee is comprised of individuals from Inco Impact of Mining. John Wiley and Sons, New
Limited, Falconbridge Limited, Laurentian Uni- York.
versity, Cambrian College, Ontario Ministry of Freedman, B. 1989. Environmental Ecology: The
Natural Resources, Ontario Ministry of the Envi- Impacts of Pollution and Other Stresses on Eco-
ronment and Energy, Ontario Ministry of North- system Structure and Function. Academic Press,
ern Development and Mines, Ontario Hydro, San Diego.
Gubala C.P., and C.T. Driscoll. 1991. Watershed lim-
Nickel District Conservation Authority, Sudbury
ing as a strategy to mitigate acidic deposition in
Horticultural Society, City of Sudbury, Town of the Adirondack region of New York, pp. 145-
Walden, Regional Municipality of Sudbury, Sud- 159. In H. Olem, RH. Schreiber, RW. Brocksen,
bury Master Gardeners, and interested local citi- and D.B. Porcella (eds.). International Lake and
zens. We thank the members of this committee, Watershed Liming Practices. Terrene Institute Inc.,
many of whom have given more than a decade Washington, DC.
of volunteer time to this project. A. Bradshaw, J. Hossner, L.R 1988. Reclamation of Surface Mined-
Gunn, and T. Peters provided a technical review Lands. CRC Press Inc., Boca Raton, FL.
of this manuscript. Howell G., and T.RK. Dalziel. 1992. Restoring Acid
Water: Loch Fleet 1984-1990. Elsevier Applied
Science, Essex, England.
References Jee, K.K. 1988. Environmental improvement in
Singapore. Ambio 17:233-237.
Amiro, B.D., and G.M. Courtin. 1981. Patterns of Jordan, W.R, M.E. Gilpin, and J.A. Aber (eds.). 1987.
vegetation in the vicinity of an industrial dis- Restoration Ecology: A Synthetic Approach to
turbed ecosystem, Sudbury, Ontario. Can. J. Bot. Ecological Research. Cambridge University Press,
59(9):1623-1639. Cambridge.
Andrews, M.J. 1984. Thames Estuary: pollution Lautenbach, W.E. 1985. Land Reclamation Program
and recovery. pp. 195-227. In P.J. Sheeham et al. 1978-1984. Regional Municipality of Sudbury,
(eds.). Effects of Pollutants at the Ecosystem Level. Sudbury, Ontario.
John Wiley & Sons, Chichester. Lautenbach, W.E. 1987. The greening of Sudbury. J.
Ashby, W.C., C. Kolar, and N.F. Rodgers. 1980. Re- Soil Water Conserv. 42(4):228-231.
sults of 30 year old plantations on surface mines Leuts, J., and W.J. Kelly. 1993. Cleaning the air of
in the Central States, pp. 99-107. In Proceedings Los Angeles. Sci. Am. 269:32-39.
of Trees for Reclamation in the Eastern United Nishimura, H. (ed.). 1989. How to Conquer Air
States Symposium, Lexington, Kentucky. Octo- Pollution-A Japanese Experience. Elsevier,
ber 27-29. General Technical Report NE-61. Amsterdam.
USDA Forest Service, Broomal, PA. Olem, H., R.H. Schreiber, R.W. Brocksen, and
Beckett, P.J., and J. Negusanti. 1990. Using land D.B. Porcella. 1991. International Lake and
reclamation practices to improve tree condition Watershed Liming Practices. Terrene Institute
in the Sudbury smelting area, Ontario, Canada, Inc., Washington, DC.
pp. 307-320. In J. Skousen et al. (eds.). Proceed- Peters, T.H. 1984. Rehabilitation of mine tailings: a
ings of the 1990 Mining and Reclamation Con- case of complete reconstruction and revegetation
ference and Exhibition. West Virginia University, of industrially stressed lands in the Sudbury area,
Morgantown, ~. Ontario, Canada, pp. 403-421. In P.J. Sheehan et
Bradshaw, A.D. 1983. The restoration of ecosys- al. (eds.). Effects of Pollutants at the Ecosystem
tems. J. Appl. Ecol. 20:1-17. Level. Wiley, New York.
Skraba, D. 1989. Effects of surface liming of soils on Whitby, L.M., P.M. Stokes, T.C. Hutchinson, and G.
stream flow chemistry in denuded add, metals Myslik. 1976. Ecological consequences of acidic
contaminated watershed near Sudbury, Ontario. and heavy-metal discharges from the Sudbury
M.Sc. thesis, Laurentian University, Sudbury, smelters. Can. Mineral. 14:47-57.
Ontario. Winterhalder, K. 1983. The use of manual surface
Watson, W.Y., and D.H.S. Richardson. 1972. Appre- seeding, liming, and fertilization in the recla-
dating the potential of a devastated land. For- mation of acid metal contaminated land in the
estry Chron. Dec.:313-315. Sudbury, Ontario mining and smelting region
Weston, R.L., P.D. Gadil, B.R. Salter, and G.T. Good- of Canada. Environ. Techno!. Lett. 4: 209-216.
man. 1965. Problems of revegetation in the Winterhalder, K. 1984. Environmental degradation
lower Swansea Valley, an area of extensive in- and rehabilitation in the Sudbury area. Laurent-
dustrial dereliction, pp. 297-325. In G.T. Good- ian Univ. Rev. 16(2):15-47.
man, R.W. Edwards, and J.M. Lambert (eds.). In Young, J.E. 1992. Mining and the earth, pp. 99-
Ecology and the Industrial Society. Blackwell, 118. In L.R. Brown et al. (eds.). State of the
Oxford. World 1992. W.W. Norton, New York.
9
Revegetation of the Copper Cliff
Tailings Area
Tom H. Peters
Mining and processing of metal-bearing ores million m 3 of waste. Seepage from the tailings
produces vast quantities of hazardous waste ma- ponds and airborne release of flue and surface
terial such as tailings, waste rock, slag, and flue dusts significantly increase metal concentrations
dust (Freedman 1989). Of these, tailings (see in the Clark Fork River as far as 500 km from the
Plate 16, following page 182), the materials that site (Moore and Luoma 1990).
are discarded after the ore is separated by milling In Sudbury, the mining industries produce
and flotation are probably the largest primary about 8-10 million tonnes of tailings per year.
source of contamination assodated with metal Depending on the operation, from 25-75% of
extraction (Salomons and Forstner 1988). the tailings are used to fill mined-out areas
Tailings often contain high concentrations of underground. However, because of the expan-
add-generating sulfides and quantities of re- sion of the ore due to blasting and grinding,
sidual metals. not all the resulting tailings can be put back
Tailings have produced serious disposal prob- underground. A large amount, about 450 mil-
lems throughout the world. In some cases, tail- lion tonnes, is therefore stored in ponds on the
ings have been simply dumped as loose piles surface. At Copper Cliff alone, the tailings stor-
or even into rivers, such as at the Bougainville age area covers 2225 ha (Fig. 9.1). In addition
site in Papua, New Guinea (540 million tonnes to the add mine drainage problem (see Chap-
in the Kawerong River) (Moore and Luoma ters 10 and 21), surface storage of tailings can
1990), or into the sea, such as at the copper produce serious dust problems once the ponds
smelter in TIo, Peru (40 million m3/year) are filled and the material begins to dry out.
(Young 1992). This irresponsible dumping has The need to control dust emissions from
destroyed aquatic life over large areas. Fortu- tailings areas has been appreciated by Sudbury
nately, such practices are now relatively rare. operators for some time. In the past, tempo-
However, even the more conventional land- rary crops of fall rye have been seeded on the
based disposal of tailings in ponds creates sub- dry tailings, and various chemical sprays have
stantial environmental effects through the been applied to bond the surface particles.
production and escape of add drainage water However, in the early spring and late fall,
(containing high levels of dissolved metals). One weather conditions often produced a Hfreeze-
of the largest hazardous waste sites in the United dryH situation. This usually occurred when the
States is the Clark Forks complex, a copper min- surface of the tailings froze at night and then
ing area in Montana where tailings are stored in thawed rapidly during sunny days. The mois-
ponds that cover at least 35 km2 and contain 200 ture released by thawing evaporated and was
123
124 Peters
Nort h Mine
"
Clarabelie Mill
Water
A,vegetated
o kilometers 1.8
FIGURE 9.1. Diagram of Inco Limited's Copper Cliff tailings area.
not replaced by capillary action, leaving the

particles dry and without cohesive binding.
Development of a
With winds of sufficient velocity, these par- Technique for Establishing
ticles readily became airborne.
A review of progress in preventing this dust
a Vegetation Cover
problem by establishing a vegetation cover at It is not surprising that many of the early efforts
the Copper Cliff tailings area is the topic of this (in the 1940s and 1950s) at establishing a vege-
chapter. tation cover met with failure. Fresh tailings had
no nutritive value, limited water holding capac-
ity, no soil structure, a low pH, and no organic
History of the Problem matter (Crowder et al. 1982). However, even-
By the late 1940s, the level of tailings in Ineo's tually' from what often seemed like a trial-
existing disposal areas at Copper Cliff were equal and-error process, some basic principles and
to or higher than the rocky hills of the local procedures developed that made revegetation
topography. Without shelter, the fine particles of possible at the Copper Cliff site. These devel-
the tailings frequently became airborne opments grew mainly from an experimental
(Fig. 9.2). This blowing dust became a nuisance program begun in 1957 to test seed bed amelio-
to local residents and adversely affected local ration procedures in large plots. From these
industrial operations. For example, the dust studies and earlier experience, it was recognized
contaminated lubricants in equipment and was that the deficiencies of tailings as a growth me-
an impurity that affected the product quality dium could be overcome if the following princi-
during electrolytic refining of copper. ples and procedures were adopted:
9. Revegetation of Copper Cliff 125
FIGURE 9.2. Before stabiliza-

tion, the surface of Inco's Cop-
per Cliff tailings area was
susceptible to wind erosion.
(Photo by Tom Peters.)
1. Seeding should begin in the area closest 6. A companion crop (fall rye, Secale cereale)
to the source of the prevailing winds to should be used to provide a quick protec-
minimize the covering or damaging of tive canopy. This crop will reduce surface
young plants by drifting tailings. wind velocity and provide shade for the
2. With sulfide ore tailings, sufficient agricul- slower-growing grass seedlings. The com-
tural limestone should be added to raise panion crop also acts as a seed trap for
the pH of the seed bed strata to approxi- wind-dispersed seeds from adjacent nat-
mately 4.5-5.5. Half the limestone should urally vegetated areas.
be applied at least 6 weeks before seeding 7. Due to the lack of organic matter in the
and the balance at the time of seeding. tailings and the subsequent rapid loss of
3. The addition of adequate amoup.ts of ni- nitrogen from applied commercial fertil-
trogen, phosphate, and potassium fertiliz- izers, frequent small applications of a ni-
ers, to ensure plant establishment, should trogenous fertilizer should be made
be made at the time of seeding. The during seedling establishment. The use of
amount of fertilizer should be sufficient a slow-release nitrogen fertilizer is an-
to compensate for the loss of nutrient other option, but its use is limited by the
availability due to complexing with other season and weather conditions.
elements (aluminum, iron, calcium, etc.) 8. Mulching (wood fiber, straw, shredded
present in the tailings. paper mixtures, etc.) should be used,
4. In a climate similar to Sudbury, grasses especially when seeding wind-exposed
should be planted in the late summer to areas or slopes with a south to south-
take advantage of cooler temperatures westerly exposure. In areas exposed to
and available moisture. the wind, a tackifier (asphalt emulsions,
5. Legumes should be seeded in the spring, emulsion products from paint, adhesive,
with a power-till seeder, 1 or 2 years after and forestry industries, etc.) should be
the initial grasses have become estab- added to the mixture being hydro-
lished. A full season of growth, along seeded to stabilize the mulch cover
with soil stabilization by grass roots, will (Brooks et al. 1989).
provide protection for the legumes 9. If a layer of natural soil is used to cover
against the heaving effects of repeated the tailings and provide a seed bed, the
surface freezing and thawing. change in surface porosity, particularly on
126 Peters
FIGURE 9.3. Spreading agricul-

tural limestone on the tailings.
(Photo by Tom Peters.)
slopes, must be considered. If the change July and continues until mid-September. At
in surface porosity is great, adequate this time of year, moisture is readily available,
drainage should be installed to eliminate and temperatures are more suitable for seed
water erosion. germination and seedling establishment.
Inco is now combining a straw mulch and a
While revegetation experience was being
chemical binder on these freshly seeded areas as
gained in Sudbury, other specialists through-
a surface stabilizer (Fig. 9.4). This combination
out the world were also attempting to solve
of straw and chemical binders, over freshly
many of the unique challenges posed in the
establishment of a vegetation cover on tailings seeded areas, has several benefits. The straw acts
as a trap for seeds of local indigenous species
(Marshall 1983; Dean et al. 1986; Australian
Mining Industry Council 1987; Powell 1992). growing on adjacent land. As it decomposes, the
straw also acts as a much-needed source of or-
ganic matter in the tailings. The straw, obtained
from local farmers, carries natural soil particles,
Current Program which have lodged in it. This soil contains vari-
The current tailings reclamation and vegeta- ous soil microorganisms, which will, in tum,
tion program at Inco Limited in Copper Cliff inoculate the tailings and accelerate the soil-
differs greatly from the manual land reclama- building process.
tion procedures described in the previous At the time of seeding, additional agricul-
chapter. It is highly mechanized, using a var- tural limestone is spread and disced into the
iety of heavy earth-moving equipment for surface. A broadcast application of 8-24-24
leveling the site and standard agricultural (nitrogen-phosphorus-potassium) fertilizer at
equipment for surface preparation, discing, the rate of 740 kg/ha is spread and harrowed
liming, fertilizing, and seeding. into the surface. A conventional farm seed
Once the proper surface contour is estab- drill follows. Fall rye is seeded at a rate of
lished, to ensure drainage and permit the safe 60 kg/ha, as a companion crop, along with a
operation of equipment, surface treatments grass seed mixture at the rate of 68 kg/ha. At
begin. Agricultural limestone is first spread the same time, this seed drill places additional
and disced into the tailings surface (Fig. 9.3). fertilizer at the rate of 350 kg/ha in bands
On average, 25 tonnes of limestone per hect- along the seed row. This is followed by a dou-
are are used. The seeding then begins in late ble-corrugated roller (cultipacker) grass seed-
FIGURE 9.4. Spreading straw

mulch. Microorganisms in the
mulch inoculate the tailings
and hasten its development to
a natural soil. (Photo by Tom
Peters.)
er, which plants additional grass seed (22 kg! was occurring in the treated tailings area.
ha) and compacts the soil to provide a firm However, drainage at different slope levels af-
seed bed. After the initial germination, a slow- fected soil profile development and resulted in
release nitrogen fertilizer is broadcast over the the formation of iron pans at different depths
seedling area at a rate of 90 kg/ha. As part of (Peters 1988). This iron pan layer limited root
the long-term maintenance program, addi- penetration to cracks in the formation.
tional limestone and fertilizer are applied, as The Copper Cliff tailings, due to their defi-
required, based on soil tests. On areas that are ciency of clay-sized particles, behave more like
not readily accessible, such as steeper outside a sandy loam and are prone to moisture defi-
slopes, or where conventional agricultural ciency (Dimma 1981). Lacking colloidal mois-
equipment cannot be operated safely, a hydro- ture absorption, capillary action is the only
seeder is used for seeding and fertilizing. physical means of retaining water in the tail-
The current grass seed mixture, depending ings (Pity 1979). Maintaining sufficient levels
on species availability, is 25% each of Canada of phosphorus is also difficult because of fixa-
bluegrass (Poa eompressa) and redtop (Agrostis tion of phosphates by the high levels of iron
gigantea) , 15% each of Kentucky bluegrass oxides in the tailings (Dimma 1981). However,
(Poa pratensis) and timothy (Phleum pratense), this problem can be readily overcome by ad-
and 10% each of tall fescue (Festuea arundina- justing the application rate. This is one of the
eea) and creeping red fescue (Festuca rubra). main reasons for recommending the high fer-
The legume birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus eornieulatus) tilizer application rate of 740 kg/ha at the Cop-
is seeded the following spring to allow a full per Cliff site.
growing season for the young plants to be- In contrast to the success at providing suffi-
come established (Heale 1991). cient phosphorus, it has been difficult to main-
tain sufficient nitrogen levels for good plant
growth. There was no organic matter in tail-
Soil Development ings and no microorganisms involved in or-
ganic matter decay. Therefore, there was no
In a study conducted by Labine (1971), it was residual processes to tie up nitrogen from the
shown that approximately 10 years after seed- fertilizer and slowly release it. In the early
ing, a 2- to 3-cm organic horizon (A-zero) stages of establishing plants on the tailings,
existed and the beginning of a podzolic profile nitrogen had to be repeatedly added as need-
128 Peters
FIGURE 9.5. View of a revege-

tated area of the Copper Cliff
tailings showing the managed
gradual transition from a grass
and legume cover to a re-estab-
lished forest cover. (Photo by
Tom Peters.)
ed. In addition to the fertilizer, nitrogen-fixing ous species of insects, birds, and small mam-
legume species, such as birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus mals began to colonize the area. In 1974, after
corniculatus) , were planted in an attempt to consulting with local wildlife clubs, the deci-
provide a continuous source of nitrogen. sion was made to develop the reclaimed tail-
ings area as a Wildlife Management Area. It
was thought that this was the most suitable
Tree Planting and practical end-use for the tailings area.
The abundance of wildlife at the tailings
In the early 1960s, white birch (Betula papy- area has increased considerably in recent
rifera), trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides), and years. The rehabilitated area now supports a
willow (Salix spp.) started to invade the grassed diverse community of bird species (Fig. 9.8).
areas of the tailings from neighboring land. The species changed as the vegetative cover
Mowing of the grassed areas was stopped to evolved from a prairielike grassland, to a scat-
encourage the development of a natural tree tered tree savanna, to a forest of indigenous
and shrub cover (Fig. 9.5). In the early 1970s, species. Ninety-plus avian species have been
test plots of trees and shrubs were also estab- identified, including 24 shorebirds, 3 gulls, 17
lished. Based on their performance, a program waterfowl, and various meadow- and wood-
to plant tree species was initiated (Box 9.1). Jack habiting species (Peters 1984). Eight species
pine (Pinus banksiana) and red pine (Pinus res- were ranked as provincially significant in that
inosa) were two coniferous species selected for they were rare or uncommon (E. Heale, per-
the tree planting program (Figs. 9.6 and 9.7). A sonal communication). Many birds nest and raise
deciduous species, black locust (Robinia pseudo- their young in the area, and the Copper Cliff
acada), has also been planted. Locust is a nitro- site serves as a stopover point during spring
gen-fixing legume, and it has adapted well to and fall migrations.
local environmental conditions.
Environmental Concerns
Ecosystem Development
One of the major recommendations of the
At the same time as the plant community was Wildlife Management Plan was to study pos-
becoming established in the tailings area, vari- sible contamination of the food chain. The
Box 9.1.
Inco Limited has carried out an annual tree tree seedlings that have been planted out on
planting program since the early 1960s. From local stressed land have been grown by the
1978 to 1993, more than 900,000 tree company. Seedlings are grown underground
seedlings were planted. To ensure that the for 16 weeks, brought to the surface, and
number of seedlings of the desired species hardened off for 2 weeks before planting in
would be available for this program, the the spring. The balance of the seedlings are
company began its own forestry seedling crop grown in Inco's Copper Cliff greenhouse.
production in 1985. The growing of the tree Current annual crop production is 250,000
seedlings underground developed from a seedlings.
joint Laurentian University-Inco Limited re- Red and jack pine seedlings are grown un-
search project on the possibility of using an derground on the 4600-ft level of Inco
underground area of mines as a tempera- Limited's Creighton Mine. At that level, the air
ture-controlled, disease- and insect-free site is a relatively constant 24C due to geothermal
for food production. Since 1985, 87% of the energy. (Photo by E. Heale.)
metal content of the two principal grass spe- cus maniculatus), are important links in the
cies, redtop and Canada bluegrass, growing on food chain to red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and coy-
the tailings fell within normal ranges for otes (Canis latrans), which inhabit the tail-
grasses (Rutherford and Van Loon 1980). ings area.
A 6-year study with mallard ducks (Anas Other mammals that have been observed
platyrhynchos) fenced on the revegetated tail- in this rapidly developing ecosystem' are
ings found that metal accumulations were not snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus), eastern
a cause for concern. Meadow voles (Microtus chipmunks (Tamias striatus), red squirrels
pennsylvanicus) inhabiting the tailings were (Tamiasciurus hudsonius), beaver (Castor can-
also found to have no toxic levels of heavy adensis), muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus), and
metals in their vital organs (Cloutier et al. black bear (Ursus americanus) (E. Heale, per-
1986). Voles, along with deer mice (Peromis- sonal communication).
130 Peters
FIGURE 9.6. Planting 14-week-old seedling conifer

trees, which were grown underground in Inco
Limited's Creighton Mine, on the Copper Cliff tail-
ings area. (Photo by Tom Peters.)
FIGURE 9.7. View of a portion

of the "CD" area of Inco
Limited's Copper Cliff tailings,
showing 30 years of ecosystem
development. The area was re-
vegetated with a grass and le-
gume mixture in 1960, and the
jack and red pine were planted
in the early 1970s. (Photo by
Tom Peters.)
FIGURE 9.8. A Canada goose at

home on the "CD" area pond.
Cattails and bullrushes were
introduced into this pond in
the early 1970s. (Photo by
Mike Peters.)
the stems of the vegetation also act as air pas-

Other Values of a sages in accumulated snow and thus increases
Vegetated Tailings Area the area exposed to the evaporation process.
Vegetation can remove a large amount of
The original objective of establishing vegeta- water through evapotranspiration and thus re-
tion on the tailings area was to stabilize the duce the amount of water that infiltrates and
surface to control dust emissions. In recent leads to acid drainage. For example, it has
years, the important and pressing problem of been experimentally shown that to produce
the quality of the drainage and seepage water 454 g of dry matter, an alfalfa (Medicago sativa)
from the tailings has become a major concern. plant transpires 364 kg water (Northen 1958).
There is an important research need 'for infor- The water removed by evaporation from the
mation on the hydrology of vegetated tailings surface or by evapotranspiration by the plants
areas, but at present there appear to be three will not penetrate into the tailings to create
ways that revegetated tailings can have an ef- acid mine drainage. However, less water may
fect on the water quality problem: simply increase the concentration of dissolved
constituents, a hydrogeochemical consider-
1. by intercepting precipitation
ation that is part of the needed research in this
2. by evapotranspiration
area (M. Wiseman, personal communication).
3. by forming an oxygen-consuming barrier
The third means of preventing acid drainage
of decomposing plant residues
is by blocking oxygen from reaching the sul-
The percentage of precipitation intercepted fide material. The development of a thick root
will vary with the density and the amount of mass, along with a surface mat of decaying
the vegetative cover. Generally, dews are vegetation, may achieve this by acting as an
intercepted 100%, whereas only minimal oxygen-consuming barrier that reduces the
amounts of water are intercepted during access of atmospheric oxygen into the sulfide
heavy rainstorms or during spring melt. In tailings (Peters 1988). In addition to the po-
summer, the precipitation on vegetation evap- tential benefits of a vegetation cover, several
orates and does not enter the ground to be- other covers have been tested as a means of
come seepage water. On sunny winter days, blocking oxygen and thus the production of
132 Peters
acid drainage water (Spires 1975; Michelutti Acknowledgments. I acknowledge the assistance
1978). Falconbridge Limited has experimented in the preparation of this chapter from staff at
with several different types of dry and wet cov- both Inco Limited and Falconbridge limited.
ers placed on the tailings before attempting to Their willingness to provide information, fig-
establish vegetation. The dry covers (rock, ures, and pictures is greatly appreciated. Tony
gravel, etc.) have the benefit of preventing the Bradshaw, John Gunn, and Marty Puro kindly
upward migration of metallic salts, which can be provided reviews and comments.
toxic to vegetation roots. The wet covers, such as
a covering of wetland vegetation, offer consider-
able promise as a more permanent solution to References
acid mine drainage by blocking oxygen and Australian Mining Industry Council. 1987. Mining
water penetration into the deeper layers of the and the Return of the Living Environment. Can~
tailings. The potential use of these wetland cov- berra, Australia.
ers is the topic of the next chapter. Bradshaw, A.D., R.N. Humphries, M.S. Johnson,
and R.D. Roberts. 1978. The restoration of vege-
tation on derelict land produced by industrial
Summary activity, pp. 249-278. In M.W. Holgate and M.l.
Woodman (eds.). The Breakdown and Restora-
tion of Ecosystems. Plenum, New York.
When faced with a challenging restoration job
Brooks, B.W., T.H. Peters, and J.E. Winch. 1989.
such as establishing a vegetation cover on a Manual of Methods Used in the Revegetation of
large sulfide tailings area, there rarely are text- Reactive Sulphide Tailings Basins. CANMET, Ot-
book solutions that can be used (Bradshaw et tawa, Canada.
al. 1978). Each site has its own unique prob- Cloutier, N.R., EV. Clulow, T.P. Lim, and N.K. Dave.
lems and potential solutions. However, the 1986. Metal (Cu, Ni, Fe, Co, Zn, Pb) and Ra-226
main goal in tailings restoration is usually the levels in the tissues of meadow voles (Microtus
same-to establish a maintenance-free cover. pennsy/vanicus) living on nickel and uranium mine
From our experience in Sudbury, the steps in tailings in Ontario, Canada. Environ. Pollut. 41:
achieving this goal were 295-314.
Crowder, A.A., B.E. McLaughlin, G.K. Rutherford,
1. Establishment of initial plant communities and G.W. Van Loon. 1982. Site factors affecting
using available species that are tolerant of semi-natural herbaceous vegetation at Copper
factors characteristic of the tailings. These Cliff, Ontario. Reclamation Revegetation Res. 1:
factors include drought, low pH, poor soil 177-193.
texture, and lack of organic materials and Dean, K.C.L., J. Froisland, and M.B. Shirts. 1986.
nutrients Utilization and stabilization of mineral wastes.
2. Modification of the local microclimate to Bulletin 688. U.S. Department of the Interior,
Salt Lake City, UT.
benefit plant establishment
Dimma, D.E. 1981. The pedological nature of mine
3. Establishment of soil invertebrate and
tailings near Sudbury, Ontario. M.Sc. thesis,
microbial communities. These assist in Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario.
the soil building process and decompose Freedman, B. 1989. Environmental Ecology: The
naturally accumulating organic matter Impacts of Pollution and Other Stresses on Eco-
4. Establishment of nutrient cycles system Structure and Function. Academic Press,
5. Establishment of a rich diverse plant San Diego.
community that can support wildlife and Heale, E.L. 1991. Reclamation of tailings and
other natural assets stressed lands at the Sudbury, Ontario operations
of Inco Limited, pp. 529-541. In Proceedings of
While working along this path, the local prac- the Second International Conference on the
titioners must continue to monitor responses Abatement of Addic Drainage. Vol. 1. September
and be flexible enough to "adapt not adopt" 16-18, 1991, Montreal, Canada. MEND, Ottawa.
the practices developed by others (Peters Labine, c.L. 1971. The influence of certain seeded
1984, 1988). grasses on the evolution of mine tailings. B.Se.
thesis, Biology Department, Laurentian Univer- Forstner (eds.). Environmental Management of

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Activities in Canada. Environment Canada, Ot- Powell, L.J. 1992. Revegetation options, pp. 49-91.
tawa, Canada.
In L.R. Hosner (ed.). Reclamation of Surface
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on high iron-sulphur tailings by means of overbur-
Rutherford, G.K., and G.W. Van Loon. 1980. The
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ecological qualities of some tailings in the Sud-
Meeting of the Canadian Land Reclamation Associ-
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Moore, J.N., and S.N. Luoma. 1990. Hazardous associated with them, pp. 43-55. In Proceedings
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case of complete reconstruction and revegetation lag, New York.
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Level. Wiley, New York. sity, Sudbury, Ontario.
Peters, T.H. 1988. Mine tailings reclamation. Inco Young, J.E. 1992. Mining the earth, pp. 100-118. In
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10
Engineered Wetlands as a Tailings
Rehabilitation Strategy
Bob Michelutti and Mark Wiseman
Add mine drainage from sulfur-bearing waste lish conditions to prevent or treat add mine
rock and tailings is one of the most serious envi- drainage. Treatment occurs when wetlands are
ronmental challenges facing the mining industry established downstream of tailing ponds to fil-
today (Campbell and Marshall 1991). It is ter and remove contaminants by biological
caused when metal sulfides in the waste mate- and chemical processes. Prevention of add mine
rial react with water and oxygen to form sulfuric drainage may occur when wetlands are cre-
add, which in tum dissolves residual metals ated on the surface of tailing ponds. Wetlands
such as nickel, copper, iron, lead, or zinc. This form the transition zone between land and
process is dramatically accelerated by bacteria. water and are often highly productive biologi-
The composition of add mine drainage water is cal ecosystems.
highly variable from site to site. The pH can vary One of the initial studies on the benefits of
from 3 to 6, and the concentration of metals can natural wetlands for controlling acid mine
vary by several orders of magnitude. drainage was conducted at the Tub Run Bog in
While existing surface run-off is presently West Virginia (Wildeman 1991). Researchers
being treated, add mine drainage is a particu- observed that the wetland affected add mine
larly serious long-term problem in the Sudbury drainage water by increasing pH from 3.5 to
area. The approximately 3000 ha of add-gener- 5.0, decreasing sulfate from 250 mg/L to 10 mg/
ating tailing ponds in Sudbury contain nearly L and decreasing iron from 50 mg/L to less
0.5 billion tonnes of tailings. This is more mate- than 2 mg/L. Many other researchers have
rial than was excavated in the construction of since shown that various chemical characteris-
the Panama Canal. It is roughly estimated to tics of add mine drainage water can be
represent 25% of all the sulfide tailings in Can- improved by passing it through natural or con-
ada. Conventional treatment costs and finandal structed wetlands (Wheeland 1987; Hammer
assurances to mitigate add mine drainage in 1989; Wildeman 1991; Dave 1993; Kalin
Canada are in the billions of dollars. New treat- 1993).
ment technologies are therefore being sought by Although considerable research is required
mining companies to address this problem. before all the chemical processes that lead to
these improvements are understood, several
processes by which wetlands ameliorate add
Wetlands mine drainage have been identified. Perhaps
Wetlands are one of the new technologies be- the most common method of dissolved metal
ing explored because of their ability to estab- removal is by an ion exchange mechanism
135
136 Michelutti and Wiseman
BID-FILTER STRATA FIGURE 10.1. Cross section of a constructed wetland

, ~\ designed to promote subsurface flows. In this design
the effluent is piped into the substrate below the
layers of organic matter (Wildeman 1991).
SECTION
with the organic material. Metals are com- 4. neutralization and precipitation through the
plexed and bound to organic molecules or generation of NH3 and HC0 3 by bacteria
particles as the contaminated effluent passes 5. filtration of suspended solids by plants
through the wetland. FaIconbridge Limited
has studied the binding and release of these
metals and has found that they remain com-
plexed only if the conditions are anaerobic
Natural versus
(Fyfe 1990). Constructed Wetlands
Another predominant removal mechanism is
by bacterially catalyzed sulfate reduction, which From an environmental and societal stand-
results in the precipitation of insoluble metal point rather than a scientific perspective, it
sulfide. Sulfate-reducing bacteria such as De- will become increasingly difficult to use natu-
su/fovibrio require low pH values and reducing ral wetlands for pollution abatement. Wetlands
conditions, which is exactly what is found in are becoming an endangered ecosystem, and
swamps or wetlands. These bacteria also require pressure for their protection is increasing. It
carbon as a nutrient, and this is provided in has been estimated that 440,000 acres of wet-
natural wetlands, by the rotting vegetation. lands in North America were annually altered
Therefore, in an artificially created or engineered or lost during the 1950s to the 1970s (Whee-
wetland, one must establish plants or incorpo- land 1987). The answer is to construct artifi-
rate organic material substrates such as compost cial wetlands. To do this, natural systems must
or peat moss as the carbon source for bacteria. therefore be studied so that we can apply and
These processes are simplified in the follow- perhaps even improve their acid-neutralizing
ing equation: processes in the constructed wetlands.
sulfate-redudng Water in a natural wetland flows mainly
bacteria
2H zS0 4 + 2M across the surface due to the low permeability
(sulfuric acid) (dissolved metals) of the organic substrata. To improve the con-
Aerobic bacteria
tact time between the contaminated effluent
being treated and the organic material in the
2MS + 2H 2 0 + 30 2 wetland, water in an engineered wetland can
(metal (water) (oxygen) be introduced as subsurface flow so that it
sulfides) flows up through the organic layers. An effec-
Other less significant metal removal mecha- tive distribution and dispersal design can also
nisms that may operate in the engineered wet- be engineered to prevent short circuiting of
land include the following: the flow path of the water (Figs. 10.1 and
10.2).
1. precipitation of ferric and manganese ions Another limitation to natural wetlands for
as hydroxides treatment of acid drainage is that natural wet-
2. adsorption of metals by ferric hydroxides lands tend to be weakly acidic because they
3. uptake of sulfur and metals by plants such generate large quantities of humic acids. The
as cattails or algae predominantly surface flow in natural wet-
10. Engineered Wetlands 137
~
lands results in aerobic reactions that tend to
produce hydrogen ions or more addity. Be-
cause addity is one of the concerns that min-
ing companies with sulfide ore bodies are
'IE a. Plugfiow
trying to resolve, an improvement in the add!
base conditions of a natural wetland is there-
IE E t~
fore required. This can be accomplished in
some cases by using a bed of limestone in the
substratum to neutralize any add produced
(Fig. 10.1). By placing the lime'stone in the
anaerobic substrate and fordng the water to
b. Step feed
flow up through it, the iron remains in the
ferrous form. This prevents the armoring or
~ecycle
coating of the limestone by ferric iron predpi-
tates. Successful preliminary field testing of
this approach has recently been completed in
the United States (Kepler and McCleary
1994).
c. Recirculation
Constructed wetlands can be designed to
operate under anaerobic (redudng) conditions
that are required by sulfate-redudng bacteria.
These bacteria promote the formation of hy- ---+ --+
drogen sulfide, which in tum complexes with

dissolved metals to form highly insoluble
metal sulfides. Some of these microbes release
hydrogen gas and lead to the production of
hydrogen sulfide gas (Wildeman 1991). These
mechanisms increase the pH by complexing
and precipitating hydrogen or releasing hydro- d. "Jelly roll" step feed-recirculation cell
gen ions into the atmosphere. Bacterially
driven denitrification and methanogenesis also FIGURE 10.2.Various flow patterns for constructed
lead to hydrogen ion consumption and pH wetlands (Wildeman 1991).
increases (Fig. 10.3).
Other reactions that facilitate the removal of
iron and manganese require aerobic condi-
tions to produce iron and manganese hydrox- land design, followed by a system providing
ides. Certain bacteria, such as Thiobadllus aerobic conditions to remove different con-
ferro-oxidans, which catalyze the oxidation of taminants under different conditions.
iron sulfide, also require oxygen. To facilitate
these reactions, a two-step process may be
needed in the engineered wetland, with an
aerobic system established downstream of an
Prevention versus
anaerobic system. Remediation
In conclusion, constructed wetlands can be
designed to reduce the contaminants in the Most of the work to date has involved the use
acid mine drainage to environmentally accept- of constructed wetlands as a downstream re-
able concentrations. In some cases, depending mediation system for contaminated effluent.
on the specific contaminants present in the Many examples of this approach can be found
acid mine drainage, a multistage wetland may in the literature. For example, the Tennessee
be required that incorporates an anaerobic wet- Valley Authority is currently operating seven
l38 Michelutti and Wiseman
CH . N,O. N .
4
,
I
I AL~AEI-M'
M+ AEROBIC OECOMPOSITIO : : : : : : : : : : : _ _ ___ t
M+
FIGURE 10.3. Schematic of floating vegetation wetland process (Kalin 1993).
constructed wetlands and has plans for eight discovered that the most active metal removal
more to treat acidic coal mine drainage. Typi- processes were taking place in the sediments
cally, required treatment areas vary from 300- (Kalin 1993). This led to a floating cattail de-
15,000 m 2 of wetland per liter of effluent per sign, so that the cattails suspended from rafts
second, depending on the degree of contami- would not deplete the nutrients in the sedi-
nation. The average constructed'wetland has a ments required by the bacteria but would still
treatment area of about 1000 m 2 /Us (Hammer provide them with a source of carbon. The
1989). Makela test cells removed 80-87% of the
In Idaho Springs, the Big Five Wetland nickel, 77-98% of the copper, 10-20% of the
was constructed in 1987 to treat acid mine sulfur, and 47-73% of the acidity from the
drainage from metal mining operations. The loading water. A schematic diagram of the
wetlands were able to remove almost 100% process is shown in Figure 10.3.
of the copper and zinc from the contami- Falconbridge Limited has developed a 150-
nated seepage, 63% of the iron but virtually ha wetland downstream of their smelter waste
none of the manganese. Interestingly, the water treatment system (Fig. 10.4). Nickel con-
pH rose from 3.0 to 6.2, indicating that wet- centrations were observed to decrease 0.5 mgl
lands can be very effective in reducing acid- L to 0.2 mglL during the summer months.
ity (Wildeman 1991). Preliminary investigations by Laurentian Uni-
An extensive field evaluation was conducted versity have indicated that some of the metals
using test cells to treat Inco's tailings seepage at are being removed by algae. Future studies
Makela, Sudbury. This project, sponsored by the will investigate the role and relative contribu-
Mine Environment Neutral Drainage (MEND) tions of bacteria in the removal of heavy met-
committee, also demonstrated that metals and als. The effluent from this system consistently
pH could be ameliorated by the wetlands. It was meets the new provincial limits set under the
FIGURE 10.4. Wetland area below the Falconbridge smelter.
Municipal Industrial Strategy for Abatement nickel concentrations, they were not adequate
limits and is non-toxic to fish and zooplankton for a "walk-away strategy" (Dave and
(Daphnia magna). Various fish species such as Michelutti 1991). It was hypothesized by the
minnows, white suckers, stickleback, and researchers and supported by the literature
perch now inhabit the wetland. that oxidation was continuing without the
During the 1980s, Falconbridge Limited presence of atmospheric oxygen. Because the
started looking for alternative methods to test wetlands were established on highly oxi-
grassing for tailings as an abandonment strat- dized pyrrhotite, ferric ion was most likely
egy. The downstream wetland approach was continuing the oxidation reaction (Wheeland
known, but this was considered a remediation 1987; Wildeman 1991).
technique, not a permanent solution. It was
FeS2 + 14Fe3+ + 8H20 F 15Fe2+
theorized that a more permanent solution
+ 2S0~- + 16W
could be achieved by covering the tailing with
water. By creating an oxygen barrier by this Using isotope data, it was found that 35-80%
means, the oxidation of iron sulfide could be of the dissolved sulfate is produced by a re-
reduced, thereby preventing acid mine drain- action not involving free (dissolved) oxygen
age and metal leaching (literature reviewed by (Wheeland 1987). Therefore, these initial ex-
Itzkovich 1993). Falconbridge Limited started periments by Falconbridge Limited suggested
testing this approach in 1986 using a shallow that it was important to prevent the tailings
water cover and aquatic plants over highly from oxidizing before covering with a wet-
oxidized tailings. Although the results showed land. If the tailings are already in an oxidized
some improvement, especially with respect to state, then considerable time may be necessary
140 Michelutti and Wiseman
to flush out the ferric ions and oxidation prod- 1992, the total area was flooded to a minimum
ucts before seeing any improvements. Falcon- depth of 0.3 m. Subsurface water sampling
bridge Limited and the University of Waterloo, (using a piezometer nest) is ongoing, and al-
with MEND support, have developed a model though it is too early to draw any conclusions,
(FALCTAIL) to estimate the number of years preliminary data indicate good water quality.
required to flush latent oxidation products To date, pH values have been all above neu-
from a tailings area. tral, but that would have been expected with
Another wetland that has been extensively the limestone and lime that had been initially
studied is the Rio Algom Panel site in Elliot added. This testwork is also unique in that it
Lake. A uranium tailings spill into a small ba- will determine the impact of water cover on
sin was subsequently recolonized naturally by the fate of radionuclides. A similar large-scale
cattails such that a 13-acre wetland resulted. flooding scenario is also being evaluated at
At the west end of this wetland area, partially Stekenjokk, Sweden (Broman and Goransson
exposed tailings resulted in dissolved solids 1994). Evaluations of historically flooded tail-
concentrations of 600-2000 mg/L, iron from 1 ing are ongoing within the MEND program
to 80 mg/L, and sulfates from 50 to 100 mg/L and also indicate the long-term stability of un-
(Dave 1993). In the central to eastern section oxidized tailing deposited underwater (Fraser
of the wetland, where the tailings were com- and Robertson 1994).
pletely submerged, the pH was 6.2-9.8, dis-
solved solids were 100-300 mg/L, iron was
0.002-0.4 mg/L, and sulfates were 50-100 mg/ Conclusions/
L. Of particular interest was that there were no
strong seasonal differences in water quality in Recommendations
the submerged areas .. It was estimated that
due to iron complexing and the extremely Although promising results are being obtained
slow rate of pyrite oxidation and release, it in the wetland research, there are still many
would take 32,000 years for all the pyrite to unknowns.
oxidize and 926,000 years for all the mobilized 1. Are there seasonal variations in treatment
iron to leave the system. At these slow rates, capabilities of the wetland?
impacts to downstream ecosystems would be 2. will a wetland in time become totally satu-
nil. rated with metals and cease to be effective?
Perhaps the most ambitious wetland cover 3. Will the process continue to work as the
field study is that being conducted by Rio Al- wetland naturally evolves into a dryland
gom at their Quirke mine tailings. In prepara- ecosystem?
tion for flooding, half the 64-ha site was 4. What is the potential for re-release of or-
leveled and had limestone incorporated into ganically bound metals?
the top 20 em. The leveling was performed to 5. What are the fates of metal ions in this
reduce the requirement for higher dams to ecosystem (i.e., is there bioaccumulation
flood the area, and the limestone was added to occurring with long-term impacts)?
counter any acidity that may occur in the 6. Can a self-sustaining biological community
event of severe droughts that would expose be maintained in the constructed wetland?
the tailings. After some initial start-up prob-
lems, the area was flooded in October 1992 Initial studies and field evaluations indicate
(Vivyurka 1993). As the flooding was taking that wetlands could become an acceptable
place, lime slurry at the rate of 100 mg/L of walk-away strategy for acid-generating sulfide
CaC0 3 was added to the inflow water to wastes. Two basic approaches to wetlands are
counter the existing acidity. Flooding took downstream remediation and pollution pre-
place by diverting a portion of the discharge vention by a water cover. Both concepts could
from a small upstream lake. By mid-December be incorporated into one abandonment strat-
egy. This is perhaps one of the most promising update of case studies, pp. 250-269. In Bureau of
technologies to emerge as a walk-away aban- Milles Special Publication SP 06B-94. Vol. 1.
donment strategy for add-generating sulfide MEND/Canada, International Land Reclamation
wastes. and Mille Drainage Conference and Third Inter-
national Conference on the Abatement of Acidic
Mille Drainage. U.S. Department of the Interior.
Acknowledgments. We thank A. Bradshaw, Fyfe, J.D. 1990. The Fate of Metal Hydroxides at the
D. Pearson, and J. Gunn for review com- Falconbridge Treatment System. Laurentian in-
ments on the manuscript. ternal company reports.
Hammer, D.A. 1989. Constructed W~tlands for
Wastewater Treatment, Municipal, Industrial and
References Agricultural. Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI.
Itzkovitch, I.J. 1993. MEND 1992 Annual Report.
Broman, P.G., and T. GOransson. 1994. Decommis- Canmet, Ottawa, Ontario.
sioning of Tailings and Waste Rock Areas at Kalin, M. 1993. Treatment of Acidic Seepage Using
Stekenjokk, Sweden. In: MEND/Canada, Interna- Wetland Ecology and Microbiology. DSS file
tional Land Reclamation and Mille Drainage Con- 015SQ.23440-2-9217.
ference and Third International Conference on the
Kepler, D.A., and E.C. McCleary. 1994. Succes-
Abatement of Acidic Mille Drainage. Volume 1.
sive alkalinity-producing systems (SAPS) for
Department of the Interior, Bureau of Milles Spe-
the treatment of acidic mine drainage, pp. 185-
dal Publication SP06B-94.
194. In Bureau of Mines Special Publication SP
Campbell, D., and I. Marshall. 1991. Mining: break-
ing new ground. In The State of Canada's Envi- 06B-94. Vol. 1. International Land Reclama-
ronment. Government of Canada, Ottawa. tion and Mine Drainage Conference and Third
Dave, N.K. 1993. A Case History of Partially Sub- International Conference on the Abatement of
merged Pyritic Uranium Tailings under Water. Acidic Mine Drainage. U.S. Department of the
Division Report MSL 93-32 (CR). Elliott Lake, Interior.
Ontario. Vivyurka, A. 1993. Flooding of Existing Tailings
Dave, N.K., and R.E. Michelutti. 1991. Field evalu- Site-Quirke Mille. MEND Project 2.13.1.
ation of wet cover alternatives for high sulphide Wheeland, K.G. 1987. Notes Regarding the Role of
tailings, pp. 61-82/91. In Proceedings of the Sec- Wetlands in Mine Closure, Rats #4.1. Centre de
ond International Conference on Abqtement of Recherche Noranda, Pointe Claire, Quebec.
Acidic Drainage, Montreal, Canada. MEND. Bib- Wildeman, T. 1991. Handbook for Constructed
lioteque Nationale du Quebec, Canada. Wetlands Receiving Acid Mine Drainage. Risk
Fraser, W.w., and J.D. Robertson. 1994. Subaqueous Reduction Engineering Laboratory, U.S. Envi-
disposal of reactive mine waste: an overview and ronmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH.
11
Preservation of Biodiversity:
Aurora Trout
Ed J. Snucins, John M. Gunn, and W. (Bill) Keller
... the worst thing that will probably happen ... is not energy
depletion, economic collapse, conventional war, or even the
expansion of totalitarian governments. As terrible as these
catastrophes would be for us, they can be repaired within a few
generations. The one process now going on that will take
millions of years to correct is the loss of genetic and species
diversity by the destruction of natural habitats. This is the folly
our descendants are least likely to forgive us.
(Wilson 1984)
The habitat alteration and destruction caused 63%; Europe, 42%; Sri Lanka, 28%; North
by Sudbury's metal extraction and'smelting America, 31 %; Australia, 26%; Iran, 22%;
industries have contributed to the global de- Latin America, 9% (Moyle and Leidy 1992).
pletion of biological resources (Box 11.1). Dam- Within-species genetic diversity is also de-
age to local terrestrial vegetation and soils, clining as fish are extirpated from individual
described in Chapter 2, was striking. Less ap- lakes and rivers that comprise portions of
parent but more widespread was the damage their native range (Nehlson et al. 1991;
to aquatic ecosystems. Acidification of lakes Kaufman 1992).
from atmospheric deposition of smelter emis- Of the many populations threatened by
sions occurred over an area of 17,000 km2 and acidification of lakes in the Sudbury area, only
affected lakes as far as 120 krn from the city the aurora trout (see Plates 12 and 15, follow-
(Neary et al. 1990). An estimated l34 gamef- ing page 182), a rare strain of brook trout
ish populations, as well as many populations (Salvelinus !ontinalis), was the subject of ex-
of less well-studied fish species were extir- traordinary preservation efforts. It was extir-
pated (Matuszek et al. 1992). The loss of these pated from its native habitat and in 1987 was
populations did not endanger entire species, placed on Canada's endangered species list
but it did contribute to the loss of unique ge- (Table 11.1). This chapter presents the story of
netic strains. The losses are part of an alarming the aurora trout restoration program, a combi-
global trend to decreasing fish diversity. By nation of personal and agency commitment
region, the percentages of fish species classi- and perseverance, that saved the fish from
fied as endangered, threatened, or in need of extinction and ultimately restored it to its na-
special protection are as follows: South Africa, tive habitat.
143
144 Snucins et al.
Box 11.1. Global Loss of Biological Diversity
Biological extinction is not a new phenome- and 30 million species (May 1990), will be lost
non. In fact, it is estimated that more than in the next 20-30 years (McNeely et al. 1990).
90% of all the species that ever existed on The current period of mass extinction is partic-
earth are now extinct (Simpson 1952). The ularly worrisome in that it is caused largely by
fossil record indicates that there have been human activity. Habitat alteration and de-
five main periods of mass extinction during struction, chemical pollution, overharvesting,
the past 600 million years. Although there is and the introduction of exotic species that dis-
some debate over the causes of these extinc- place or eliminate native biota are among the
tions, most authorities seem to agree that each factors contributing to the modern depletion
was triggered by a natural catastrophic event of biodiversity.
in the environment, such as sudden climatic The current accelerated loss of biological di-
change, drop in sea level, or meteorite impact versity should concern us. From an ethical
(Raup 1986). standpoint, some people argue that every spe-
Averaged over the entire span of life on cies has an inherent right to exist independent
earth, the rate of extinction amounts to about of its material benefit to humans. There are
one species per year. But our current trend far also many human-centered utilitarian reasons
exceeds this rate. Some scientists believe that, for preserving biodiversity, not the least of
on average, several species are disappearing which is that our survival depends both di-
each day, and they estimate that if present rectly and indirectly on diversity at all levels of
trends continue, more than one-quarter of the biological organization. Ecosystems with their
earth's biodiversity, estimated to be between 3 variety of habitats and communities provide
11. Preservation of Biodiversity 145
Box 11.1. (continued).
essential ecological services such as the main- that are each suited to different environmental
tenance of air and water quality, soil for- conditions.
mation and protection, climate control, and Perhaps the greatest long-term benefit of
nutrient cycling. The harvesting of natural re- biodiversity is the supply of the raw materials
sources supplies us with food, clothing, and that enable humans and nature to respond to
shelter. Wild plants supply the genetic mate- changing environments and stresses. Our wel-
rial for selective breeding of domestic crops to fare will largely be determined by how we
increase yields and enhance pest and disease respond to the current period of accelerated
resistance. Many pharmaceuticals, too, are de- biodiversity loss in which this storehouse of
rived from plants. Within-species genetic di- potential solutions to current and future prob-
versity provides the many varieties of a species lems is quickly becoming depleted.
Description of the surface area) and Whitepine Lake (77-ha sur-

face area), located llO km north of Sudbury
Aurora Trout (Fig. 11.4). Each is part of a chain of lakes
situated on a ridge in an isolated part of Lady
The aurora trout and its mother species, the Evelyn Smoothwater Wilderness Park. The
brook trout, are both multihued and spectacu- surrounding terrain is hilly and rough, topog-
larly beautiful, although different in the details raphy typical of the Precambrian Shield, and
of their coloration. Brook trout have a dorsal access is gained by canoe or aircraft only. His-
background color of olive green to dark brown,
torically, Whitepine Lake also contained a
which is mottled by yellow spots and vermicula-
population of brook trout, and both lakes sup-
tions (Fig. 11.1). Along the sides, this coloration
ported white sucker (Catastomus commersoni)
pales to a snow-white abdomen that is often
populations.
tinged with pink. Many red spots surrounded by
The aurora trout likely evolved from a popu-
pale blue halos speckle the sides. Pectoral, pelvic,
lation of brook trout isolated some time after
and anal fins have a leading white edge backed
by a black bar and orange or red posterior. continental glaciers receded, about 10,000 years
In contrast, the aurora trout's dorsal color- ago. The brook trout were probably trapped as
ation fades along the sides to iridescent steel water levels dropped and the land slowly re-
blue and silver, colors mimicking the shim- bounded upward after being freed of the weight
mering brilliance of the fish's namesake, the of the glaciers. This strain of fish subsequently
aurora borealis, or northern lights. Adult au- evolved in isolation and diverged sufficiently to
rora trout do not possess the yellow spots and become distinct from other brook trout.
vermiculations of the brook trout, and there In 1923, a party of anglers from the United
are few, if any, red spots (Figs. 11.2 and 11.3). States visiting Whitepine Lake caught some
The coloration of the males intensifies during of these fish and took one back to the Car-
spawning. The sides and upper abdomen take negie Museum in Pittsburgh. The following
on a vivid red color, often accented with a year, more specimens were collected, and in
band of midnight black along the abdomen. 1925, a description of the fish was published
in the scientific literature. Subsequently, the
lakes were often visited by anglers willing to
History of the Aurora Trout undertake the 4-day journey by canoe and
trail to catch this trophy sportfish renowned
The native range of the aurora trout consists of for its spectacular coloration and superior
two small waterbodies: Whirligig Lake (ll-ha fighting ability.
146 Snudns et al.
TABLE 11.1. 1993 Canadian Spedes at Risk
Mammals Endangered
Threatened
Extinct Cucumber Tree
Baird's Sparrow
Dawson Caribou Engelmann's Quillwort
Burrowing Owl
Sea Mink Furbish's Lousewort
Ferruginous Hawk
Extirpated Gattinger's Agalinis
Loggerhead Shrike (Western Pop.)
Atlantic Walrus (N. W. Atlantic Pop.) Heart-leaved Plantain
Marbled Murrelet
Black-footed Ferret Hoary Mountain Mint
Roseate Tern
Gray Whale (Atlantic Pop.) Large Whorled Pogonia
White-headed Woodpecker
Grizzly Bear (Plains Pop.) Mountain Avens (Eastern Pop.)
Swift Fox Fish Pink Coreopsis
Endangered Pink Milkwort
Extinct Prickly Pear Cactus (Eastern Pop.)
Beluga Whale (S.E. Baffin Is. Pop., St. Blue Walleye
Lawrence R. Pop., and Ungava Bay Pop.) Skinner's Agalinis
Deepwater Cisco
Bowhead Whale Slender Bush Clover
Longjaw Cisco
Eastern Cougar Slender Mouse-ear Cress
Longnose Dace (Banff Pop.)
Peary Caribou (High Arctic Pop. and Small White Lady's Slipper
Extirpated
Banks Is. Pop.) Small Whorled Pogonia
Gravel Chub
Southern Maidenhair Fern
Right Whale Paddlefish
Spotted Wintergreen
Sea Otter Endangered Thread-leaved Sundew
Vancouver Is. Marmot Acadian Whitefish
Water-pennywort
Wolverine (Eastern Pop. Aurora Trout
Western Prairie Fringed Orchid
Quebec/Labrador) Salish Sucker
White Prairie Gentian
Threatened Threatened Wood Poppy
Beluga Whale (Eastern Hudson Bay Pop.) Black Redhorse
Threatened
Harbour Porpoise (Western Atlantic Blackfin Cisco
American Chestnut
Pop.) Channel Darter
American Ginseng
Humpback Whale (North Padfic Pop.) Copper Redhorse
American Water-willow
Peary Caribou (Low Arctic Pops.) Deepwater Sculpin (Great Lakes Pop.)
Anticosti Aster
Pine Marten (Nfld. Pop.) Enos Lake Stickleback Athabasca Thrift
Wood Bison Lake Whitefish (Lk. Simcoe Pop.)
Bird's Foot Violet
Woodland Caribou (Maritime Pop.) Margined Madtom
Blue Ash
Shorthead Sculpin
Birds Bluehearts
Shortjaw Cisco
Colicroot
Extinct Shortnose Cisco
Giant Helleborine
Great Auk
Reptiles & Amphibians Golden Crest
Labrador Duck
Golden Seal
Passenger Pigeon Extirpated Kentucky Coffee Tree
Extirpated Pygmy Short-horned Lizard
Mosquito Fern
Greater Prairie-Chicken Endangered Nodding Pogonia
Endangered Blanchard's Cricket Frog Pitcher's Thistle
Eskimo Curlew Blue Racer
Plymouth Gentian
Harlequin Duck (Eastern Pop.) Lake Erie Watersnake
Purple Twayblade
Henslow's Sparrow Leatherback Turtle
Red Mulbery
Kirtland's Warbler Threatened
Sand Verbena
Loggerhead Shrike (Eastern Pop.) Blanding's Turtle (Nova Scotia Pop.)
Small-flowered Lipocarpha
Mountain Plover Eastern Massasauga
Sweet Pepperbush
Peregrine Falcon (subspecies Spiny Softshell Turtle (Eastern Pop.)
Tyrell's Willow
anatum) Western Blue Flag
Piping Plover Plants
Western Spiderwort
Sage Thrasher Extirpated
Spotted Owl Blue-eyed Mary
Whooping Crane Illinois Tick Trefoil
Species: Any indigenous species, subspecies, or geographically separate population.

Extinct: A species indigenous to Canada that is no longer known to exist anywhere.
Extirpated: A species no longer existing in the wild in Canada but occurring elsewhere.
Endangered: A species threatened with inuninent extirpation or extinction throughout all or a significant part of its
Canadian range.
Threatened: A species likely to become endangered in Canada if the factors affecting its vulnerability are not reversed.
Status determinations included in this list are determined by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in
Canada (COSEWIC).
FIGURE 11.1. Male brook trout. The differences in

coloration between the male brook trout (spotted
sides) and the male aurora trout (Fig. 11.2) prompted
early classification of the aurora trout as a separate
species. It is now believed to be a rare strain or race of
brook trout. (Photo by V. Liirnatainen.)
FIGURE 11.2. Male aurora

trout. (Photo by E. Snudns.)
The classification of the aurora trout has ences in behavior, coloration, and other char-
been a source of controversy. It was originally acteristics, a subspecies classification was pro-
classified as a distinct species (SaZvelinus tima- posed (Sale 1967; Qadri 1968; Parker and
gamiensis) (Henn and Rinkenbach 192 5) until Brousseau 1988). Recent work suggests that
a closer affiliation with the brook trout sub- the genetic differences are not sufficient to
sequently found favor. On the basis of differ- justify subspecies status and that the aurora
148 Snucins et al.
FIGURE 1l.3. Female aurora

trout. (Photo by E. Snudns.)
trout is simply a unique strain or race of brook these populations coincided with the acidifica-
trout (McGlade 1981; Grewe et a1. 1990). tion of the lakes to near pH 5.0 (Keller 1978),
The aurora trout lakes lie within the area the threshold for brook trout survival (Beggs
affected by acid deposition from the Sudbury and Gunn 1986) .
metal smelters. By the middle of the century, Fortunately, before the aurora trout com-
acidification of these lakes was occurring, al- pletely disappeared, fertilized eggs were col-
though it was not recognized at the time. In lected from both native lakes, and a hatchery
1951, the Ontario government began to mon- brood stock was established (Fig. 11.5). The
itor the aurora trout populations. Angling was work of Paul Graf and colleagues at Hills Lake
no longer permitted on the lakes, but by the Provincial Hatchery, their efforts at spawn col-
late 19505, the populations had noticeably de- lection, and the discovery in 1958 of a success-
clined, and by 1967, the aurora trout had dis- ful artificial rearing method saved the aurora
appeared from its home range. The demise of trout from extinction. The lineage of all aurora
FIGURE 11.4. Aerial view

showing the rugged Pre-
cambrian Shield terrain sur-
rounding the home range of
the aurora trout. This rare
strain of brook trout likely de-
veloped when Whirligig and
Whitepine lakes were isolated
from surrounding waterbod-
ies after the last continental
gladers retreated. (Photo by
E. Snucins.)
FIGURE 11.5. When it was rec-

ognized that the aurora trout
populations were declining,
fisheries managers collected
spawn to establish and main-
tain a hatchery stock. The au-
rora trout was subsequently
extirpated from its home
range until water quality im-
provements made it possible
to re-introduce the fish to
Whirligig and Whitepine lakes.
(Photo by Ontario Ministry of
Natural Resources.)
trout in existence today can be traced to the Rehabilitation of the

1958 spawn collection, when 3644 eggs were
collected from one Whitepine Lake and two Native Lakes
Whirligig Lake females. The eggs from each fe-
male were mixed with the sperm from two Given the failure of the many attempts made
males. Thus, the founding population size was since the 1950s to establish reprodudng popula-
only nine individuals and may have been as few tions of aurora trout in non-native lakes, fisher-
as six if all males did not contribute to fertiliza- ies managers in Ontario decided that the best
tion. The stock has been artificially maintained chance of success would be to return these fish
in the hatchery ever since. to their native lakes. However, the water quality
By the late 1980s, the prospects of maintain- in the native lakes was still too acidic to allow for
ing the captive aurora trout population in the the survival of the aurora trout. Therefore, both
hatchery became worrisome. Concern arose Whirligig Lake (pH 4.8) and its headwater Little
over the potentially deleterious effects of gener- Whitepine Lake (pH 5.6) were treated with
ations of domestication on the fitness of the 21 tormes of powdered limestone in October
stock (Franklin 1980; Hynes et al. 1981; Lacy 1989; this increased the pH of both lakes to 6.5
1992). Because selection pressures in the hatch- (Fig. 11.6). In May 1990, 950 aurora trout
ery differ from those in the wild, the acquisition hatchery brood stock (aged 2-5 years) were in-
of characteristics that promote success in the troduced into Whirligig Lake.
hatchery can occur at the expense of other char- During late October of the same year, biolo-
acteristics that are required for survival and re- gists assessed spawning behavior of introduced
productive success in the wild. The small fish in the limed lake. A group of about 40 fish
founding population size of six to nine individu- was observed congregated at a near-shore
als may have limited the assortment of genes groundwater upwelling site. The fish were
within the captive population, and genetic di- sexually mature and in good condition, having
versity could have been further reduced after a experienced a threefold increase in weight
few generations in the hatchery. Also, genetic during the 5 months that they had resided in
drift caused by nomepresentative sampling the lake. However, no spawning was observed
within a small gene pool can alter gene frequen- and a search for young fish during the spring
cies, and in some species, inbreeding can result of 1991 was unsuccessful. It seemed no repro-
in lower viability and reduced fecundity. duction had occurred.
150 Snudns et al.
FIGURE 11.6. Ontario gov-

ernment helicopter slings
powdered limestone into a
northeastern Ontario lake.
Lime treatment was used to
raise the pH levels of lakes in
the home range of the aurora
trout so that the extirpated
aurora trout population could
be re-established in the wild.
(Photo by E. Snudns.)
Biologists believed that the failure to spawn injected with salmon pituitary extract to in-
may have been due to a low water table in duce maturation. Again, despite these extraor-
1990 and the consequent absence of high- dinary efforts, no spawning was observed.
quality groundwater upwelling sites, the typi- The results were disappointing to those
cal spawning area of brook trout. Therefore, in working on the restoration project, and doubts
1991, two artificial upwellings were con- arose over the reproductive ability of the in-
structed at the location where the fish had troduced fish. Perhaps after many generations
congregated the previous October. Water from in the hatchery, the aurora trout was no long-
a small inlet stream was piped to two wooden er able to reproduce in the wild. Much time,
boxes, each filled with limestone and granitic effort, and money had been spent, possibly to
gravel, and lined with perforated pipe along no avail. But worries quickly vanished the
the bottom. Water percolated up through the following year when two young aurora trout
gravel, simulating a groundwater upwelling. were observed by a diver swimming along the
During October, II adults were captured and shoreline (Fig. 11.7).
FIGURE 11.7. After Bearly

2 years of searching, biolo-
gists discovered the offspring
of aurora trout in Whirligig
Lake in 1992, positive proof
that the re-introduced spedes
can reproduce in the wild.
(Photo by E. Snudns.)
FIGURE H.S. Changes in the pH 7

of Whirligig Lake before and
after treatment with limestone.
6.5
pH 1st Liming
5.5
4 . 5 ~--~----~----~---.-----.----.----.----~
19871988198919901991 199219931994
Year
Two near-shore nests, or redds, were found rora trout were re-introduced to Whitepine
in 1992, but it was not until 1993 that the Lake in the spring of 1994 as the next step in
primary spawning sites were discovered. Most the restoration plan.
redds were constructed at depths of 3-4 m,
and the lake's tea-colored water had hidden
this deep spawning habitat from surface obser- Summary
vation. The age distribution of juvenile fish in
the population indicated that successful Our observations of good reproduction indi-
spawning had occurred every year since the cate that the return of the aurora trout to its
fish were re-introduced. native waters has, at least initially, been suc-
The discovery that the aurora troNt was still cessful, but the long-term viability of the re-
capable of reproducing in the wild was very introduced population remains unknown. It is
encouraging, but the realization that the lake possible that the fitness of the stock for life in
was re-acidifying and would soon be too acidic the wild has been reduced through inadver-
for fish survival was soon to follow. During tent selection in the hatchery or because genes
1992, the pH of Whirligig Lake fell to 5.4 critical for survival were lost during the ge-
(Fig. 11.8). Much of the acidic input seemed to netic bottleneck. However, if the original ge-
be coming from a nearby wetland. During Sep- netic material was not critically altered, the
tember 1992, 32 tonnes of agricultural lime- prospects for long-term persistence of the pop-
stone was applied to the wetland in an attempt ulation in Whirligig Lake are probably good.
to improve the lake's water quality, but this The continued survival of the aurora trout
treatment was not immediately effective and it in Whirligig Lake depends on maintaining
was necessary to lime the lake itself in Sep- good water quality. Metal smelter emission
tember 1993. This succeeded in raising the reductions that began in 1994 will help reduce
lake pH to 6.8. acid loading and may prolong the time to re-
Because Whitepine Lake, the second native acidification. Water quality monitoring will
lake of the aurora trout, receives the runoff need to continue, and if current pollution con-
from Whirligig Lake, its water may also have trols are not sufficient to prevent re-acidifica-
benefited from the liming. The pH of Whitep- tion, the lake will need to be relimed.
ine Lake rose from 4.9 in 1990 to 5.1 in 1993. The genetic diversity represented by individ-
In response to these improved conditions, au- ual fish stocks uniquely adapted to local condi-
152 Snucins et al.
Box 11.2. Convention on Biological Diversity tion program. The stock was saved from cer-
tain extinction by the foresight and initiative
The Convention on Biological Diversity was of the Hills Lake Hatchery staff and their asso-
signed at the United Nations Conference on ciates in the Department of Lands and Forests.
Environment and Development in Rio de Ja- Since 1983, a management committee, com-
neiro, Brazil (June 3-14, 1992). Under the posed of Ministry of Natural Resources biol-
convention, steps will be taken to protect en- ogists and hatchery personnel, has directed
dangered species and their habitats. All signa- rehabilitation efforts. The restoration work is
tory nations agreed to adopt regulations to financed and conducted by the Ontario Minis-
conserve biological resources, including estab- try of Natural Resources. Between 1992 and
1994, additional funding was obtained from
lishing a system of protected areas. Most of the
world's biological diversity exists in the tropi- the Endangered Species Recovery Fund, co-
cal developing countries. To promote conser- sponsored by World WIldlife Fund, Canada
and the Canadian Wildlife Service of Environ-
vation in these economically impoverished
ment Canada. Water quality assessments, field
areas, the developed countries will help supply
support, and additional funding are provided
the required financial resources and technical
by the Ontario Ministry of the Environment
expertise. Also, to more equitably distribute
and Energy, Sudbury.
the financial benefits of genetic resources and
thus encourage their preservation, the con-
vention promotes biological diversity as a fi- References
nancial asset that can generate income for the
country of origin, in particular the local indig- Beggs, G.L., and J.M. Gunn. 1986. Response of lake
enous peoples. trout (Salvelinus namaycush) and brook trout (Sal-
velinus fontinalis) to surface water acidification in
Ontario. Water Air Soil Pollut. 30:711-7l8.
Franklin, I.R. 1980. Evolutionary change in small
tions is an important resource for environ- populations, pp. 135-149. In M.E. Soule and
mental restoration and management. The ini- B.A. Wilcox (eds.). Conservation Biology: An Ev-
tial success of the aurora trout restoration olutionary-Ecological Perspective. Sinauer Asso-
ciates, Sunderland, MA.
program demonstrates that it meW be possible
Grewe, P.M., N. Billington, and P.D.N. Hebert. 1990.
to preserve at least some locally adapted gene Phylogenetic relationships among members of
pools despite alteration of their natural habi- Salvelinus inferred from mitochondrial DNA di-
tat. However, such efforts are costly and not vergence. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 47:984-991.
every endangered stock or species can receive Henn, A.W., and W.H. Rinkenbach. 1925. Descrip-
such intensive care. Although some success tion of the aurora trout (Salvelinus timagamiensis) ,
was achieved in saving the aurora trout, the a new species from Ontario. Ann. Carnegie Mu-
main lesson learned was that habitat protec- seum 16:131-141.
tion pays far greater dividends than single-spe- Hynes, J.D., E.H. Brown, Jr., J.H. Helle, N. Ryman,
cies restoration efforts. The preservation of and D.A. Webster. 1981. Guidelines for the cul-
natural ecosystems with all their species is by far ture of fish stocks for resource management.
the most effective means of conserving bio- Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 38:1867-1876.
diversity (Box 11.2), and it would be dangerous Kaufman, L. 1992. Catastrophic change in species-
to focus on preserving individual stocks or spe- rich freshwater ecosystems. The lessons of Lake
Victoria. Bioscience 42:846-858.
cies without addressing the root causes (habitat
Keller, W. 1978. Limnological Observations on the
alteration by smelter emissions in the case of the Aurora Trout Lakes. Technical Report. Ontario
aurora trout) that threaten their existence. Ministry of the Environment, Sudbury.
Lacy, R.C. 1992. The effects of inbreeding on iso-
lated populations: are minimum viable pop-
Acknowledgments. Many individuals are respon- ulation sizes predictable? pp. 277-296. In
sible for the success of the aurora trout restora- P.L. Fiedler and S.K. Jain (eds.). Conservation
Biology: The Theory and Practice of Nature Con- Neary, B.P., P.J. Dillon, J.R. Munro, and B.J. Clark.
servation, Preservation, and Management. Chap- 1990. The Acidification of Ontario Lakes: An As-
man and Hall, New York. sessment of Their Sensitivity and Current Status
Matuszek, J.E., D.L. Wales, and J.M. Gunn. 1992. with Respect to Biological Damage. Technical
Report. Ontario Ministry of the Environment, Dor-
Estimated impacts of S02 emissions from Sud-
set, Ontario.
bury smelters on Ontario's sportfish populations.
Nehlson, W., J.E. Williams, and J.A. Lichatowich.
Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 49 (Suppl. 1):87-94.
1991. Pacific salmon at the crossroads: stocks at
May, R.M. 1990. How many spedes? Phil. Trans. R.
risk from California, Oregon, Idaho, and Wash-
Soc. Lond. 330b:293-304.
ington. Fisheries 16(2):4-21.
McGlade, J.M. 1981. Genotypic and phenotypic
Parker, B.J., and C. Brousseau. 1988. Status of the
variation in the brook trout, Salvelinus fontinalis aurora trout, Salvelinus fontinalis timagamiensis, a
(Mitchell). Doctoral thesis, University of Guelph, distinct stock endemic to Canada. Can. Field-Nat.
Guelph, Canada. 102 (1):87-91.
McNeely, J.A., K.R. Miller, M.V. Reid, R.A. Qadri, S.U. 1968. Morphology and taxonomy of the
Mittermeier, and T.B. Werner. 1990. Conserving aurora char, Salvelinus fontinalis timagamiensis.
the World's Biological Diversity. lUCN, Gland, Natl. Museums Can. Contrib. Zool. 5:1-18.
Switzerland; WRI,CI,WWF-US, and the World Raup, D.M. 1986. Biological extinction in earth his-
Bank, Washington, DC. tory. Science 231:1528-1533.
Moyle, P.B" and R.A. Leidy. 1992. Loss of bio- Sale, P.P. 1967. A re-examination of the taxo-
diversity in aquatic ecosystems: evidence from nomic position of the aurora trout. Can. J. Zool.
fish faunas, pp. 127-169. In P.L. Fiedler and 45:215-225.
S.K. Jain (eds.). Conservation Biology: The Simpson, G.G. 1952. How many species? Evolution
Theory and Practice of Nature Conservation, 6:342.
Preservation, and Management. Chapman and Wilson, E.O. 1984. Biophilia. Harvard University
Hall, New York. Press, Cambridge, MA.
12
Partnerships for Wildlife Restoration:
Peregrine Falcons
Chris G. Blomme and Karen M. Laws
Conservation agencies throughout the world are 300 km/h, their powerful talons act as blud-
working to protect and restore endangered spe- geons, knocking their prey out of the sky
cies of wildlife. Some of the better known resto- (Fig. 12.1). There are three recognized sub-
ration programs are those involving species species of peregrine falcon in Canada and the
such as the whooping crane (Grus americana) United States. The western peregrine falcon
and California condor (Gymnogyps californianus), (F. p. pealei) breeds along the British Columbia
but there are also many less publicized efforts in coastline and offshore islands, north through
aid of a wide variety of spedes. Unfortunately, to the Aleutians. The Arctic subspecies (F. p.
many of these restoration programs, especially tundrius) breeds in areas above the treeline,
those involving spedes that have reached criti- along the coastlines of Hudson Bay and in
cally low numbers, prove to be extremely difficult northwestern Canada (Godfrey 1966). The east-
and often unsuccessful (HallidfJY 1978; Griffith et em subspedes (F. p. anatum), although never
al. 1989). However, the need for these programs very common before the use of pesticides, was
continues to rise under increasing pressure of found in many regions throughout Canada
habitat loss, overexploitation, introduction of ex- and the United States uniil it was extirpated
otic species, and environmental pollution. from much of its range from the end of World
Effective wildlife restoration programs often War II to the present.
require a large commitment of technical and The decline of peregrine falcons in eastern
financial support. Formation of partnerships be- North America was monitored and recorded
tween conservation agencies and interested cor- by several researchers (Hickey 1942; Cade and
porate sponsors is one means of providing this Fyfe 1970; Fyfe et al. 1976). The development
support. Such partnerships have become more and large-scale use of the insecticide DDT from
common in recent years. In this chapter, we 1947 to the late 1960s is thought to be the
describe how such a partnership was formed to main cause for the loss of peregrine popu-
conduct the successful re-introduction of the lations in North America, as well as Eur9pe
eastern subspecies of peregrine falcon (Falco per- (Hickey 1969). However, it was not until sev-
egrinus anatum) to the Sudbury area. eral years after the introduction of DDT that
the deleterious side effects and the prolonged
persistence of the metabolite DDE (dichloro-
Species Description diphenyldichloroethylene) in the environ-
The peregrine falcon is one of the world's fast- ment became known (Ratcliffe 1967; Hickey
est birds, attaining diving speeds of up to and Anderson 1968; Cade et al. 1971; Peakall
155
156 Blomme and Laws
FIGURE 12.1. Streamlined body

with narrow pointed wings and
tail allow the peregrine falcon to
move swiftly after prey. (Photo
by C. Blomme.)
1976). Rachel Carson's book Silent Spring, pub- tested a number of techniques for re-introduc-
lished in 1962, brought this problem to the tion. The Canadian government, through the
attention of the general public, an action that Canadian Wildlife Service, has been the main
many consider instrumental in initiating the contributor to the re-introduction program in
"environmental movement." Canada (Erickson et al. 1988). For example,
Thinning and breakage cif egg shells, chick the service established a program at Camp
and adult death, and aberrant breeding behav- Wainwright in Alberta where captive sur-
ior in adults are some of the adverse effects of rogate parents are used to successfully rear
long-term exposure to DDT and other chlori- chicks for shipment to release sites throughout
nated hydrocarbons (Ratcliffe 1970; Cade et Canada.
al. 1971; Newton and Bogan 1974). Other spe- Although the captive breeding and release
cies have also been affected (Box 12.1). Al- program has provided large numbers of birds
though DDT was banned in Canada in 1972 for re-introduction, the program has been crit-
and in much of the United States in 1974, its icized by some researchers. For example, the
metabolites are still found throughout the en- difficulty in locating released birds and con-
vironment (Luoma 1991). Unfortunately, DDT firming that they are successfully reproducing
is still used in some central and South Ameri- is to some a sign that the program is not work-
can countries such as Mexico and is therefore ing (Cade et al. 1988; Kiff 1988; Nisbet 1988).
available as a source of contamination for mi- To date, more than 400 birds have been re-
gratory species including peregrines (Fyfe et leased in Ontario, and only seven active nest
al. 1991). sites have been identified.
North American Peregrine Project Peregrine Sudbury

Recovery Program
The decision to re-introduce peregrine falcons
Once it was recognized that the eastern sub- to the Sudbury area was made for a variety of
species anatum was extirpated from much of reasons. First, the return of this native species
eastern North America, researchers in Canada to the area had been a dream of many local
(Fyfe 1976, 1988) and the United States (Cade biologists and naturalists since peregrine re-
et al. 1988) initiated breeding programs and leases began in North America. Two release
12. Partnerships for Wildlife Restoration 157
Box 12.1.
The peregrine falcon has received much public drin, PCB (polychlorinated biphenyls), and di-
attention and support since the effects of or- oxin in its tissues. These compounds resulted
ganochlorines were first suspected. However, it in behavioral and reproductive problems,
is not the only species that suffered severe popu- causing low recruitment of young.
lation declines as a result of these chemicals. The Since the discovery at Scotch Bonnet Island,
osprey (Pandion haliaetus) and bald eagle (Ha- the herring gull has become a very important
liaeetus leucocephalus) became endangered, part of the biomonitoring program for the
whereas the herring gull (Larus argentatus), Great Lakes. Egg samples from several herring
double-crested cormorant (Phalacrqcorax au- gull colonies now provide an annual measure
ritus), and several other fish-eating birds were of the presence of organochoride compounds.
affected at various locations. Most contaminants have shown a marked de-
Herring gulls nest on islands and shorelines crease since the early 1970s. Dieldrin has
throughout the Great Lakes area. They usually shown only a gradual decrease, and localized
lay three eggs in a clutch and average one to populations of gulls in highly industrialized
two offspring from the colony per season. In areas of Lake Erie and Lake Ontario still show
1969, the colony on Scotch Bonnet Island in physical and reproductive problems associated
Lake Ontario revealed an alarming young/ with chemical contaminants. The biomonitor-
adult ratio of 1:8 instead of the expected 1:2 ing of contaminants in colonial birds such as
ratio. Further studies showed that herring the herring gull has therefore become an es-
gulls were accumulating high concentrations sential source of information about the condi-
of organochlorines such as DDT (DDE), diel- tion of the environment in which we live.
efforts had been made previously in northern support a population of peregrines. A total of
Ontario, but neither was near the Sudbury 266 species of birds are known to occur in the
area. Second, the steady improvement in the area (Whitelaw 1989), with several being suit-
diversity of plant and animal life in the indus- able prey. Third, Falconbridge Limited, one of
trially damaged area was thought adequate to the mining companies originally responsible
158 Blomme and Laws
FIGURE 12.2. Large hack boxes

located on the east end of the
student residence at Laurentian
University overlook the dty of
Sudbury. Large painted num-
bers on the sides aided volun-
teers in describing locations of
their observations. (Photo by
K.P. Morrison.)
for some of the environmental degradation, Several hundred volunteers helped monitor
considered the project an ideal opportunity to the movement of birds, especially in the few
illustrate their commitment to improving and days after releases.
restoring industrially damaged ecosystems.
The fact that the species of interest was a fal-
con, the corporate logo of the company, made Urban Release-Sudbury
support for this particular program especially
appropriate. Finally, the project was a chance
(1990-1991)
for local government agencies to show that The release of peregrines into an area can occur
multiagency partnerships could be used to par- by augmentation, cross-fostering, or hacking
ticipate effectively in natural resources manage- (Burnham et a1. 1978; Sherrod et a1. 1981). The
ment and restoration efforts. first two techniques depend on having estab-
lished breeding pairs in the region. Therefore,
only the hacking technique was available to us.
Partnership The roof top of one of the student residences
at Laurentian University in Sudbury was chosen
The path from talking about a release to actu- for the hack box site (Fig. 12.2) (see Idle 1990)
ally making one happen requires the efforts of for details of construction). The site overlooked a
many dedicated individuals, contribution of woodland and nearby lake and met the follow-
money, and administrative support. The pro- ing criteria: (1) an unobstructed vista to permit
cess began with the involvement of several peregrines to orient themselves to surrounding
dynamic and determined individuals who pro- landscapes during the hacking phase; (2) protec-
moted the program as a partnership between tion from vandalism and predation; (3) suitable
government, industry, and academia and cap- locations for observers to watch released birds;
italized on the heightened interests in envi- and (4) adequate natural food supply and habi-
ronmental restoration in the Sudbury area. tat for young falcons to hunt.
However, what began as a partnership be- Birds arrived by air freight from Edmonton
tween agencies (Ontario Ministry of Natural each summer. A media presentation at the time
Resources, Falconbridge Limited, Noranda Inc., of arrival gave members of the press the oppor-
Laurentian University, World Wildlife Fund) tunity to obtain photographs of the young birds
soon expanded to involve the general public. (Fig. 12.3). The Sudbury peregrine story was
FIGURE 12.3. Warren Holmes

(Vice President and General
Manager, Falconbridge Ltd.)
and Karen Laws (District Biol-
ogist, Ministry of Natural Re-
sources-Sudbury) launch the
first year of Project Peregrine.
The co-operative venture was
the first of its kind in Ontario.
(Photo by M. Roche.)
FIGURE 12.4. Peregrine chicks are removed from

their shipping boxes and transferred to the hack
after the bands are verified. Note the sharp talons
and beak used for capturing and tearing prey.
(Photo by C. Blomme.)
televised on the Canadian national news in 1990. (Fig. 12.4). Standard, individually numbered,
Media personnel enthusiastically covered the per- eight-digit aluminum Canadian Wildlife Ser-
egrine release projects each summer. vice bands had been previously placed on one
Each bird was examined and its band num- leg of each bird. On the other leg, a bright red
ber recorded before being placed in a hack box aluminum band individually labeled with ei-
160 Blomme and Laws
FIGURE 12.5. These 4-week-old chicks have just been

placed in the hack box. The interior provides perches,
a feeding station, gravel, a hide, and a vista of the
surrounding landscape. (Photo by C. Blomme.)
ther two numbers, two letters, or a combina- aluminum bars, flap their wings vigorously,
tion (3E, A2) were present. These bands were and begin elevating off the floor. Sexual di-
used to identify individual birds at a distance morphism was evident, with females being
using binoculars or a spotting . scope. Birds larger than males of equivalent age.
were distributed to the various boxes accord-
ing to age. The birds' ages at arrival ranged
from 29 to 35 days, with an average of 32 days Release Day
for 1990 and 1991.
Sherrod et al. (1981) recommend that birds
should be 42-45 days of age when released.
Life in the Hack Box Sudbury's birds were 42-48 days of age on
release in 1990 and 41-46 days of age in 1991.
During the 2-week hacking period, the young Two releases occurred each year, with totals of
falcons, called eyasses, were monitored 24 hours 15 and 17 birds released in 1990 and 1991,
a day using concealed windows and remote respectively. Each release day depended on
cameras (Fig. 12.5). Initially, the birds were weather conditions and the developmental
fed small pieces of quail, but as the falcons stage of the chicks. Ideal conditions for release
grew, whole quail were delivered through feed- were clear days with a light breeze providing
ing tubes. Considerable care was taken to slight updrafts to assist with first flights. On the
avoid contact between the care givers and the morning of the release, food was placed out-
birds to prevent domestication. side the hack so that birds would initially asso-
Wing flapping behavior increased as devel- ciate food with the hack site. A water basin
opment progressed. As release time ap- with fresh water was placed near the hack
proached, some birds would cling to the front boxes for bathing.
FIGURE 12.6. This 49-day-old peregrine falcon

perched near an observer during its third day of
freedom. The red band on the left leg (band num-
ber 08) indicates it is a male from Sudbury's re-
lease. (Photo by C. Blomme.)
Observers with portable radios maintained a but when it approached for landing on the
continuous watch over the birds for the first roof, it pulled up at the last second, crashing
5 days after release, a critical period during into the wall, and fortunately, slid safely to the
which the birds attempt their first flights, learn ground. These types of incidents were noted
to manoeuver, and land. Many volunteers were on several "first" flights and were a constant
needed for these intense observations. In 1990, concern for the observers watching the birds
70 volunteers and, in 1991, 75 volunteers from learn to fly and land.
a variety of backgrounds and disciplines contrib- Peregrine visual capabilities are acute. After
uted to this co-operative venture. release, many birds would be flying after dark
Our first release day was July II, 1990. To (Courtin 1991; Hillis 1992). Hunting behavior
the delight of gathered representatives of the was noted within the first 5 days of release.
partners, television and other media crews, Perched birds would peck at and eat insects
and many interested members of the general and spiders, and flying birds would chase
public, all eight birds flew on the first day, monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus), sul-
three of them within the first hour (Fig. 12.6). phurs (Colias sp.), and hornets. As flying skills
The second release in 1990 and the two re- improved, the young peregrines concentrated
leases in 1991 were equally successful, with more on pursuing birds as prey. American
most birds flying on the first day. The longest goldfinch (Carduelis tristis) , starling (Sturnus
delay was female "HR" (46 days old), who vulgaris), and tree swallow (lridoprocne bicolor)
took her first flight 5 days post-release. were chased. Even a large great blue heron
Training and experience were obviously es- (Ardea herodias) was harassed by the young
sential for the young peregrines to develop peregrines. These chases appeared to be pre-
their tremendous aerobatic skills. For exam- cursors to actual capturing of prey at a later
ple, one bird took off and circled the residence, age. Confirmed kills were difficult to substan-
162 Blornme and Laws
tiate or observe. A rock dove (Columbia livia) lished at either end of the ridge to monitor
was the first confirmed kill by a peregrine at birds during the releases. A base camp was
16 days after the first release. One peregrine established at the bottom of the cliff for project
was also observed eating the remains of a sharp- staff. A helicopter was needed to transport the
shinned hawk (Accipiter striatus). crates containing the falcon chicks to the site.
Long periods of observations by volunteers The birds were fed and monitored daily for
and project staff resulted in many confirmed 2 weeks after arrival. Black bear (Ursus amer-
sightings of individual birds well after release. icanus) were common in the area and were a
In 1990, the last bird observation (band num- concern due to the presence of dead quail.
ber DU) was recorded on September 12, 6 Misto-van deodorizing chemical was applied
weeks after release. The average age of the 15 on the ground surrounding the hack boxes
birds at the time they were last observed was and proved to be a deterrent to bears ap-
76 days. As many as 11 falcons were seen on proaching the hack sites.
August 17, when the youngest and oldest During the releases, volunteers in canoes
birds would be 67 and 83 days of age, respec- observed the peregrines from the lake surface
tively. Birds began their southern movements at the base of the cliff. Climbing gear and
between August 10 and September 12, 1990. safety equipment were needed for safe ap-
In 1991, the average age of the 17 birds when proach to the hack boxes to remove frontal
last confirmed was 77 days. Three birds were barriers. Feeding boards were placed on the
seen on September 9. roof of two hack boxes, and later, only one
feeding station was maintained for the birds of
both releases.
Wilderness Release- Release of the 59 young peregrines at the re-
mote location went smoothly, with no ground-
Killarney Provincial Park ings observed. All birds flew within 1 hour of
(1992-1993) barrier removal. This was noticeably different
from the urban releases and was attributed to the
Peregrine falcons reach maturity between 2 older ages of the released birds. Birds were re-
and 3 years of age. At this time, a breeding leased at between 47 and 52 days of age at Hawk
territory would usually be established and de- Ridge. The extra hack time was intended to en-
fended by a male. If a nest happened to be sure stronger development of young falcons to
located close to the hack box site, a territorial reduce the chance of groundings and slow fliers,
male may chase newly released peregrines. as observed in the urban releases.
Therefore, in the third year of the program the Flight development and hunting techniques
hack boxes were moved to a new site, located developed similarly to the urban released birds
at Hawk Ridge (elevation, 310 m) in a wilder- but were more spectacular to observe over the
ness park, approximately 60 km south of Sud- hills and forests of this wilderness park. Birds
bury. Steep cliffs in the park provided potential dispersed from the area by the third week of
nesting sites; natural food was plentiful; risk of August. The average time to dispersal for the
predation and human interference was low; urban and wilderness releases was similar at
and access for staff was challenging but possi- 35 days.
ble. Again, more than 70 volunteers from the
park campgrounds and Sudbury community
offered assistance at the new site.
Many challenging logistical problems had to North American
be overcome at this remote site. Four hack Monitoring
boxes had to be secured to the edge of the cliff
with stainless-steel cables (Fig. 12.7), and con- Monitoring of the success of this endangered
cealed observation stations had to be estab- species recovery project would not be possible
FIGURE 12.7. The location of the hack boxes on Hawk

Cliff above George Lake in Killarney Provincial Park
was very different from the urban release at Sudbury.
The vista revealed little human development. (Photo
by C. Blomme.)
without an intricate network of communica- female returned to Sudbury 1 year after re-
tions across North America. Observations by lease. A female released in Sudbury in 1990
avid naturalists, conservationists, and other in- was observed with a mate at the Toronto wa-
terested people provide reports of banp sightings terfront in October 1993. One of the returning
to the u.s. Department of Fish and Wildlife or birds has been the subject of a detailed follow-
the Canadian Wildlife Service. In 1990, one of up study that is described in Box 12.2. As of
Sudbury's birds, female "DY," was identified June 1994, there have been no other con-
and photographed in Terre Haute, Indiana, on firmed sightings of the rest of the birds, but we
September 12, 35 days and 1000 km away assume that many are alive.
from her Sudbury origin. Female Z4, released
July 23, 1993, was observed in good condition
in Cape May, New Jersey, on September 27. Benefits of the Partnership
Since beginning in 1990, our project has
released 91 falcons to their historical range This re-introduction of peregrine falcons could
(Fig. 12 .8). Fifteen sightings have been re- not have been as successful without the part-
ported, 6 of which were mortalities. Two birds nership approach. The birds were the prindpal
were shot, one while a person was protecting benefidary of the partnership, but the partners
his pigeons; one bird hit a glass building in Los also benefited. For example, there wereirn-
Angeles, California; one bird was found as a mediate and tangible benefits for partners
carcass; and two birds were hit by cars while in such as tax credits and positive publidty for
pursuit of prey. One bird fell into a sewage sponsoring industries, as well as less tangible
treatment site and was subsequently rehabili- but still very useful information exchange
tated and released in Florida. Two males and a through personal involvement, a benefit that
164 Blomme and Laws
FIGURE 12.8. An adult pere-

grine falcon looks very differ-
ent from first- and second-year
birds. This male is one of the
original breeders from Camp
Wainwright, Alberta. Note the
prominent black fadal crest and
the buffy dear chest. (Photo by
C. Blomme.)
can greatly assist in future cooperative efforts. commitment, flexibility, awareness of the
The direct exchange of environmental and na- goals and needs of all involved, frequent and
tural history information, particularly with the extensive communication, humility, and an
volunteers and other members of the general appreciation of the contributions and some-
public, was one of the most rewarding parts of times the limitations of each member. No
this program. doubt, many partnerships can be expensive,
One should not overstate the ease with inefficient, and difficult to maintain, but to
which such partnerships can be formed or our knowledge there has been little objec-
suggest that they will always be successful. tive analysis of the factors (e.g., number of
Successful partnerships require considerable partners, level of financial contribution, du-
Box 12.2. Female AD's Story
On May 10, 1991, female AD was observed ing, the fostered young female established res-
in Sudbury on top of the building near the site idence in downtown Detroit. Her brother was
where she was released a year earlier. In Sep- observed flying toward Windsor, Ontario, near
tember of that year, she was regularly ob- the end of summer 1992.
served in downtown Detroit where she paired The Detroit peregrine staff have renamed
and mated with an unidentified subadult male our Sudbury female "Judy" and her mate
in the spring of 1992. These birds nested and "Pop." In 1993, Judy and Pop overwintered in
laid three eggs on a ledge beneath a fire escape downtown Detroit. Mating occurred in mid-
on the thirty-third floor of an office building. March. Four eggs were laid, with two healthy
The eggs proved non-viable. Close monitoring chicks hatching in mid-May. This was the first
by Detroit peregrine biologists resulted in a recorded wild hatching of peregrine falcons in
fostering operation. Two lO-day-old chicks, the Detroit, Michigan, area. Both chicks had
one male and one female, were exchanged for fledged by the end of August 1993 and were
the eggs. The two eyasses were immediately residing in the Detroit area. In 1994, Judy and
adopted and reared successfully. After fledg- Pop again produced two healthy chicks.
ration of project, administrative structure) Organochlorine residues in potential prey of per-

that contribute to success or failure. Given the egrine falcons, Falco peregrinus, Latin America.
need for partnership in environmental or eco- Can. Field-Naturalist 104:285-292.
Fyfe, R.W., S.A. Temple, and T.J.Cade. 1976. The
logical restoration, such analysis should be en-
1975 North American peregrine falcon survey.
couraged. Can. Field-Naturalist 84:228-273.
Godfrey, W.E. 1966. The Birds of Canada. Queen's
Printer, Ottawa.
Acknowledgments. We thank the partners and Griffith, B., J.M. Scott, J.W. Carpenter, and
all the volunteers for their interest and con- C. Reed. 1989. Translocation as a spedes conser-
tributions. A. Bradshaw, J. Gunn, J.D. Short- vation tool: status and strategy. Sdence 245:
house, and M. Wiseman provided many 477-480.
helpful suggestions and review comments. Halliday, T. 1978. Vanishing Birds: Their Natural
History and Conservation. Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, NY.
Hickey, J.J. 1942. Eastern population of the duck
References hawk. Auk 59:176-204.
Burnham, W.A., J. Craig, J.R. Enderson, and W.R. Hickey, J.J. (ed.). 1969. Peregrine Falcon Popula-
Heinrich. 1978. Artifidal increase in reproduc- tions: Their Biology and Decline. University of
tion of wild peregrine falcons. J. Wildlife Man- Wisconsin Press, Madison.
agement 42:625-628. Hickey, J.J., and D.W. Anderson. 1968. Chlori-
Cade, T.J., J.R. Enderson, e.G. Thelander, and e.M. nated hydrocarbons and eggshell changes in
White (eds.). 1988. Peregrine Falcon Populations: raptorial and fish-eating birds. Sdence 162:
Their Management and Recovery. The Peregrine 271-273.
Fund, Boise, ID. Hillis, T. 1992. Project Peregrine/Projet PeIerin-
Cade, T.J., and R. Fyfe (eds.). 1970. The North Ameri- Wilderness Release, Killarney Provindal Park
can peregrine survey, 1970. Can. Field-Naturalist 1992. Summary report. Laurentian University
84:231-245. Press, Sudbury.
Cade, T.J., J.1. Lincer, e.M. White, D.G. Roseneau, Idle, P.D. 1990. Project Peregrine/Projet Pelerin-
and 1.G. Swartz. 1971. DDE residues and egg- Sudbury 1990. Summary report. Laurentian Uni-
shell changes in Alaskan falcons and hawks. Sd- versity Press, Sudbury.
ence 172:945-957. Kiff, 1.F. 1988. Commentary-changes in the sta-
Carson, R. 1962. Silent Spring. Houghton Mifflin, tus of the peregrine in North America: an over-
Boston. view, pp. 123-140. In T.J. Cade, J.H. Enderson,
Courtin, e. 1991. Project Peregrine fProjet Pelerin- e.M. Thelander, and C.M. White (eds.). Pere-
Sudbury 1991. Summary report. Laurentian Uni- grine Falcon Populations: Their Management
versity Press, Sudbury. and Recovery. The Peregrine Fund, Boise, ID.
Erickson, G., R. Fyfe, R. Bromley, G.L. Holroyd, Luoma, J.R. 1991. The deadly legacy of DDT. Wild-
D. Mossop, B. Munro, R. Nero, C. Shank, and life Conservation 94:26-35.
T. Wiens. 1988. Anatum Peregrine Falcon Re- Newton, I., and J. Bogan. 1974. Organochlorine
covery Plan. Canadian Wildlife Service, Environ- residues, eggshell thinning, and hatching suc-
ment Canada, Ottawa. cess in British sparrowhawks. Nature 249:582-
Fyfe, R.W. 1976. Rationale and success of the Cana- 583.
dian Wildlife Service Peregrine Breeding Project. Nisbet, I.C.T. 1988. Summary, pp. 851-855. In
Can. Field-Naturalist 90:308-319. T.J. Cade, J.R. Enderson, C.G. Thelander, and
Fyfe, R. W. 1988. The Canadian peregrine falcon C.M. White (eds.). Peregrine Falcon Popula-
recovery program, 1967-1985, pp. 773-778. In tions: Their Management and Recovery. The
T.J. Cade, J.H. Enderson, e.G. Thelander, and Peregrine Fund, Boise, ID.
C.M. White (eds.). Peregrine Falcon Populations: Peakall, D.B. 1976. The peregrine falcon (Falco per-
Their Management and Recovery. The Peregrine egrinus) and pestiddes. Can. Field-Naturalist 90:
Fund, Boise, ID. 301-307.
Fyfe, R.W., U. Banasch, V. Benavides, N.H. de Ben- Ratcliffe, D.A. 1967. Decrease in eggshell weight in
avides, A.Luscombe, and J. Sanchez. 1991. certain birds of prey. Nature 215:208-210.
166 Blomme and Laws
Ratcliffe, D.A. 1970. Changes attributable to pes- Method for Releasing Peregrine Falcons and
ticides in egg breakage frequency and eggshell Other Birds of Prey. The Peregrine Fund, Ithaca,
thickness in some British birds. J. Appl. Ecol. NY.
7:67-115. Whitelaw, C. 1989. Seasonal Occurrence of Birds
Sherrod, S.K., W.R. Heinrich, W.A. Burnham, in the Sudbury District. Sudbury. Unpublished
J.H. Barclay, and T.J. Cade. 1981. Hacking: A report.
Section D
Research Topics in
Restoration Ecology
John Cairns, Jr.
Since the beginning of the agricultural revolution, the rate of

ecological destruction has markedly exceeded the rate of ecologi-
cal recovery. Natural ecosystems have suffered perturbations that
have resulted in displacement of species, loss of ecological func-
tion and structure, and diminution of ecological integrity. The
newly developing field of restoration ecology is, in a very real
sense, an attempt to accelerate and enhance the natural recovery
processes so that the integrity of a damaged ecosystem can be
fully or partially restored. Because each ecosystem is the product
of a sequence of biological, climatological, and other processes,
precise replication of the predamaged condition is highly improb-
able (Cairns 1989). Therefore, most r~storation will be an attempt
to re-establish a naturalistic assemblage of organisms compatible
with the chemical/physical environment that exists.
Current evidence suggests that ecological restoration will be
most effective when carried out at the landscape level (NRC
1992). Restoration efforts are also more likely to be successful and
endure once completed if human society is sufficiently environ-
mentally literate to understand both the ecological values and the
human values resulting from restoration. Figure D.l provides an
illustrative matrix showing a number of choices that reflect both
ecological and societal values.
Design criteria for ecological restoration and maintenance pro-
jects should reflect both human behavior and needs as well as the
ecological needs of project species and habitat. Estimating these is
a formidable undertaking, far beyond the capabilities of a single
individual or single discipline. However, if the present rates of
ecological destruction and human population continue to in-
crease, for even a few additional decades, ecosystem services per
capita will almost certainly be below the level necessary for sus-
tained long-term use. lllustrative ecosystem services are reg-
ulation of the atmospheric gas balance, improvement of water
169
170 D. Research Topics in Restoration Ecology
Human Human FIGURE D.I. (From National Research Council

AcceptabtlJty Desirability
Threshold Threshold
1992.)
Ecological
- DesirabilIty
Threshold
Ecological
Acceptability
Threshold
0 2
Human Value
BIll lall-nEII!!1!tI i:iii.. 61,;rmm

AD Unacceptable Unacceptable
A1 Unacceptable Acceptable
A2 Unacceptable Desirable
80 Acceptable Unacceptable
81 Acceptable Acceptable
82 Acceptable Desirable
CO Desirable Unacceptable
C1 Desirable Acceptable
C2 Desirable Desirable
quality, provision of models for new drugs and medicines, provi-

sion of genetic pools for agricultural crops (especially those that
will be necessary if global climate. change occurs), and that feeling
of well-being so difficult to quantify but which large numbers of
people seek on their vacations and free time by associating with
natural systems.
Communicating effectively about ecological and societal value
systems and reaching compromises will indeed be a challenge.
Success at achieving this environmental literacy will occur if
ecological values are given the same attention as human values.
At present, most humans consider themselves apart from ecosys-
tems rather than a part of ecosystems.
As a number of chapters in this book have shown, eliminating
or markedly reducing the source of the problem (e.g., emission
controls) may result in remarkable recovery, as was the case for
the River Thames in England (Gameson and Wheeler 1977) .
However, I have personally encountered a number of ecosystems
(as remote from my home institute as Hobart, Tasmania, and as
close as the surface mining in my home state of Virginia) where
ecosystem recovery has not occurred long after the stress had
been eliminated or markedly reduced. Clearly, for the latter in-
stances, the ecosystem "medicine" of Rapport (1984) will be
necessary if the "patient" is to recover.
D. Research Topics in Restoration Ecology 171
FIGURE D.2. (From National Research Council 1992.)
ioeo A
S"Udr,on
c
Q)
E
.,
<II
<II
<II

<II
"0
.,
iii
o
Time Scale
As Kauffman (1993) noted, a new science, the science of com-

plexity, is emerging. This particular science, together with the
dawning of the information age, will certainly result in major
transformations of the social, economic, and ecological systems in
the next century and perhaps at the end of this one. The sdence
of complexity and the information age are inextricably linked, but
they are phenomena deserving individual attention. Complex
adaptive systems achieve, in a lawlike way, the edge of chaos
(Kauffman 1993). This is a consequence of the fact that organ-
isms, economic entities, nations, and ecosystems do not merely
evolve but rather coevolve.
One of Kauffman's (1993) hypotheses that strikes me as particu-
larly relevant to restoration ecology is that a coevolving individ-
ual does not benefit, but in fact does worse, by calculating too far
into the future. My own interpretation of this is that if we are to
develop a partnership with nature as an alternative to exploiting
natural systems, our coevolution must begin with preventing
damage and repairing damage wherever possible. Included in this
"wherever possible" are economic considerations that may use
opportunity-cost analysis rather than the traditional cost-benefit
analysis. This entails repairing ecosystems so that money spent in
such activities will generate the greatest social good rather than
fixing blame for the destruction and assigning the costs of repair
to the "guilty." Figure D.2 illustrates this point. If Kauffman's
speculation is correct, society could move gradually from the box
in the lower left-hand comer of the figure (usual case) to the box
in the upper right-hand comer (ideal situation). Trying to leap
immediately to the ideal situation would almost certainly be
counterproductive.
The good news about ecological restoration is that, despite the
fact that it is a new field (as scientific fields go), practically all
attempts at ecological restoration result in significant improve-
ment in ecological integrity and condition. In fact, the field is too
new to have a long history that will determine whether the
172 D. Research Topics in Restoration Ecology
systems return to predisturbance condition or some approxima-

tion thereof or, more important, whether they ultimately become
self-maintaining. Monitoring recovery rates and trajectories at
landscape damage sites such as Sudbury provide important op-
portunities to track this process. However, despite uncertainties
about the future condition of "restored ecosystems," the fact that
they are vastly better than the damaged condition is comforting.
What is less comforting is the fact that restoration may cost an
order of magnitude or more than the cost of preservation, some-
thing that is true of health and a variety of other factors affecting
the human condition.
References
Cairns, J., Jr. 1989. Restoring damaged ecosystems: is predisturbance
condition a viable option? Environ. Prof. 11:152-159.
Gameson, A.L.H., and A. Wheeler. 1977. Restoration and recovery of the
Thames estuary, pp. 72-101. In J. Cairns, Jr., K.L. Dickson, and E.E.
Herricks (eds.). Recovery and Restoration of Damaged Ecosystems.
University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA.
Kauffman, S.A. 1993. The sciences of complexity and "origins of order."
Ann. Earth 11(3):19-26.
National Research Council. 1992. Restoration of Aquatic Ecosystems. Na-
tional Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
Rapport, D.J. 1984. State of ecosystem medicine, pp. 315-324. In V.W.
Cairns, P.V. Hodson, and J.~. Nriagu (eds.). Contaminant Effects on
Fisheries. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
13
Dynamics of Plant Communities and
Soils in Revegetated Ecosystems:
A Sudbury Case Study
Keith Winterhalder
root system, affording greater stability to the

Trigger Factor Effect seedling and protecting it against drought and
frost-heaving. Ultimately, the insulating effect
Colonization of the Sudbury barrens by metal- of leaf litter also contributes to the reduction
intolerant plants is inhibited by metal in frost activity.
toxicity under highly acidic conditions, exac-
erbated by enhanced frost action (see Chap-
ter 7). It was once believed that revegetation
of the barren soils would only be achieved if Limestone Detoxification
they were deeply tilled, bringing the less-
contaminated soil to the surface, but Win-
of Sudbury Soils
terhalder (1974) observed that disturbance
The detoxifying effect of limestone on Sud-
or minimal treatment of contaminated soils
bury's acidic metal-contaminated soils is the
in the Sudbury area with limestone or fertil-
net result of several mechanisms:
izer led to rapid colonization by tickle grass
(Agrostis scabra). Later, it was found that a 1. precipitation of copper and nickel from
thin surface sprinkling of ground limestone solution if a sufficiently high pH is
would lead to establishment of woody plants achieved
such as white birch (Betula papyri/era), trem- 2. reduction in the toxicity of aluminum
bling aspen (Populus tremuloides), and willows ions as they combine with hydroxyl ions
(Salix spp.) (Fig. 13.1). Because this "minimal 3. enhanced plasma membrane integrity in
amelioration" (Skaller 1981) appeared to ini- the cells of the root hairs, improving the
tiate spontaneous colonization by metal- plant's ability to selectively exclude toxic
intolerant plants from a local seed source, it ions
was referred to as a "trigger factor" (Win- 4. reducing metal ion uptake by mass ac-
terhalder 1983). tion effect of calcium and magnesium on
This simple approach works for several rea- the root hairs' exchange complex
sons. The stony mantle that covers the eroded, 5. increased availability of soil phospho-
glacial till-derived soils of the slopes traps rus, which acts as a plant nutrient as
limestone particles and seeds. Detoxification of well as a partial protection against alu-
the surface allows the development of a deep minum toxicity
173
174 Winterhalder
FIGURE 13.1. Colonization by

birch seedlings of a 1-m2 plot
in a sernibarren birch wood-
land near FaIconbridge, photo-
graphed on August 10, 1985.
The acid- and metal-tolerant
moss Pohlia nutans had been
sprinkled with a light covering
of ground dolomitic limestone
on September 22, 1979.
pH and Base Dynamics on Manual methods of limestone application

ensure a mosaic of soil pH and base content,
Limed Soil engendering both floristic and genetic diver-
sity in the colonizing species, especially with
Limestone treatments normally increase soil respect to metal tolerance. A decade after lim-
pH by between one and two units. For exam- ing' a clear correlation exists between soil pH
ple, at the site shown in Figure 13.2, the un- and the species that it supports. The soil under
limed land dominated by metal-tolerant tufted birch and the acid-tolerant moss is in the pH
hairgrass (Deschampsia caespitosa) has a soil pH 4.0-5.0 range, whereas pearly everlasting (An-
of approximately 4.0, whereas the adjacent aphalis margaritacea, a native wildflower) and
limed land supporting a lush growth of the two seeded legumes (Alsike clover [Trifo-
grasses, forbs, and woody plants has a pH of lium hybridum] and birdsfoot trefoil [Lotus
approximately 6.0. corniculatus]) are associated with soil in the pH
FIGURE 13.2. Treated-untreated

boundary south of Copper Cliff
in July 1992, showing tufted
hairgrass (Deschampsia caespitosa)
in the untreated foreground
and a lush growth of woody
plants in the background, which
was limed, fertilized, and seeded
10 years previously.
13. Plant Communities in Revegetated Ecosystems 175
FIGURE 13.3. Ten highest-ranking species on revege- Rumex acetosella "'"

tated Sudbury barrens. Species marked with (S) Agrostls glgantea (S """
were seeded; others are volunteers. The species are Anaphalls margarUace "','"
Populus balsamller 'N.','N.'
ranked by mean Cover/Frequency Index (Relative Carex aenea .'.'.'.','.'.'
Cover + Relative Frequency/2) and based on 1684 Betula papyrllera .,.,
quadrats (1 m 2 ) in 45 transects on land treated 10- Poa compres$3 IS)
Salix pyrllolla
" . " " ,
.,. ',' , ',',',' ',",
14 years previously. lotus corniculatus {S ,',',',',',',',',',',',',',',',',',','
Populus tremulolde ""'"','''''',,'''''''
o 10 20
COVERIFREOUENCY INDEX
5.0-6.0 range. Calcium and magnesium con- in the liming material confers plant nutritional
centrations (the fraction extractable with di- benefits, but preliminary experiments have in-
lute acid) show a pattern similar to that for pH, dicated that dolomitic limestone (calcium
with moss and birch associated with low base magnesium carbonate) is more effective than
cation concentrations and trefoil and clover calcitic limestone (calcium carbonate) as a soil
with high values, pearly everlasting being in- ameliorant in certain sites, and it is likely that
termediate. Although these patterns may par- high calcium levels in soils limed with calcitic
tially indicate the "preferences" of particular limestone can actually induce magnesium de-
plant species, competition is also an important ficiency in plants. The possible antagonistic or
factor in species distribution. For example, the protective effect of magnesium with respect to
birch is probably occupying available niches nickel toxicity is also under investigation.
that are not necessarily optimal but are too
acid for the other species.
The plants may themselves influence the Changes in Species
soil chemistry. Although it might be expected
that the neutralizing power of the applied Composition after Treatment
limestone will become exhausted, leading to
regression of the plant community, the detox- In general, a mixture of seeded and volunteer
ification of the surface allows for the penetra- species dominates a site 10 years or so after it
tion of roots into a larger volume of soil and has been treated (Fig. 13.3). The principal col-
facilitates the movement of calcium and mag- onists of amended Sudbury barrens are wind-
nesium to the surface. This mechanism of soil- dispersed, and although there is a small
base enrichment has been referred to as a persistent seed bank of tickle grass and white
"cation pump" by Aber (1987), who pointed birch, most of the seed source is from the seed
out that some tree species are better cation rain, which differs from site to site. Figure 13.4
pumps than others, with poplars and spruces shows an area west of the abandoned smelter
being some of the best for base enrichment. at Coniston that was previously barren except
However, not all trees produce this effect. The for relict white birch and red oak, its grass-le-
leaf litter from some trees such as pines actu- gume sward dominated by redtop (Agrostis
ally acidifies the forest floor. The current pro- gigantea) 1 year after treatment. Six years later,
cedure in the Sudbury area, of establishing a the grassed area was extensively colonized by
vigorous growth of birch and poplar before or white birch. Figure 13.5 shows another barren
concurrently with the planting of pines, there- site, south of the Copper Cliff smelter. 'Six
fore seems to be the correct choice. years after liming and grassing, the dominant
It has been suggested that as copper and woody colonist was trembling aspen.
nickel toxicity decreases, calcium and magne- Plant colonization processes on treated land
sium (as well as phosphorus and nitrogen) differ qualitatively as well as quantitatively
might become limiting to plant growth (Lo- from natural processes on untreated lands (see
zano and Morrison 1981). Clearly the calcium Fig. 13.2). In general, the relative importance
176 Winterhalder
FIGURE 13.4. (Upper photo)

Grassed site near the aban-
doned Coniston smelter in 1980
(seeded 1979), showing grass
cover dominated by redtop
(Agrostis gigantea) and scattered
"relict" white birch and red
oak. (Lower photo) The same
site in 1986, showing coloniza-
tion of grassed area by white
birch.
of metal-tolerant species is likely to be lower ture, fertilizer, and limestone type and level)
in areas that have been treated. For example, at seeded sites, it appears that once the "trigger
at sites where natural colonization by white factor" is applied, other natural forces take
birch is occurring, liming allows for the estab- over, and a very similar colonization process
lishment of trembling aspen, but there is no occurs. However, there are striking differences
indication that birch growth is also stimulated between sites that have been seeded with the
(Fig. 13.6). In this case, liming has provided a grass-legume mixture and those that are un-
competitive advantage to aspen. seeded, with as many as 10 to 20 times fewer
Over the years that follow treatment, the woody plant individuals colonizing seeded
importance of introduced species may rise for sites (per unit area).
a period (see the example of nitrogen-fixing Because the application of limestone alone
birdsfoot trefoil), but there is a general ten- is sufficient to initiate plant growth, one could
dency for introduced species to decrease and argue that seed and fertilizer application is
for native species to increase (Fig. 13.7). Re- superfluous, wasteful of resources, and eco-
gardless of treatment differences (e.g., seed mix- logically inappropriate. Seeding does assist in
FIGURE 13.5. (Uppr:r photo)

North shore of Kelly Lake near
the Copper Cliff smelter during
the liming procedure in 1983.
(Lower photo) The same site in
1989, showing colonization of
grassed land by trembling
aspen.
40
IZI Betula papyrifera

Populus tremuloides
30
II:
W
>
o
U
20
ffl.
10
FIGURE 13.6. Percentage cover of white birch

(Betula papyriJera) and trembling aspen (Populus
tremuloides) across a liming boundary 14 years 1 23 4 5 6 7 891011121314151617181920
after treatment. .UIHREATEO-TREATEO.

178 Winterhalder
40 FIGURE 13.7. Change in relative importance of

--- 0 -- ' Agros IS glgantea (S)
four plant species over the first 14 years after
)(
UJ
0 ....... .. ... lolUS cornlculatus (S)
,,
iii
treatment. S, seeded.
-
~ Anaphalls margar~acea
30 ,
a:
UJ
>
, POpuluS lremulrndes
0
20

u
>= b O Iil" .............. ........... .... ... ..
u ....
z ~
UJ 10 ii' b ...
::::I
0
UJ
a:
. ?" ~ ---.-.... -'8
LL 0
0 5 10 15
YEARS AFTER SEEDING
rapidly achieving the aesthetic goals of "re- cies such as red cedar (Juniperus virginiana)
greening" (Chapter 8) and contributes to soil formed nuclei for the initiation of patches of
stabilization, microclimate amelioration, and ni- other "persistent" species that spread and
trogen fixation, but the agronomic cover also eventually coalesced. Miller (1978) suggested
seems to have another beneficial effect. Un- that such an approach might be taken in re-
seeded areas develop a dense thicket of birch, vegetation, in that selected "pioneer" species
poplar, and willow undergoing vigorous compe- could be planted in clumps, then the persistent
tition, whereas the woody plants in seeded areas species introduced into the clumps once the
colonize in an open random fashion, leading to pioneers are well established.
good spatial and structural diversity in the stand. A modification of this approach is under in-
Seeding or planting and natural coloniza- vestigation on the revegetated Sudbury barrens
tion or "succession" are by no means mutually as a means of introducing understory species
exclusive, because the seeded or planted vege- characteristic of the targeted plant community.
tation acts as a "nurse crop" to the colonists. When native species are transplanted from their
Like the pioneer species that initiate natural suc- natural environment in blocks of their own soil,
cession, a nurse crop facilitates colonization by seedlings or propagules of associated species are
enhancing the microenvironment, reducing inevitably introduced with them. For example,
evapotranspiration and increasing snow cover. species introduced incidentally during the trans-
It also plays a critical role in trapping wind- plantation of soapberry (Shepherdia canadensis)
blown seeds. However, competition, usually and bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi) include
from grasses, can form a barrier to colonization common juniper (Juniperus communis), white
and succession on many reclamation sites, as spruce (Picea glauca), wild strawberry (Fraga ria
well as competing with planted trees for light virginiana), wild basil (Satureja vulgaris), balsam
and nutrients (Bradshaw and Chadwick 1980) ragwort (Senedo pauperculus), starry false solo-
and forming a winter habitat for bark-gnawing mon's seal (Smiladna stellata), wood-lily (Lilium
rodents. However, in the Sudbury land recla- philadelphicum), yellow lady-slipper (Cypripedium
mation program, the use of low seed and fertil- calceolus), and several species of asters (Asterspp.)
izer rates, probably assisted by the stony soil, and goldenrods (Solidago spp.). This procedure is
seems to have eliminated the competition factor. likely to be equally beneficial with respect to the
introduction of appropriate soil microorganisms.
Native Transplants as a Acceleration of Succession

Form of Nucleation
The restoration ecologist can test the various
In their study of the Grand Bend sand dunes hypotheses that attempt to explain succession
on Lake Huron, Yarranton and Morrison (1974) by the appropriate use of manipulation (Har-
noticed that individuals of certain pioneer spe- per 1987). For example, an attempt can be
made to "bypass" some of the normal seral Canada bluegrass (Poa compressa) in 1974,
stages by soil amelioration (simulating the ef- 20 years later they were able to support clonal
fects of the previous seral stage according to patches of trembling aspen and sweet fern
the relay floristics hypothesis) or by planting (Comptonia peregrina), as well as jack pine (Pinus
species that are usually "later colonists" or banksiana) and red pine (P. resinosa) plantations,
have a poor dispersal mechanism. The latter suggesting that once plants are able to explore
approach is taken in Sudbury's land reclama- the deeper soil, the necessary phosphorus be-
tion program, where the three native pines comes available.
(jack, red, and white) do not colonize im- On the stony slopes, the reservoir of phos-
mediately in the absence of a suitable seed bed phorus present in the residual organic matter
but are planted on treated land within the first is sufficient to support plant growth for several
few years after treatment (Beckett and Negu- years, depending on the degree of erosion that
santi 1990). They are planted in small groups has occurred. Furthermore, limestone applica-
to avoid the appearance of a plantation, and it tion has a beneficial effect in making phospho-
is hoped that they will form a seed source for rus in acid soils available to plants, both
future colonization. through the release of phosphate from inor-
Although the goal of the revegetation pro- ganic complexation (Brady 1974) and through
cess in Sudbury is a stable, functioning, quasi- the enhanced mineralization of organic matter
natural biotic community (Le., one that has as (Fransen 1991). Furthermore, there is also a
large a component as possible of species and small reservoir of phosphorus in the unweath-
biotypes that have evolved under the regional ered glacial till pebbles that characterize these
environment), a biotic community identical to soils, and the activities of vesicular-arbuscular
the "natural" one may be neither possible nor mycorrhizae, which aid in phosphorus nutri-
desirable as an endpoint. Not only is there no tion (Chapter 16), are also stimulated by lim-
uniquely natural association of species in the ing (Blundon 1976).
region, but ecological concepts such as "associ- Plant and soil analysis indicate that a signif-
ation" and "climax" are, to quote Whittaker icant buildup of phosphorus has occurred in
(1977) "abstractions; ... essentially human the revegetated system. The largest buildup is
creations serving to order, interrelate, and in- in the aboveground biomass, but with some
terpret some of the information about natural increase also in root systems and soil. Species
communities available to us." play distinct roles in the phosphorus cycle. For
example, in Alsike clover, most of the phos-
phorus is located in the soil and the plant
Nutrient Cycling and roots, whereas phosphorus buildup in birch is
mainly in the shoot system, with a smaller
the Potential for buildup in soil phosphorus.
Nutrient Limitations
Nitrogen
Phosphorus Nitrogen deficiency is often the dominant lim-
The phosphorus "working capital" in a soil or iting factor in land reclamation (Bradshaw and
in a soil parent material can limit the type of Chadwick 1980), but on the Sudbury barrens,
plant community that will ultimately occupy the residual organic matter satisfies nitrogen
the site (Beadle and Burges 1949). In the short needs for the first few years after treatment.
term, however, phosphorus limitation in the Nevertheless, once the residual nitrogen is ex-
Sudbury area has only been shown on some hausted, biological nitrogen fixation must be-
sandy soils, where phosphorus deficiency become part of the revegetation formula if a
comes a secondary limiting factor once metal maintenance-free system is to be restored.
toxicity is eliminated. Nevertheless, when The mature native forest of the Sudbury
such sites were limed, fertilized, and sown to area contains no leguminous species, nor do
180 Winterhalder
FIGURE 13.8. Black locust

growing on gullied clay soils
east of the abandoned Con-
iston smelter.
leguminous species play a role in succession Cycling and Fate of

after disturbance. The only common nitrogen-
fixer in upland sites is sweet fern, which plays Potentially Toxic Metals
a role in jack pine succession. In the Sudbury
area, relict stands of sweet fern occur on the A potential negative effect of revegetation
might be the translocation of metals by plants
barrens and often colonize sites that have been
from the soil into the terrestrial food chain.
limed but not necessarily seeded. Because vol-
Certainly, the copper and nickel contents of
unteer establishment of sweet fern on restored
the herbaceous vegetation first established on
sites is intermittent, acid-tolerant, cold-hardy,
reclaimed land are approximately 10 times as
and easily obtainable, nitrogen-fixing species
high as Freedman and Hutchinson's (1981)
such as birdsfoot trefoil and Alsike clover are "normal" values (Winterhalder et a1. 1984). In
incorporated into the seed mixture. the case of tree species, Beckett and Negusanti
On difficult sites, such as the silty clay "bad- (1990) compared 3-year-old jack pine needles
lands" where the direct seeding approach does from a revegetated site with those from a con-
not work, the small leguminous tree black locust trol site 50 km from Sudbury and found ele-
(Robinia pseudo-acacia) is planted (Beckett and vated levels of aluminum, copper, and nickel
Negusanti 1990) (Fig. 13.8). In its native habitat, in the former. Nevertheless, liming itself re-
black locust is a vigorous pioneer colonist of duces the potential metal uptake by plants.
disturbed sites in the southeastern deciduous Winterhalder et a1. (1984) have shown that
forest. Its tendency toward a growth decrease with metal-tolerant strains of tufted hairgrass,
and possible mortality after 10--20 years (Boring liming brings about a significant decrease in
and Swank 1984) suggests that it might playa leaf content of aluminum, copper, and nickel
useful role in soil stabilization and soil humus (aluminum> nickel> copper).
and nitrogen buildup before giving way to na- Although the detoxifying effect of liming on
tive woody species rather than persisting as an soil is a complex one, the reduced availability
aggressive weed. Also, it will be interesting to of metals after liming can still be demonstrated
observe what effect black locust will have on in chemical terms alone. Total metals in the
community dynamics, because there are reports soil have shown a reduction on revegetated
that this species provides a favorable environ- land over the 12-year period after liming as a
ment for colonizing by other woody species result of uptake of metal into plants and loss to
(e.g., Ashby et a1. 1980). the general environment. Some changes have
also taken place in untreated soils, and a re- sites ... , the nature of the toxicity is such that
duction in water-soluble copper and nickel has direct treatment is not completely satisfac-
been found in barren soils collected west of the tory." Bradshaw goes on to suggest that one
inactive Coniston smelter, presumably due to should look to metal-tolerant ecotypes as the
a combination of pH amelioration, leaching, answer, but the Sudbury experiment strongly
and erosion. suggests that in the case of metal-contami-
nated soils (if not in the case of mine wastes),
once the initial barrier to plant growth is over-
General Discussion come, the vegetation itself will continue to
ameliorate the soil by the production of insu-
Cairns (1979) proposed three management lating leaf litter and metal-chelating humus,
options for the reclamation of mined land: by transporting bases to the surface, by fixing
(1) doing nothing, (2) restoring to the original nitrogen, and by modifying the microclimate.
condition, or (3) reclaiming to an ecologically Ecologists can learn a great deal from the
improved and socially acceptable state. The observation of ecosystem degradation and res-
burgeoning "restorationist" movement has the toration (Cairns 1981; Bradshaw 1987a). The
second option as its commendable goal, but as dynamics of the Sudbury landscape will pro-
Cairns pointed out, this is rarely attainable, vide research opportunities for decades to
and the mutual acceptance of option 3 by come, especially the chance to compare paral-
ecologists and industry is the one most likely lel changes in treated and untreated land.
to lead to a nonadversarial and productive
working relationship. The Sudbury approach
appears to be a compromise of the sort pro- Acknowledgments. John Cairns, John Gunn,
posed by Cairns, in that the goal is a quasi- Robert Hedin, and Tom Peters kindly pro-
natural functioning ecosystem. Nevertheless, vided review comments.
wherever possible, barriers to the ultimate de-
velopment of the ecosystem toward the "cli-
max" should be removed (e.g., by providing References
nuclei of understory species and microbiota). Aber, J.D. 1987. Restored forests and identification
In a later paper, Cairns (1983) split ills second of critical factors in species-site interactions, pp.
option into "rehabilitation," in which the rec- 241-250. In W.R. Jordan, M.E. Gilpin, and J.D.
lamation moves in the general direction of Aber (eds.). Restoration Ecology. Cambridge Uni-
restoration, and "alternative ecosystems." versity Press, Cambridge.
Clearly, the Sudbury experience falls into the Ashby, w.e., e. Kolar, and N.F. Rodgers. 1980. Re-
rehabilitation category. sults of 30-year old plantations on surface mines
In the Sudbury Land Reclamation Program in the Central States, pp. 99-107. In Proceedings
(Winterhalder 1985, 1987, 1988), the use of of Trees for Reclamation in the Eastern United
minimal amelioration and minimal seeding States Symposium, Lexington, Kentucky, Octo-
rates makes for a lean, diverse physical envi- ber 27-29. General Technical Report NE-61.
ronment, with sparse initial cover, which is USDA Forest Service, Broomal, PA.
Beadle, N.e.W., and A. Burges. 1949. Working capital
very suitable for colonization by a diversity of
in a plant community. Aust. J. Sci. 11 :207-208.
species and probably by a diversity of genetic
Beckett, P.J., and J. Negusanti. 1990. Using land recla-
variants of some of the species. It also appears
mation practices to improve tree condition in the
to achieve the twin goals of optimal cover and Sudbury smelting area, Ontario, Canada, pp. 307-
optimal diversity, considered by Davis et al. 320. In J. Skousen et al. (eds.). Proceedings of 1990
(1985) to be incompatible. Mining and Reclamation Conference and Exhibi-
Based on a relatively short time frame of tion. West Virginia University, Morgantown.
15 years, the Sudbury story appears to be an Blundon, R.A. 1976. Vesicular-arbuscular mycor-
exception to Bradshaw's (1987b) statement rhizae in industrially denuded soils. B.Sc. thesis,
that "in the case of metal-contaminated Laurentian University, Sudbury, Ontario.
182 Wmterhalder
Boring, loR., and W.T. Swank. 1984. The role of Canadian Land Reclamation Association, Lau-
black locust (Robinia pseudo-acacia) in forest suc- rentian University, May 29-June 1, 1978. CLRA,
cession. J. Ecol. 72(3):749-766. Guelph, Ontario.
Bradshaw, A.D. 1987a. The reclamation of derelict Skaller, P.M. 1981. Vegetation management by min-
land and the ecology of ecosystems, pp. 23-29. In imal interference: working with succession. Land-
W.R. Jordan, M.E. Gilpin, and J.D. Aber (eds.). scape Planning 8:149-174.
Restoration Ecology. Cambridge University Press, Whittaker, R.H. 1977. Recent evolution of ecologi-
Cambridge. cal concepts in relation to the eastern forests of
Bradshaw, A.D. 1987b. Restoration: an acid test for North America, pp. 340-358. In History of Amer-
ecology, pp. 54-74. In w.R. Jordan, M.E. Gilpin, ican Ecology. Amo Press, New York.
and J.D. Aber (eds.). Restoration Ecology. Cam- Winterhalder, K 1974. Reclamation studies on in-
bridge University Press, Cambridge. dustrial barrens in the Sudbury area. In Proceed-
Bradshaw, A.D., and M.J. Chadwick. 1980. The Res- ings of the Fourth Annual Workshop, Ontario
toration of Land. University of California Press, Cover Crop Committee, University of Guelph,
Berkeley. Ontario, December 1974.
Brady, N.C. 1974. The Nature and Properties of Winterhalder, K 1983. Limestone application as a
Soils. 8th ed. Macmillan, New York. trigger factor in the revegetation of acid, metal-
Cairns, J. 1979. Ecological considerations in reclaim- contaminated soils of the Sudbury area, pp. 201-
ing surface mined lands. Min. Environ. 1:83-89. 212. In Proceedings of the Canadian Land
Cairns, J. 1981. Restoration and management: an Reclamation Association, University of Waterloo,
ecologist's perspective. Restoration Management
Ontario, August 1983. CLRA, Guelph, Ontario.
Notes 1 (1):6-8.
Winterhalder, K 1985. The use of manual surface
Cairns, J. 1983. Management options for rehabilita-
seeding, liming and fertilization in the reclama-
tion and enhancement of surface-mined ecosys-
tion of acid, metal-contaminated land in the
tems. Miner. Environ. 5:32-38.
Sudbury, Ontario mining and smelting region of
Davis, B.N.K, KH. Lakhani, M.C. Brown, and D.G.
Canada, pp. 196-204. In D. Williams and S.E.
Park. 1985. Early seral communities in a lime-
stone quarry-an experimental study of treat- Fisher (eds.). Proceedings of the 1985 National
ment effects on cover and richness of vegetation. Meeting, American Society for Surface Mining
J. Appl. Ecol. 22(2):473-490. and Reclamation, Denver, Colorado, October 8-
Fransen, K. 1991. The effects of land reclamation 10,1985. ASSMR, Princeton, WV.
liming practices on phosphate fixation and Winterhalder, K 1987. The Sudbury Regional Land
release in acid, metal-contaminated Sudbury- Reclamation Program-an ecologist's perspec-
region soils. B.Sc. thesis, Laurentian Univer- tive, pp. 81-89. In P.J. Beckett (ed.). Proceedings
sity, Sudbury, Ontario. of the Twelfth Annual Meeting, Canadian Land
Freedman, B., and T.C. Hutchinson. 1981. Sources Reclamation Association, Laurentian University,
of metal and elemental contamination of terres- June 7-1 L 1987. CLRA, Guelph, Ontario.
trial environments, pp. 35-94. In N.W. Lepp Winterhalder, K 1988. Trigger factors initiating nat-
(ed.). Effect of Heavy Metal Pollution on Plants. ural revegetation processes on barren, acid,
Vol. 1. Effects of Trace Metals on Plant Function. metal-contamined soils near Sudbury, Ontario
Applied Science Publishers, London. smelters, pp. 118-124. In Mine Drainage and
Harper, J.L. 1987. The heuristic value of ecological Surface Mine Reclamation. Vol. 2. Information
restoration, pp. 23-29. In W.R. Jordan, M.E. Gil- Circular 9184. Dept of the Interior. U.S. Bureau
pin, and J.D. Aber (eds.). Restoration Ecology. of Mines, Pittsburgh, PA.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Winterhalder, K, P.J. Beckett, and M.R. Todd. 1984.
Lozano, F.C., and I.K Morrison. 1981. Disruption of Metal dynamics in a revegetated ecosystem at
hardwood nutrition by sulfur dioxide, nickel and Sudbury, Ontario, pp. 499-504. In Proceedings of
copper near Sudbury, Canada. J. Environ. Qual. the First Annual Conference on Environmental
10(2):198-204. Contamination, London, July 1984. CEP Consul-
Miller, G. 1978. A method of establishing native tants, Edinburgh.
vegetation on disturbed sites, consistent with the Yarranton, G.A., and R.G. Morrison. 1974. Spatial
theory of nucleation, pp. 322-327. In S.B. Lowe dynamics of a primary succession: nucleation. J.
(ed.). Proceedings of the Third Annual Meeting, Ecol. 62(2):417-428.
PLATE 1. LANDSAT image of Sudbury's industrial barrens (blue-gray area). Satellite image recorded
July 25, 1987.
PLATE 2. A 1979 picture of the 2286-m long O'Donnell roast yard that operated from 1916
to 1929. (Photo by W. McIlveen.)
PLATE 3. Microfossils of diatoms from lake sediments. (Photo courtesy of J. Smol.)
PLATE 4. Chaoborus larvae. (Photo courtesy of A.Uutala.)

PLATE 5. SuHur dioxide injury to white pine. (Photo by P. McGovern.)
PLATE 6. SuHur dioxide injury to white birch. (Photo by J. Negusanti.)

PLATE 7. Coppiced birch forest. (Photo by K. Wmterhalder.)
PLATE 8. A fruticose lichen, an indicator of improving air quality. (Photo by J. Gunn.)

PLATES 9-11. Revegetation of the Cam-
brian Heights site in Sudbury. (Photos by
K. Wmterhalder.)
July 29, 1981
May 20,1982
July 6,1988
PLATE 12. Aurora trout lakes 110 km
north of Sudbury. (Photo by E. Snucins.)
PLATE 13. Pouring slag. (Photo by B.

Chambers.)
PLATE 14. Soil pH for two sub-

waterheads at Daisy Lake. (Photo
by A. Gallie.)
PLATE 15. Male aurora trout in spawn-
ing colors. (Photo by E. Snucins.)
PLATE 16. Tailings disposal. (Photo

by K. Wmterhalder.)
PLATE 17. Soil pH draped over to-

pography at Daisy Lake sub-
watersheds. (Photo by A. Gallie.)
PLATE 18. Aerial view of downtown Sudbury.
14
Lake Sediments: Sources or Sinks of
Industrially Mobilized Elements?
Nelson Belzile and J. Robert Morris
The once rather pessimistic outlook on the might slow the rate of lake recovery. There are
environmental impact of trace elements dis- strong indications that in sulfur-rich sediments
persed from Sudbury's smelters is gradually containing little or no oxygen, the precipitation
being replaced by a more optimistic view. The of sulfide minerals can greatly limit the solubility
optimism has been prompted by several clear of many trace elements (Carignan and Nriagu
indications that the recent period of declining 1985). Although, in contrast, oxygen-rich sed-
smelter emissions has resulted in both biologi- iments generally show undersaturation with
cal (Gunn and Keller 1990; Keller et al. 1992a) respect to trace element solid phases (Tessier
and chemical (Keller et al. 1992b) improve- 1992), trace element dissolution may, in fact, be
ments in local lakes. insignificant because oxygen-rich sediments
Lake sediments can become the ultimate commonly have a high content of iron and
site of deposition for many of the .trace ele- manganese oxyhydroxides, and these insol-
ments introduced into the environment, but uble compounds exhibit a great capacity for
sediments cannot be considered as a stable and trace metal sorption.
non-reactive milieu. Potent chemical and bio- In this chapter, we present details on some
chemical reactions and transformations occur of the processes controlling the solubility and
in the sediments, making the biogeochemical hence the mobility of metals and other trace
behavior of deposited trace elements highly elements in lake sediments near Sudbury and
dynamic. The relevant processes include mi- discuss the consequences of lowered sulfur
crobially mediated decomposition of organic emission rates and in-lake sulfur reduction on
matter, precipitation and dissolution of miner- sediment pH and trace element geochemistry.
als, sorption and desorption of trace elements
on living and non-living particles, and the dif-
fusion of dissolved constituents along concen- Chemical Element Profiles
tration gradients (Fig. 14.1).
In this context, it is relevant to ask whether
in Lake Sediments
processes in the lake sediments influence the Facilities for smelting copper and nickel ores
rate or extent of whole-lake recovery and are everywhere known as a major source of
whether the sediment environment itself exhib- atmospheric emissions of iron, sulfur, and the
its either beneficial or undesirable responses. In trace elements antimony, arsenic, cadmium,
particular, if sediments release potentially harm- cobalt, copper, lead, nickel, selenium, and zinc
ful chemicals back to the overlying waters, this (Nriagu and Pacyna 1988). What happens to
183
184 Belzile and Morris
DIssolved (or CompIexed) Trace Elements < - > Sorption Processes DIssolved (or Complexod) Trace Elements < - > Sorption Processes
Coagulation Coagulation
OxlcWlltet
SedlmenllltJon SedlmenllltJon
Overlying Wllter
PracipitetJon 01 oxides
SorptJon
Anoxk:Wllte,
PracipitatJon 01 oxides
Oxk: Sediment SorptJon
+~ .-
PredpltatJon oj Sulfides
Sediment
RedissoMlon - > Oiftusion Processes
Desorption
Anoxk: Sediment
PredpltatJon oj SulfIdes
Sedlmenta under oxic hypolimnion watere Sedlmenta under anoxic hypolimnion waters
FIGURE 14.1. Schematic representation of the processes controlling the behavior of trace elements in
sediments.
these elements after they fall into or are car- Nriagu and Rao 1987) show a sharp decline in
ried into lakes in the Sudbury area? the metal content of the most recently de-
It is apparent from many inve~tigations that posited sediment in Clearwater, Silver, and
significant quantities of trace elements have McFarlane lakes.
been deposited in the sediments of Sudbury The decline in metal levels in the upper
area lakes, and sulfur, copper, and nickel en- layer (i.e., the most recent sediments) could be
richment can still be detected more than 60 a reflection of lowered smelter emission rates
km away (Semkin and Kramer 1976; Nriagu (Nriagu and Rao 1987). However, the fine-
et al. 1982). Enrichment factors, defined as the scale distribution patterns of trace elements in
ratio of total element concentration in the sur- the surface sediments must be interpreted with
fidallayer to the average concentration in the caution because trace elements levels may be
deeper or precolonial layers, are generally influenced by chemical transformations and
lower in the addic than the non-addic lakes element remobilization that occurred after de-
near Sudbury, reflecting the higher solubility position (Carignan and Nriagu 1985; Carignan
of trace elements at lower pH (Carignan and and Tessier 1985; Belzile and Tessier 1990).
Nriagu 1985; Tessier 1992). Figure 14.2 shows The degree of oxidation or reduction of the
total concentrations of several elements as a sediment surface and the position of the
function of depth below the sediment surface sulfate-reducing zone seem to be particularly
observed in McFarlane Lake, a mesotrophic important factors. The location of the sulfate-
near-neutral lake in Sudbury, during the early redudng zone within the sediment profile
1980s (Nriagu et al. 1982; Nriagu 1983; Nriagu controls the location of metal sulfide precipita-
and Coker 1983; Nriagu and Wong 1983). tion, and in sulfur-enriched lakes, such precip-
More recent studies (Dillon and Smith 1984; itates are undoubtedly important. In Sudbury
14. Lake Sediments 185
FIGURE 14.2. Concentration

0
. . ..
profiles of arsenic, selenium,
nickeL copper, and sulfur in 10
. : . .
sediments of McFarlane Lake
showing the surface enrich- 20
ment attributed to emissions
from smelters (from Nriagu E
et al. 1982; Nriagu 1983; Nri- .30
~
agu and Coker 1983; Nriagu a.
Q)
and Wong 1983). 040
so
Arsenic Selenium Nickel Copper Sulfur
60
0 40 80 0 2 4 0 600 1200 0 200 400 0 4000 8000
Concentration (J.lg/g of sediment)
area lakes, the zone of maximum sulfur con- ment surface. Potential diluting materials are
centration may sometimes occur immediately freshly sedimented organic materiaL especially
beneath the sediment surface, but it has fre- in productive lakes, and iron and manganese
quently been found below the 5-cm depth oxyhydroxides, particularly in unproductive
(Fig. 14.3) (Morris, unpublished data). Lowered lakes. In unproductive lakes, with little or-
trace element concentrations could also result ganic matter settling to the bottom, organic
from dilution effects associated with the sedi- decomposition may consume so little oxygen
0.---------------------------,
10
E
.
~
a.
Q)
0
15
20
ti
Tonor Kukag.ml T~
-e- B c.
25 L-~~~~~==~~~~~.
FIGURE 14.3. Depth-distributions of total sulfur in three o 2 4 6 8 10 12
lakes near Sudbury (from Morris, unpublished data). Sulfur Concentration (mg/g)
that the sediment surface remains oxidized. fate, diffuse into the sediment than diffuse
These circumstances allow high concentra- out. This occurs because anaerobic layers in
tions of iron and manganese oxyhydroxides to the sediment harbor species of bacteria that
persist at the sediment surface. can break down or oxidize organic matter by
reducing sulfate and other sulfur ions to hy-
drogen sulfide (Stumm and Morgan 1981).
Processes That Transport Some of the hydrogen sulfide generated may
return from the sediment to the lake water by
Elements to Sediments diffusing upward or in rising bubbles, but be-
cause hydrogen sulfide is highly reactive, much
In lakes near Sudbury, as elsewhere, total con-
centrations of dissolved trace elements are of the sulfur will be fixed in solids through the
formation of highly insoluble sulfides (Stumm
usually relatively low in the water column;
and Morgan 1981). In acidic Clearwater Lake
this is because there are effective processes
(pH 4.8), concentration profiles of dissolved
transporting incoming trace elements to the
copper, nickel, and zinc near the sediment-
lake bottom. What are these processes and
water interface suggest that these metals were
how do they function?
also diffusing into the sediments along a
The sedimentation of biogenic particulates is
concentration gradient and then precipitating
an important mechanism by which trace ele-
(Fig. 14.4). These findings contradict other field
ments are removed from the water column
studies (Sigg et al. 1987) that have emphasized
(Sigg 1985; Sigg et al. 1987). Various planktonic
the removal of trace elements from the water
organisms take up trace elements from the wa- column through binding to sinking particles,
ter by physiological processes. More important, and it may be that the diffusion of trace metals
chemical complexation may bind trace elements into sediments is only significant in very acidic
to dead plankton, to particles of decaying plant lakes.
material, to fecal pellets of planktonic animals
and protozoans, and to humic particles, and all
these tend to sink to the lake bottom and thus
remove trace elements from the water column.
Chemical Transformations
Another important mechanism moving trace el- within the Sediments
ements from solution to the sedirilents involves
the more or less continuous scavenging by iron What circumstances or processes influence the
and manganese oxyhydroxides. Iron and man- mobility and distribution of trace elements
ganese are very abundant in most soils. Because after they have become part of the sediments?
these two metals tend to precipitate rapidly in Here, more detailed focus must be put on fac-
the presence of oxygen, they typically enter tors that control the stability of iron and man-
lakes dissolved in anoxic groundwater seepages ganese oxyhydroxides and the formation of
or directly as oxyhydroxides. Once in the lake, metal sulfides.
dissolved forms usually encounter dissolved ox-
ygen and a near-neutral pH, and insoluble oxy-
hydroxides begin to form (Stumm and Morgan Importance of
1981). Because precipitated iron and manga- Iron Oxyhydroxides
nese oxyhydroxides readily adsorb or form com-
plexes with many dissolved ions, trace elements At or near their surface, typical lake sediments
are firstly scavenged from the water column and become anoxic, reducing environments be-
then are carried to the bottom when the pre- cause of oxygen consumption during the mi-
cipitates sink (Belzile and Tessier 1990; Tessier crobial decomposition of organic matter. In
1992). circumstances in which stronger oxidants such
Sulfur may accumulate in the sediments be- as dissolved oxygen, nitrate, or manganese ox-
cause more dissolved sulfur ions, such as sul- ides have already been depleted, the iron in
FIGURE 14.4. Depth-distributions of dissolved zinc, pH

4 5 II 7
copper, nickel, and pH values in porewaters and
overlying waters at a littoral station of Clearwater
Lake. Horizontal line represents the sediment-water
.. 0 I:>
4
interface (from Carignan and Nriagu 1985). . 0 0 I:>
. 0 0 [).
2
o. 0 A
e-.2- o 0 I:>
.s::. 0
ii
II 0 0 I:>
o 0
o C I:>
01:> 0
I:> 0 [~ ~Nlcllol
o A
pH
[ .
o 200 400 IlOO 800
Concentration (nM)
oxyhydroxides converts from the ferric oxida- solved arsenic are situated below the sedi-
tion state Fe(llI) to the ferrous state Fe(II), and ment surface (Fig. 14.5), two sink propagat-
the former iron oxyhydroxides dissqlve. Con- ing mechanisms are implied. Above the
sequently, trace elements complexed with iron peaks, oxygen was apparently diffusing down-
oxyhydroxides are released into solution and ward from the lake water, oxidizing upward
are then immediately free to move away by diffusing Fe(II), and enriching the surficial
diffusion. sediments in iron oxyhydroxides. Simulta-
Arsenic provides an excellent example of the neously, upward diffusing arsenic was being
close coupling between a trace element's cheIni- removed from solution in this zone by iron
cal behavior and that of iron (Belzile and Tessier oxyhydroxide sorption (Belzile and Tessier
1990). In Figure 14.5, each profile of dissolved 1990). Below the peaks, downward diffusing
iron and dissolved arsenic shows a peak located dissolved Fe (II) and arsenic were probably
a few centimeters below the sediment-water precipitated by reactions involving hydrogen
interface; both elements were released to solu- sulfide. Sufficient hydrogen sulfide can be
tion by the reductive dissolution of buried iron generated because Sudbury's lakes are
oxyhydroxides. In summer or winter lake stag- sulfur-enriched.
nation periods, oxygen depletion at the sed- The above hypotheses were confirmed
iment surface and the consequent upward when Teflon sheets inserted into the sedi-
Inigration of the oxidation-reduction transition ments collected iron oxyhydroxide precipi-
zone into the water column can also lead to tates near the sediment surface, and iron
seasonal episodes of iron and trace element dis- sulfide precipitates a few centimeters deeper
solution (see Fig. 14.1). Because the peaks in the (Belzile et a1. 1989). The decline in dissolved
concentration of dissolved iron Fe(II) and dis- arsenic below its peak may have resulted
Arsenic (nM) FIGURE 14.5. Depth-distributions of total dissolved ar-

o 200 400 600 600
5, Cleerwaler I senic and iron in porewaters and overlying waters of

four lakes near Sudbury. Horizontal dotted lines represent
5
o
10 '" ?
"'~"""""''''' ' ' ' ':' ' ' ' l
1/: ..
... .
....... . ................ .. ..... ~
the sediment-water interface (from Belzile and Tessier
1990).
o 100 300 500 700 900
g
-5
-~f ~:~- i?>r
0 40 80 120
S~! ~~.-'~ ,:=_I

0 40 80 120
0 100 200 300 400
5
Wavy
0
10
~~iJ
....!!2!!....
0 200 400 600
Iron (uM)
from precipitation of arsenic sulfides (AS 2 S3 or sediments may be sufficient to react with most
FeAsS) and arsenic adsorption onto iron sul- of the dissolving arsenic, ferrous iron, and
fide; these reactions have been reported fre- trace metal ions and may render them insolu-
quently elsewhere (Aggett and O'Brien 1985; ble before they have time to diffuse apprecia-
Belzile and Lebel 1986; Edenborn et aL bly into the lake water.
1986; Belzile 1988).
If the sediment's surface is sufficiently re-
duced, dissolved ferrous iron and trace ele- Precipitation of Sulfides-
ments may be released directly into the
overlying anoxic lake water, and the sediment
Saturation Indices
may become a source rather than a sink for Porewater profiles of dissolved copper, nickel,
dissolved trace elements. This is shown for and zinc in Clearwater Lake showed distinct
arsenic in Figure 14.5 at a site in Clearwater losses in metal solubility that were associated
Lake. Two factors tend to minimize the signifi- with the transition to anoxia at 2 cm below
cance of such releases. First, oxygenated lake the sediment-water interface (see Fig. 14.4).
water will usually occur at some level higher This correlation with anoxia suggested that
in the water column. Here, oxygen will limit the low dissolved metal concentrations may
the upward diffusion of ferrous iron by again have resulted from precipitation of copper,
predpitating iron oxyhydroxides (see Fig. 14.1), nickel, and zinc sulfides. Saturation index cal-
which will bind with trace elements returning culations (Box 14.1) for the zone observed to
them again toward the lake bottom. Second, be low in dissolved metals indeed showed that
in sulfur-enriched Sudbury lakes, the hydro- saturation of the porewaters was to be ex-
gen sulfide available near the surface of anoxic pected with respect to zinc sulfide and nickel
Box 14.1. reduction (see Fig. 14.4), especially where the

sediment surface is anoxic and high in porosity
Saturation index (Sl) is defined as log (IAP/Ksp), (Fig. 14.6). This phenomenon is consistent with
where Ksp is the solubility-product constant. the hypothesis that the reduction of iron oxy-
The ion activity product (IAP) is equal to the hydroxides, the reduction of sulfates to sulfides,
product of the specific activity (a) of the differ- the precipitation of iron sulfide, and the genera-
ent ions forming a precipitate or solid. A sim- tion of alkalinity occur concurrently.
plified way of calculating the IAP for iron 4Fe(OHh(s) + 4S04 2- + 9CH20 ~
sulfide (FeS) would be 4FeS(s) + CO2 + 8HC0 3- + 11H20 (1)
IAP FeS = (ape2+) (as2-)
But because of the very weak second disso-
ciation constant of H2S, the HS- ion is more
Metal Sorption on Oxide
relevant to this calculation than the S2- ion Surfaces-The Influence
considered above. A better way of calculating of pH
the IAP would therefore be
IAP FeS = (aFe +)
2 (aHS-laH+) In contrast with anoxic porewaters, where
precipitation of sulfides seems to control the
Negative values of lAP indicate under- concentrations and solubilities of dissolved trace
saturation and no precipitation. The precipi- element, oxic porewaters and overlying waters
tate should be forming if the lAP value is do not show saturation with known solid phases
either zero, indicating saturation, or greater of trace elements. More specifically, arsenic (Bel-
than zero, indicating supersaturation. zile and Tessier 1990), cadmium, copper, lead,
nickel, and zinc (Tessier et aI., 1994) should not
form any oxide, hydroxide, or carbonate pre-
sulfide and indicated oversaturation with re- cipitates either within or above oxic lake sedi-
spect to copper sulfide (Carignan and Nriagu ments, because the relevant saturation indices
1985; Carignan and Tessier 1985). It was con- have negative values. Because iron and some-
cluded, therefore, that sediments more than times manganese oxyhydroxides do precipitate
2 em below the sediment-water interface are a in and above oxic sediments and because these
sink for trace metals in Sudbury area lakes. compounds have the ability to adsorb trace ele-
These sediments would only cease to be a sink ments, the evidence for adsorption should be
in the event that they ceased to be anaerobic. examined in more detail. According to the sur-
Such a situation occurred when Lake Laurent- face complexation theory for low-density ad-
ian was drained and reflooded in 1982. Sub- sorption (Tessier et al., 1994), the propensity of
sequent increases in the concentrations of any trace metal to adsorb onto iron oxyhydrox-
metals in water and macrophyte tissues were ide can be represented by an apparent equilib-
observed (Keller 1984). rium constant (KM ), which can be determined
Similar patterns of trace element insolubility by
have also been found with arsenic and iron, K _ NPe *KM _ {Fe-O-M}
and they occurred in lakes representing a M - [W]ID+l - {Fe-OxHMz+] (2)
range of pH levels (Fig. 14.5). Saturation index
calculations and analysis of black deposits on where {Fe-O-M} is the equilibrium concen-
Teflon collectors (Belzile et ai. 1989) indicate tration of the adsorbed trace metal, {Fe-Ox} is
that dissolved iron concentrations can also be the concentration of the iron fixed in iron
controlled in anoxic porewaters by precipita- oxyhydroxides, [Mz+] is the equilibrium con-
tion of a sulfide such as iron sulfide. Finally, an centration of the trace metal ion remaining
increase in pH has been observed in Sudbury free in solution, and NPe is the number of ad-
area sediments at the levels of intense sulfate sorbing sites per mole of iron oxyhydroxides.
~ r---------------------------.
FIGURE 14.6. Profiles of pH values measured at the sedi-
ment interface of two lakes located at approximately 50 km
from Sudbury. Paradise Lake showed a negative redox po
15 tential at 2.5 em in the sediments that had also a low bulk
density (high water content) and a high excess of sulfur.
Telfer Lake showed a positive redox potential value at
10
2.5 an, and sediments had a high bulk density and a smaller
excess of sulfur than Paradise Lake. Horizantal dotted line
represents the sediment-water interface (from Morris, un-
E'5
2-
.r.
a
Cll
. -e-.
!
1.
published data) .
o 0 .,..........:.:!"
:r;o1.
ci
:"
:' ...
10 ci 0
!!J 6
5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5

pH
The concentration of both iron oxyhydrox- explained about 90% (,-2 = .89) of the varia-
ides {Fe-Ox} and adsorbed trace metal {Fe-O- tion in Kzn (Tessier et al. 1989). In the same
M} can be determined by analyzing partial geographic area, similar linear regression mod-
chemical extracts from samples of oxic sedi- els having slopes close to 1 were also obtained
ments or by inserting Teflon collectors in oxic for the adsorption of cadmium (,-2 = .80; n =
sediments and subsequently dissolving and 26), copper (r2 = .75; n = 39), lead (r2 = .81;
analyzing the iron oxyhydroxide-trace metal n = 7), and nickel (r2 = .87; n =29) (Tessier
complexes that deposit on them. The concen- 1992).
trations of the dissolved free metal ions [Mz+] Substantial reductions in sulfur emissions
is calculated from the total dissolved trace from Sudbury area smelters have allowed lake
metal and the inorganic ligands concentra- pH values to increase, and sulfate reduction
tions in the overlying waters, using porewater has increased sediment pH in many local
peepers (Carignan 1984). lakes. Trace metal solubilities should therefore
On theoretical grounds, the adsorption of be decreasing in most Sudbury area lakes be-
trace metals by iron oxyhydroxides should in- cause sorption to iron oxyhydroxides has un-
crease with ambient pH (Equation 2). To test doubtedly been increasing. In the past 20 years,
this prediction in the natural environment, the pH of Clearwater Lake has increased from
the apparent equilibrium constant for the ad- 4.3 (Dillon et al. 1986) to 5.0 (Belzile,unpub-
sorption of zinc on iron oxyhydroxides (Kzn) lished data). Assuming a constant ratio of ad-
was determined for oxic sediments from 41 sorbed metal to iron oxyhydroxides, Equation
lakes spread over an area of 350,000 km2 in 2 indicates that the solubility of zinc has de-
Ontario and Quebec. When these KZn values clined by more than seven times during the
are regressed on lake pH (Fig. 14.7), the ex- past two decades, and the situation should be
pected trend is observed, and differences in pH similar for other trace metals.
____-,
.,. ...
7 ~----------------------
FIGURE 14.7. Relationship between the apparent equilib-
rium constant for the adsorption of zinc on natural iron
oxyhydroxides (expressed here as the log ~f the rati? of
adsorbed zinc to iron oxyhydroxides and dissolved zmc)
.~.
and pH obtained for 41 lakes (from Tessier et a1. 1989). 6

5 -

3

Log K (Zn) = 1.21 pH - 2.83
23L-~-4L-~-5L-~~6--~~7--~~8--~9
pH
Management Implications Box 14.2. Ore Grade Sediments

In some cases, the natural recovery of lake
Kelly Lake is located in the immediate vidnity of
systems is not possible in a short period of
the Inco smelter. There are dumps of tailings
time, and remedial measures (NRC 1992;
nearby, and for many years, it has received min-
Rhodes and Wiley 1993) have to be taken to
ing and smelter effluents. Also, the lake received
mitigate the effects of addification and con-
high atmospheric inputs of metals and trace ele-
tamination. One approach that has been com-
ments resulting in significant sediment accu-
monly used involves the addition of a base
mUlation of metals such as copper (5200 Ilg.g-1)
(such as CaC0 3 ), resulting in increased pH and
and nickel (10,560 Ilg.g-1) but there are also
add-neutralizing capadty and reduced trace
significant amounts of noble metals such as
elements concentrations. However, hydrologic
platinum (1.8Ilgg-1), palladium (0.2Ilgg-1), gold
inputs of addic water from predpitation,
(0.3Ilgg- I ), and iridium (O.03Ilgg-1) in the lake
stream inflow, and groundwater can cause re-
sediments (Crocket and Teruta 1976). Most of
addification and an eventual deterioration in
the early processing methods were largely in-
water and sediment quality (Driscoll et a1.
effective at extracting the noble metals. Consid-
1989). The coverage of contaminated sedi-
ering the high value of noble metals, it might
ments or their removal by dredging represents
now be economically feasible to dredge and
other approaches for which the feasibility and
process Kelly Lake sediments to extract those
the cost have to be considered (Box 14.2). The
metals. The challenge is to find an environ-
dredging option requires subsequent treat-
mentally sound means of disposal of the ex-
ment and/or disposal to reduce or eliminate
tracted sediments.
the toxidty of contaminants.
Summary Crocket, J.H., and Y. Teruta. 1976. PC Pd, Au and Ir

content of Kelley Lake bottom sediments. Can.
Miner. 14:58-6l.
Knowledge of the sedimentary processes con-
Dillon, P.J., R.A. Reid, and R. Girard. 1986. Changes
trolling the behavior of trace elements is now
in the chemistry of lakes near Sudbury, Ontario
good but still remains incomplete. Sediments following reductions of S02 emissions. Water Air
remain a complex environment, and the con- Soil Pollut. 31:59-65.
trasting behavior of some trace elements may Dillon, P.J., and P.J. Smith. 1984. Trace metal and
indicate that opposite mechanisms (sedimenta- nutrient accumulation in the sediments of lakes
tion/resuspension; diffusion to/from sediments; near Sudbury, Ontario, pp. 375-426. In J.O. Nri-
precipitation/ dissolution; sorption/ desorption; agu (ed.). Environmental Impact of Smelters.
complexation/decomplexation) may often, in John Wuey and Sons, New York.
fact, operate concurrently. It is nevertheless clear Driscoll, C.T., W.A. Ayling, G.F. Fordham, and
that reductions of sulfur emissions greatly im- L.M. Oliver. 1989. Chemical response of lakes
proved surface water qUality and, consequently, treated with CaC0 3 to reacidification. Can. J.
sediment quality. The continuous pH increase Fish. Aquat. Sci. 46:258-267.
contributes to decrease the solubility (and mo- Edenbom, H.M., N. Belzile, A. Mucci, J. Lebel, and
N. Silverberg. 1986. Observations on the diage-
bility) of trace elements through sorption pro-
netic behaviour of arsenic in a deep coastal sedi-
cesses on surficial oxic sediments. Predpitation ment. Biogeochemistry 2:359-376.
of trace elements as sulfides that probably occur Gunn, J.M., and W. Keller. 1990. Biological recov-
in anoxic sediments may ultimately constitute a ery of an acid lake after reductions in industrial
major sink for toxic trace elements. emissions of sulfur. Nature (Lond.) 345:431-433.
Keller, N. 1984. Changes in the chemical composi-
tion of water, sediment and aquatic plants related
References to the reflooding of a drained lake. B.Se. thesis,
Aggett, J., and G.A. O'Brien. 1985. Detailed model Laurentian University, Sudbury, Ontario.
for the mobility of arsenic in lacustrine sediments Keller, W., J.M. Gunn, and N.D. Yan. 1992a. Evi-
based on measurements in Lake Ohakuri. Envi- dence of biological recovery in acid-stressed lakes
ron. Sci. Technol. 19:231-238. near Sudbury. Environ. Pollut. 78:79-85.
Belzile, N. 1988. The fate of arsenic in sediments of Keller, W., J.R. Pitblado, and J. Carbone. 1992b.
the Laurentian Trough. Geochiin. Cosmochim. Chemical responses of acidic lakes in the Sud-
Acta 52:2293-2302. bury, Ontario, area to reduced smelter emissions,
Belzile, N., R.R. De Vitre, and A. Tessier. 1989. In 1981-1989. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 49(Suppl.
situ collection of diagenetic iron and manganese 1):25-32.
oxyhydroxides from natural sediments. Nature National Research Council (U.S.A.). 1992. Restora-
(Lond.) 340:376-377. tion of Aquatic Systems: Science, Technology, and
Belzile, N., and J. Lebel. 1986. Capture of arsenic by Public Policy. National Academy Press, Wash-
pyrite in near-shore sediments. Chem. Geo!. 54: ington, DC.
279-28l. Nriagu, J.O. 1983. Arsenic enrichment in lakes near
Belzile, N., and A.Tessier. 1990. Interactions between the smelters at Sudbury, Ontario. Geochim. Cos-
arsenic and iron oxyhydroxides in lacustrine sedi- mochim. Acta 47: 1523-1526.
ments. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 54:103-109. Nriagu, J.O., and R.D. Coker. 1983. Sulphur in sed-
Carignan, R. 1984. Interstitial water sampling by iments chronicles past changes in lake acidifica-
dialysis: methodological notes. Limnol. Ocean- tion. Nature (Lond.) 303:692-694.
ogr. 14:454-458. Nriagu, J.O., and J.M. Pacyna. 1988. Quantitative
Carignan, R., and J.O. Nriagu. 1985. Trace metal assessment of worldwide contamination of air,
deposition and mobility in the sediments of two water, and soils by trace metals. Nature (Lond.)
lakes near Sudbury, Ontario. Geochim. Cosmo- 333:134-139.
chim. Acta 49: 1753-1764. Nriagu, J.O., and S.S. Rao. 1987. Response of lake
Carignan, R., and A. Tessier. 1985. Zinc deposition sediments to changes in trace metal emission
in acid lakes: the role of diffusion. Science 228: from the smelters at Sudbury, Ontario. Environ.
1524-1526. Pollut. 44:211-218.
Nriagu, J.O., and H.K.T. Wong. 1983. Selenium pol- tides in Lake Zurich. Limnol. Oceanogr. 32: 112-
lution of lakes near the smelters at Sudbury, On- 130.
tario. Nature (Lond.) 310:55-57. Stumm, W., and J.J. Morgan. 1981. Aquatic Chem-
Nriagu, J.O., H.K.T. Wong, and R.D. Coker. 1982. istry. 2nd Ed. John Wiley and Sons, New York.
Deposition and chemistry of pollutants metals in Tessier, A. 1992. Sorption of trace elements on nat-
lakes around smelters at Sudbury, Ontario. Envi- ural particles in oxic sediments, pp. 426-453. In
ron. Sci. Technol. 16:551-560. J. Buffie and H.P. van Leeuven (eds.). Sampling
Rhodes, S.L., and K.B. Wiley. 1993. Great Lakes and Characterization of Environmental Particles.
toxic sediments and climate change. Global Envi- Lewis, Chelsea, MI.
ron. Change 3:292-305. Tessier, A., R. Carignan, and N. Belzile. 1994. Pro-
Semkin, R.G., and J.R. Kramer. 1976. Sediment cesses occurring at the sediment-water interface:
geochemistry of Sudbury area lakes. Can. Miner. emphasis on trace elements, pp. 139-175. In J.
14:73-90. Buffie and R.R. De Vitre (eds.). Chemical and
Sigg, 1. 1985. Metal transfer mechanisms in lakes: The Biological Regulation of Aquatic Systems. Lewis,
role of settling particles, pp. 285-310. In W. Stumm Chelsea, MI.
(ed.). Chemical Processes in Lakes. John Wiley and Tessier, A., R. Carignan, B. Dubreuil, and F. Rapin.
Sons, New York. 1989. Partitioning of zinc between the water col-
Sigg, 1., M. Sturm, and D. Kistler. 1987. Verti- umn and the oxic sediments in lakes. Geochim.
cal transport of heavy metals by settling par- Cosmochim. Acta 53:1511-1522.
15
Liming of Sudbury Lakes:
Lessons for Recovery of Aquatic
Biota from Acidification
Norman D. Van, W. (Bill) Keller, and John M. Gunn
When the pH of lakes falls to less than 6.0, many Although it is not a general solution to the
plant and animal species suffer appreciable dam- acid rain problem, liming is warranted in some
age (see Fig. 5.2). Many species disappear circumstances. It may be the only way to pro-
(Schindler et al. 1989). In the 1980s, there were tect unique species or habitats threatened by
about 19,000 lakes in Ontario with a pH less acid rain. Chapter 11 provides an excellent
than 6 (Neary et al. 1990). Roughly one-third of example-the liming of the native habitat of
these lakes are near Sudbury. They were acidi- the aurora trout, a unique color variant of the
fied by long-tenn emissions of sulfur dioxide brook trout, Salvelinus fontinalis. Liming exper-
from local smelters (see Chapter 3). iments can also contribute to our understand-
The solution to this problem is to generate ing of the factors that regulate the recovery of
less acid at the source (Le., to reduce emis- biota from acidification. This is particularly im-
sions of sulfur dioxide to the atmosphere). portant at the moment because of the enor-
Neutralizing the acidity at the receptor by mous magnitude of the programs designed to
adding base to or "liming" entire lakes is not reduce sulfur dioxide emissions across North
a solution to the acid rain problem for On- America over the next two decades (e.g.,
tario. It is impractical because of the large NAPAP 1993). This chapter provides a brief
number and remoteness of the damaged review of long-term liming experiments con-
lakes and the need for retreatment if inputs ducted in the Sudbury area, highlighting what
of acid remain elevated. Also, liming ad- they can teach us about the potential for the
dresses only one of the problems attributable biota of acidified lakes to recover if water qual-
to an acidified atmosphere, the acidification ity improves in response to lowered rates of
of lakes. acid input.
Liming is considered a more effective part of Given this objective, can liming experiments
the overall solution to the acid rain problem in really be used in this larger context? What can
other parts of the world where the problem is the addition of base to a few polluted Sudbury
more advanced (Box 15.1). Those interested lakes teach us about the future of the thou-
in the engineering and scientific aspects of lim- sands of Canadian acidified lakes? For several
ing as a management tool are encouraged to reasons, liming experiments can teach us a
consult the recent books of Dickson (1988), great deal. First, liming produces water quality
Olem (1991), Olem et al. (1991), and Brock- changes in lakes that are similar, although not
sen et al. (1992). However, this chapter has identical, to those that accompany reductions
other purposes. in acid input (Le., dramatic increases in lake
195
196 Yan et al.
Box 15.1.
Lake or watershed liming studies have been ious methods are used to apply limestone di-
carried out in many areas of the world, includ- rectly to lakes, and in some cases, limestone is
ing Canada, the United States, Scotland, Wales, also applied to surrounding wetlands and wa-
Norway, and Sweden (Olem et al. 1991); how- tersheds or to streams. After lakes are initially
ever, the largest operational liming program is neutralized, the strategy is to retreat them be-
in Sweden. Sweden had about 16,000 acidi- fore they reacidify enough 10 cause damage to
fied lakes in the mid-1980s, most of them pri- the biological communities that have become
vately owned and accessible. Given the scale re-established. The Swedish government now
of the damage and with much pressure for subsidizes the repeated liming of about 6000
solutions, it was decided to proceed with an lakes and about 10,000 km of running water,
operational liming program until the effective a program that uses more than 150 million kg
control of acidic deposition was achieved. Var- of limestone annually.
pH and alkalinity and decreases in toxic met- ment and Natural Resources limed Middle,
als) (Yan and Dillon 1984). Second, the Sud- Hannah, and Lohi lakes-three severely acidi-
bury liming experiments were conducted in fied, metal-contaminated lakes located close 10
lakes that varied widely in acidity. Because the the smelters-and Nelson Lake, an intermedi-
biota of several of the limed lakes are repre- ately acidic, lake trout (Sa/velinus namaycush)
sentative of other Ontario lakes with similar lake, located about 30 km from Sudbury. The
acidity (Yan et al., under review), the experi- objective of these experiments was to deter-
mental results should be broadly applicable. mine how the severity of damage would influ-
Finally, biological changes in limed and na- ence the rate of recovery of the lakes after
turally recovering lakes have proved 10 be water quality was improved (Scheider and Dil-
similar in the few cases in which such compar- lon 1976; Yan et al. 1977; Dillon et ai. 1979;
isons were possible (Keller et al. 1992a) (see Yan and Dillon 1984; Gunn et ai. 1988; Yan et
Chapter 5). aI., under review). In the early 1980s, two
new liming experiments were initiated by the
Ontario Ministries of Natural Resources and
Sudbury Liming Environment, with a focus on lake trout fish-
Experiments eries. Bowland Lake, 70 km from Sudbury,
was limed in 1983 and restocked with lake
Eight whole-lake liming experiments have trout to determine if this former lake trout
been conducted over the past two decades in lake could support a self-sustaining fishery
Ontario. Seven of these lakes were in the large after water quality and food web structure
area (see Fig. 3.2) affected by the Sudbury improved (Molot et al. 1986; Gunn et al. 1990;
smelter emissions. Between 1973 and 1976, Jackson et al. 1990; Keller et al. 1990a,b; Molot
staff of the Ontario Ministries of the Environ- et al. 1990a,b; Keller et al. 1992b). Trout Lake,
15. Liming of Sudbury Lakes 197
near Parry Sound, was limed in 1984 to deter- A detailed discussion of the changes in wa-
mine if a lake trout fishery that was threat- ter quality that followed liming is beyond the
ened by acidification could be protected by scope of this review. In all cases, liming in-
liming (Howell et aI. 1991). Finally, Whirligig creased alkalinity and pH and decreased metal
Lake, one of the two lakes that comprise the levels (e.g., Yan and Dillon 1984). The dura-
entire native habitat of the aurora trout was tion of effect varied dramatically from lake to
limed in 1989, along with an upstream refer- lake and was influenced by the lakes' flushing
ence lake, Little Whitepine Lake, before re- rates, by input rates of acid, by rates of internal
storing this unique trout into its native habitat acid generation or consumption, and by any
(Snucins et aI., in press) (see Chapter II). additional applications of limestone to the wa-
Whirligig lake, 107 km north of Sudbury, was tersheds. For example, the pH of Nelson Lake,
later relimed in 1993. with its flushing rate of 10 years, is still greater
The eight experimental lakes spanned the than 6, 16 years after the addition of base
full range of damage known in the Sudbury (Fig. 15.3). By contrast, Lohi and Bowland
area. At one extreme were the acidic, metal- lakes quickly re-acidified to pH less than 6,
contaminated, fishless Hannah, Middle, and corresponding with their short flushing rates
Lohi lakes, which had impoverished species of 1 and 2.5 years, respectively. Like Nelson
assemblages at every level of their food webs Lake, the pH of Middle Lake also remains
(Dillon et aI. 1979). At the other extreme were greater than 6, 15 years after the additions of
the slightly damaged Nelson and Trout lakes, base, despite its short flushing rate of 1.5 years.
which still supported fisheries at the time of In this case, the longevity of the treatment is
liming, despite degraded water quality. mainly attributable to the liming of Hannah
Calcium hydroxide and/or calcium carbon- Lake in 1975, the lake upstream of Middle
ate were the neutralizing agents selected in all Lake, and to the liming of the catchments of
experiments. These materials are inexpensive, Middle and Hannah lakes by the municipality
readily available, and for the latter agent, safe of Sudbury in the early 1980s as part of land
and easy to handle. They provide neutralizing reclamation efforts (see Chapter 8).
substances that are normally important in the
acid base chemistry of lakes. Finally, excellent
dosage and treatment duration models exist Lessons of Liming
for these materials (Sverdrup and Bjerle 1982;
Sverdrup et al. 1984). In all cases, the base was Viewed collectively, the liming experiments pro-
added to the surface of the experimental lakes vide several general observations about bio-
logical recovery that follows reductions in the
by boat or aircraft as a dry powder or a fine
aqueous slurry (Fig. 15.1). acidity of lakes:
The investigators in each study wished to 1. rapid large elevations in pH are detrimen-
raise lake pH to near 7 and provide some resid- tal to the aquatic biota of acid lakes in the
ual buffering capacity. The dosages of base re- short term
quired to achieve these targets were calculated 2. rapid small increases in pH do no harm in
in various ways as the engineering of liming the short term
advanced between 1973, when Middle and 3. biological communities can recover from
Lohi lakes were limed, and 1989, when Whirl- excess acidity
igig and Little Whitepine lakes were limed. 4. rate of recovery of species is related in
However, because the two most important pa- part to the severity of stress before liming
rameters in the dosage calculations are the 5. rate of recovery of species is also related
lake's volume and acidity, there is a strong to their fecundity and dispersal ability
negative relationship between application 6. several features of community recovery
rate, expressed volumetrically, and the prelim- are directly attributable to improvements
ing pH of the study lakes (Fig. 15.2). in water quality, but
198 Yan et al.
.. .- ~
R
- -
FIGURE 15.1. Various lime application procedures used in Sudbury lakes: (A) liming Hannah Lake in 1973 by
boat and slurry pump. (Photo by Ontario Ministry of Environment.) (B) Liming Bowland Lake by fixed-wing
aircraft in 1983. (Photo by B. A. R. Environmental.) (C) Liming Whirligig Lake by hand from a boat in 1989
(Photo by E. Snucins) and (D) by helicopter in 1993 (Photo by W. Keller.).
7. much of the recovery is only indirectly some of the biota of acid lakes in the short
related to improvements in water quality, term (observation 1). Yan and Dillon (1984)
depending instead on a rebuilt food web noted that after they raised the pH of Middle,
Hannah, and Lohi lakes from 4.4 to near 7,
Each of these observations is discussed in turn. algal biomass was depressed by an order of
Liming represents a stress to those organ- magnitude for several months. Further, they
isms that have adapted to acid conditions. and Yan et al. (under review) noted that acid-
Therefore, it should come as no surprise that tolerant zooplankton were decimated by the
rapid large increases in pH are detrimental to additions of base, leaving an extremely pecu-
FIGURE 15.2. Scattergram of Dosages for Limed Lakes

the dose of base initially ap-
plied to each lake versus the
20
preliming pH. Note that the Honnoh 0 0 Middle
mass of material added per
unit volume decreased with o
increases in pH.
<
..-...
Cl
15 Lohi
Whirligig
o
E
Bowlond
o Little
Whitepine
o
Trout
o
o
Nelson
o
4 4.5 5 5.S 6
Pre -li ming pH
Duration of Treatment
A.
'A , A \
I , _ ..-
. -4t (:{
0... 6
I \
\\ -0-- Middle Lake
-
Q) h
0>
,
..
0 i fj. Nelson Lake
L i - {:,- Bowland Lake
<{
Q)
> fj. '. _ - Lohi Lake
--..-.
5 \
"'
FIGURE 15.3. Changes in pH

(annual average) of limed lakes
Years Since Liming before and after liming.
liar zooplankton community composed of lit- vation 2). Van et al. (1977) raised the pH of
toral zone opportunists to dominate the lakes Nelson Lake from 5.7 to 6.3 in 1975. This did
for almost a decade. not change plankton standing stocks or com-
In contrast, smaller additions of base that munity structure. Molot et al. (1986) raised
produce smaller increases in pH do not harm the pH of Trout Lake from 5.9 to 6.5 in 1984
aquatic communities in the short term (obser- with no discernable negative impacts on nutri-
200 Yan et al.
FIGURE 15.4. Recovery of

Changes In Species Richness zooplankton spedes richness in
Ul
Ul r-...
C
(l)
C 0
15
_.
- +- Nelson
- . Middle
15 Middle, Hannah, and Nelson
lakes in comparison with the
expected richness in non-addi-
tied lakes. The lakes were limed
~
...c:.;::J -0- Hannah
u u
iY~
Ul
.~
(5
u
-.......
10
.... 10
in 1973, 1975, and 1975, re-
spectively, and have been non-
addic ever since. The notched
U 0
(l) x box plot summarizes richness in
.....
0.0
If)~ the 22 reference lakes with pH
C C greater than 6. The median
0 /
e-e'\I.~~ll
0
..... (l) 5 5 richness is located at the nar-
~
C 0
_0 .....
Ul
u
~ f> rowest part of the notch. The
box encompasses 50% of the
o.::J
o '-
o~
~~~ observations; the whiskers 99%
N of them.
o Reference
o
75 80 85 90 Lakes
Year (pH > 6)
ent regimes, phytoplankton, zooplankton, or The severity of acidity influences rates of

fish (Howell et al. 1991). Finally, Yan and Dil- recovery of biota for two reasons. First, fish
lon (1984) noted that the first liming of Lohi exert a strong influence on the size structure
Lake decimated the phytoplankton, but subse- and taxonomic composition of aquatic food
quent additions that produced smaller changes webs. Hence, recovery of the ecosystem de-
in pH did not harm the community. pends in part on the re-establishment of a
In the long term, the liming experiments normal fish community (Henrikson et al. 1985).
clearly demonstrate that many aquatic biota This may take a very long time in severely acid-
can recover from acidity (observation 3). For ified lakes, or it may never occur without the
example, in Whirligig Lake, re-~ntroduced au- help of management agencies. Second, recovery
rora trout are surviving and reproducing in must be delayed in severely acidified lakes, be-
their ancestral habitat (see Chapter 11). In cause many more species will have disappeared
Bowland Lake, stocked lake trout reproduced during the process of acidification (Yan and Wel-
(Gunn et al. 1990), and communities of phy- bourn 1990). In such cases, recolonization may
toplankton (Molot et al. 1990a), littoral algae be the rate-limiting step for recovery.
(Jackson et al. 1990), zooplankton (Keller et In fact, the liming experiments do provide
al. 1992b), and some bottom-dwelling inver- evidence that the rate of recovery of different
tebrates (Keller et al. 1990b) changed in ways groups of biota is related to their fecundity and
indicative of recovery. dispersal ability (observation 5). Educated
The rate of recovery of aquatic biota in the guesses of the relative magnitude of these two
liming experiments was related in part to the parameters for various groups of aquatic and
severity of preliming acidity (observation 4). semiaquatic organisms allow estimation of the
In Nelson Lake, for example, the plankton relative recovery rates of organisms from local
communities returned to those characteristic extinction (Fig. 15.5). For example,aquatic
of non-addic lakes within 10 years of the addi- insects with winged adult life stages should
tion of base. However, the zooplankton com- recover relatively quickly from acidification
munities of the more severely stressed Middle both because of the vast numbers of offspring
and Hannah lakes remain impoverished in com- they produce and because adult insects often
parison with non-acidic reference lakes 16 years fly tens of kilometers within a few days of
after the addition of base (Fig. 15.4). emergence (Baldwin et al. 1975). Similarly,
FIGURE 15.5. Relative recovery Biology of Dispersal Potent ia l

potential of biota estimated
Many 1 Waterfowl
from their fecundity and dis- 3 2 Winged insects
persal ability. 4 3 Bacteria & protozoa
Ol 2 4 Algae
c: S S Flowering plonts
C
6
-o
Q.
8 Reptiles
7
CI)
Fast Amphibians
10
Recovery 8 Water fleos
- o
c: 14
11'.
9 9
10
11
Mobile macroinvertebroles
Copepods
Non - mobile macroinvertebrate.
.Q 7 12 Migratory fish
U 13 Non-migratory fish
::J 12
14 Profundol invertebrates
"a.....o
Slow 6
Few Recovery
Slow Dispersal Role Fast
phytoplankton, littoral algae, bacteria, and (see Fig. 15.4). Similarly in Bowland Lake,
protozoa are prolific, reproduce frequently, filamentous algae responded immediately to
and disperse through the air (Maguire 1963; liming (Jackson et aL 1990), rotifers respon-
Parker 1970). These organisms should recover ded within 1 year, but crustacean zooplankton
quickly as long as there are source pools in the communities did not resemble those of non-
vicinity (Cairns 1991 ). By contrast, nonacidic lakes 4 years after additions of base
migratory fish and profundal invertebrates (Keller et aL 1992b).
such as the opossum shrimp, Mysis relicta, an Some features of biological recovery in the
important acid-sensitive macroinvertebrate experimental lakes were directly attributable
predator (Nero and Schindler 1983), should to improvements in water quality (observa-
recover very slowly from local extinction be- tion 6). Examples include the increase in
cause they disperse so slowly. The distribution abundance of the opossum shrimp in Trout
of the opossum shrimp in Ontario has not Lake (Howell et al. 1991), the recruitment of
changed since the retreat of the glaciers stocked bass (Micropterus dolomeiui) in Nelson
(Dadswell 1974). Lake (Gunn et aL 1988) and lake trout in
Although Figure 15.5 is consistent with col- Bowland Lake (Gunn et al. 1990), the re-
onization theory (Mooney and Drake 1989), appearance of acid-sensitive plankton species
the dispersal rates are so poorly known that in Bowland Lake (Molot et aL 1990a; Keller et
the figure should be regarded mainly as an al. 1992b), and the recolonization of Middle
hypothesis generator. Nevertheless, data from and Hannah lakes by the acid-sensitive (Keller
the limed lakes support the ideas. In Middle et al. 1990c) water flea, Daphnia galeata men-
and Lohi lakes, bacterial abundance increased dotae (Yan et aI., under review). Because
and community composition normalized al- changes such as these depend only on the resto-
most immediately after liming (Scheider and ration of water quality they augur well for the
Dillon 1976). Phytoplankton community com- remainder of Ontario's acid lakes, as long as seed
position recovered many attributes of non- populations of the biota are available.
acidic lakes within a few years of liming (Yan Other community changes in the limed lakes
and Dillon 1984). By contrast, although there are not directly attributable to water quality im-
are promising signs of recovery, zooplankton provements, rather they are indirect effects of
community composition remains unusual in changes in food webs, which may themselves be
the lakes 15 years after the addition of base directly related to additions of base (observa-
202 Yan et a1.
tion 7). For example, Howell et a1. (1991) ample, Keller et a1. (1992b) and Yan et a1.
thought that increased growth of lake trout in (under review) used reference data sets from
Trout Lake after liming was attributable to in- non -acidified lakes to determine the normal
creased availability of invertebrate prey, which temporal and spatial variability in zooplank-
was itself directly attributable to liming. Al- ton communities characteristic of "healthy"
though the appearance of new zooplankton communities. Second, liming experiments
species in Bowland Lake was probably a direct provide insights about required durations of
consequence of water quality improvements, study. Two decades have not been enough for
changes in zooplankton abundance were a the zooplankton of Middle and Hannah lakes
complex product of annual variability in ver- to recover but were adequate for the less se-
tebrate and invertebrate predation pressure verely affected community of Nelson Lake
and the water temperature (Keller et a1. (see Fig. 15.4). Third, as previously discussed,
1992b). These sorts of changes, which are de- these experiments provide insight about the
pendent on complex interactions in food webs, role of the severity of the stress and dispersal
are more difficult to generalize beyond the ability of species for biological recovery. These
experimental lakes. are two of the hypothesized regulators of re-
covery. Finally, the experiments can identify
predictable aspects of recovery. Those changes
Conclusions that we can attribute directly to improving
water quality are probably most predictable,
The recovery of organisms from stress is influ- and they occur at the top and bottom of food
enced by many factors. These include the se- webs. At the bottom, bacteria, phytoplankton,
verity and duration of stress, the condition of and littoral algae respond rapidly and directly
the habitat after removal of the stress, the to water quality improvements alone. At the
presence of refuges, the availability of colo- top, the recruitment of piscivores (from relict
nists, their productivity and dispersal ability, adult or restocked populations) also responds
and barriers to their dispersal (Cairns 1990; directly to the improved water quality in
Niemi et a1. 1990; Detenbeck et al. 1992). Man- spawning habitats. Changes in the middle of
agement agencies can also directly increase the food web are more difficult to predict be-
rates of recovery by re-introduqng locally ex- cause they are influenced by both direct and
tinct species or manipulating damaged habi- indirect regulators of recovery. Unfortunately,
tats. With such complexity, it is not surprising our understanding of the acid-sensitivity of
that restoration ecology is a science in its in- most species is too poor (Locke 1991) and food
fancy. At the moment, rates or patterns of web linkages are too complex to predict
aquatic community recovery cannot be pre- whether direct or indirect effects will predom-
dicted with certainty, because of the complex- inate in the recovery of most biota in individ-
ity of the science, the paucity of theoretical uallakes.
frameworks, and the scarcity of experiments The management of lakes in North America
designed to test hypothetical regulators of recov- owes a great deal to whole-lake manipulation
ery from long-term stressors such as acidification experiments. They have provided many insights
(Niemi et a1. 1990). Studies of recovery of exper- into the impacts of pollutants on ecosystem
imentally acidified lakes, such as those of Lake function that smaller-scale experiments could
223 in northwestern Ontario (see Box 5.1), will not provide, and they have provided crucial tests
be extremely useful to this field in years to come of competing hypotheses with enormous man-
if they are continued (Schindler et al. 1991). agement implications (e.g., Schindler 1990). It is
The Sudbury liming experiments can con- expected that atmospheric emissions of sulfur
tribute to the emerging discipline of restora- dioxide will decline substantially in North Am-
tion ecology in several practical ways. First, erica during the next 20 years, as Canadian and
the liming experiments have provided ap- American governments attempt to reduce the
proaches to setting recovery targets. For ex- acidity of our atmosphere. As we endeavor to
predict the benefits of these programs, the Sud- Henrikson, L., H.G. Nyman, H.G. Oscarson, and
bury .liming experiments of the 1970s and 1980s J.A.E. Stenson. 1985. Changes in the zooplank-
will provide some of the best models of the ton community after lime treatment of an acidi-
fied lake. Verh. Int. Verein. Limnol. 22:3008-
recovery of lakes from acidification.
3013.
Howell, E.T., G. Coker, G.M. Booth, W. Keller,
B. Neary, K.H. Nicholls, F.D. Tomassini, N. Van,
References J.M. Gunn, and H. Rietveld. 1991. Ecosystem re-
Baldwin, W.F., A.S. West, and J. Gomery. 1975. sponses of a pH 5.9 lake trout lake to whole lake
Dispersal pattern of black flies (Diptera: Simu- liming, pp. 61-95. In H. Olem, R.K. Schreiber,
liidae) tagged with 32P. Can. Entomo1. 107:113- R.W. Brocksen, and D.P. Porcella (eds.). Inter-
ll8. national Lake and Watershed Liming Practices.
Brocksen, R.W., M.D. Marcus, and H. Olem. 1992. The Terrene Institute, Washington, DC.
Practical Guide to Managing Acidic Surface Wa- Jackson, M.B., E.M. Vandermeer, N. Lester, J.A. Booth,
ters and Their Fisheries. Lewis Publications, Boca and L. Molot. 1990. Effects of neutralization and
Raton, FL. early reacidification on filamentous algae and
Cairns, J., Jr. 1990. Lack of a theoretical basis for macrophytes in Bowland Lake. Can. J. Fish. Aquat.
predicting rate and pathways of recovery. Envi- Sci. 47:432-439.
ron. Manage. 14:517-526. Keller, W., D.P. Dodge, and G.M. Booth. 1990a.
Cairns, J., Jr. 1991. Probable consequences of a Experimental lake neutralization program: over-
cosmopolitan distribution. Specu1. Sci. Techno1. view of neutralization studies in Ontario. Can. J.
14: 41-50. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 47:410-411.
Dadswell, M.J. 1974. Distribution, ecology, and post- Keller, w., J.M. Gunn, and N.D. Van. 1992a. Evidence
glacial dispersal of certain crustaceans and fishes of biological recovery of acid stressed lakes near
in eastern North America. Nat. Museum Can. Sudbury, Canada. Environ. Pollut. 78:79-85.
Pub1. Zoo1. 11. Keller, W., L.A. Molot, R.W. Griffiths, and N.D. Van.
Detenbeck, N.E., P.W. DeVore, G.J. Niemi, and A. 1990b. Changes in the zoobenthos community of
Lima. 1992. Recovery of temperate-stream fish acidified Bowland Lake after whole-lake neutral-
communities from disturbance: a review of case ization and lake trout (SalveZinus namaycush) rein-
studies and synthesis of theory. Environ. Man- troduction. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 47:440-445.
age. 16:33-53. Keller, W., N.D. Van, K.E. Holtze, and J.R. Pitblado.
Dickson, W. (ed.). 1988. Liming of Lake Gardsjon- 1990c. Inferred effects of lake acidification on
An Acidified Lake in SW Sweden. Report 3426. Daphnia galeata mendotae. Environ. Sci. Technol.
National Swedish Environmental Protection Board, 24:1259-1261.
Solna, Sweden. Keller, W., N.D. Van, T. Howell, L.A. Molot, and W.D.
Dillon, P.J., N.D. Van, W.A. Scheider, and N. Con- Taylor. 1992b. Changes in zooplankton during the
roy. 1979. Acidic lakes in Ontario, Canada: experimental neutralization and early re-acidifica-
characterization, extent and responses to base tion of Bowland Lake, near Sudbury, Ontario. Can.
and nutrient additions. Arch. Hydrobio1. Beih. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 49(Suppl. 1):52-62.
13:317-336. Locke, A. 1991. Zooplankton responses to acidifica-
Gunn, J.M., J.G. Hamilton, G.M. Booth, C.D. Wren, tion-a review of laboratory bioassays. Water Air
G.L. Beggs, H.J. Rietveld, and J.R. Munro. 1990. Soil Pollut. 60:135-148.
Survival, growth and reproduction of lake trout Maguire, B., Jr. 1963. The passive dispersal of small
(SalveZinus namaycush) and yellow perch (Perea aquatic organisms and their colonization of iso-
flavescens) after neutralization of an acidic lake lated bodies of water. Eco!. Monogr. 33:161-185.
near Sudbury, Ontario. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. Molot, L., L. Heintsch, and K.H. Nicholls. 1990a.
47:446-453. Response of phytoplankton in acidic lakes in On-
Gunn, J.M., M.J. McMurtry, J.M. Casselman, tario to whole-lake neutralization. Can. J. Fish.
W. Keller, and M.J. Powell. 1988. Changes in the Aquat. Sci. 47:422-431.
fish community of a limed lake near Sudbury, Molot, L.A., P.J. Dillon, and G.M. Booth. 1990b.
Ontario: effects of chemical neutralization, or re- Whole-lake and nearshore water chemistry in
duced atmospheric deposition of acids? Water Air Bowland Lake, before and after treatment with
Soil Pollut. 41:113-136. CaC03. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 47:412-421.
204 Yan et ai.
Molot, L.A., J.G. Hamilton, and G.M. Booth. 1986. Schindler, D.W., T.M. Frost, KH. Mills, P.S.S. Chang,
Neutralization of acidic lakes: short-term dissol- I.J. Davies, L. Findlay, D.F. Malley, J.A. Shearer,
ution of dry and slurried calcite. Water Res. 20: M.A. Thrner, P.G. Garrison, C.J. Watras, K Webster,
757-761. J.M. Gunn, P.L. Brezonik, and w.A. Swenson.
Mooney, H., and J.A. Drake. 1989. Biological inva- 1991. Comparisons between experimentally- and
sions: a SCOPE program overview, pp. 491-506. In atmospherically-acidified lakes during stress and
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Perspective. J. Wiley & Sons, Chichester, UK. Schindler, D.W., S.E.M. Kasian, and R.H. Hesslein.
National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program 1989. Biological impoverishment in lakes of the
(NAPAP). 1993. 1992 Report to Congress. NAPAP, midwestern and northeastern United States from
Washington, DC. acid rain. Environ. Sci. Technol. 23:573-580.
Neary, B.P., P.J. Dillon, J.R. Munro, and B.J. Clark. Snucins, E.J., J.M. Gunn, and W. Keller. In press.
1990. The Acidification of Ontario Lakes: An As- Restoration of the aurora trout to their acid-dam-
sessment of Their Sensitivity and Current Status aged native lakes. Cons. BioI.
Sverdrup, H., and 1. Bjede. 1982. Dissolution of
with Respect to Biological Damage. Technical Re-
calcite and other related minerals in acidic aque-
port. Ontario Ministry of Environment, Dorset,
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Sverdrup, H., R. Rasmussen, and 1. Bjerle. 1984. A
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simple model for the reacidification of limed
Mysis relicta during the acidification of Lake 223.
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A. Lima, J. Pastor, J.D. Yount, and R.J. Naiman. Yan, N.D., and P.J. Dillon. 1984. Experimental neu-
1990. Overview of case studies on recovery of tralization of lakes near Sudbury, Ontario, pp.
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Olem, H. 1991. Liming Acidic Surface Waters. Yan, N.D., W. Keller, KM. Somers, T.W. Pawson,
Lewis Publications, Boca Raton, FL. and R. Girard. Submitted. The recovery of zoo-
Olem, H., R.K Schreiber, R.W. Brocksen, and D.P. plankton from acidification: comparing manipu-
Porcella. 1991. International Lake and Water- 1ated and reference lakes.
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and fertilization of acidified lakes near Sudbury, dian Symposium on Water Pollution Research in
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57:25-41. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
16
Trends in Waterfowl Populations:
Evidence of Recovery
from Acidification
Donald K. McNicol, R. Kenyon Ross, Mark L. Mallory, and
Lise A. Brisebois
The loss and degradation of aquatic habitat biological communities, because most research
has serious implications for waterfowl spe- has documented aspects of decline. A notable
cies breeding in the northern forests of east- exception is recent evidence of biological
ern Canada, an area whose importance to changes that have accompanied chemical im-
continental populations is only beginning to provements of acidic lakes near Sudbury after
be appreciated (NAWMP 1986). Acid rain reductions in local smelter emissions (Keller et
poses a serious threat to waterfowl that rely al. 1992a). Such evidence confirms that dam-
on healthy lakes and wetlands for nest sites, aging effects of acidification can be reversed;
protection of young, and most important, already, some biotic communities in recover-
food. Both ducks and loons require high- ing lakes are becoming more typical of those
protein, mineral-rich foods (small fish or in- found in non-acidic lakes. Sudbury area lakes
vertebrates) for the production of eggs and provide a unique opportunity to monitor bio-
rapid growth of young (Reinecke and Owen logical recovery across a broad range of initial
1980). As lakes acidify, the accompanying chemical conditions.
biological changes disrupt normal prey com- Waterfowl are being studied as indicators
munities. Changes in the composition, abun- and integrators of the biological responses to
dance, and nutritional value of prey can reduced acid deposition and chemical recov-
reduce the quality of breeding habitat (Mc- ery observed in Sudbury area lakes. As fish
Nicol and Wayland 1992) and affect repro- and invertebrate prey return to lakes, the
duction (Scheuhammer 1991). Consequently, quality of breeding habitat for some species
reversal of acidification would benefit a sig- is expected to improve. This chapter exam-
nificant waterfowl resource. An estimated ines trends in waterfowl populations breed-
192,000 pairs of ducks and loons breed on ing in the Sudbury area as possible evidence
the exposed Precambrian Shield of central of reversibility of acidification. Relationships
and northeastern Ontario, where surface between the distribution, density, and pro-
waters have a limited capacity to neutralize ductivity of waterfowl and various habitat
acidic inputs (McNicol et al. 1990). parameters induding pH are examined. Fi-
Efforts to reduce sulfur dioxide emissions nally, present knowledge is used to predict
are aimed at protecting sensitive aquatic habi- future responses of waterfowl to the en-
tats. Where improvements to water quality are vironmental effects of additional abatement
expected, little is known about the response of programs.
205
206
~""""'\j7~~r:-:-:"7:':~I"r" I-- McNicol et al.
16. Trends in Waterfowl Populations 207
Waterfowl and Simple correlation was used to examine

relationships between waterfowl populations
Habitat Parameters and habitat parameters. For plots within the
Waterfowl that commonly breed near Sud- Sudbury study area, no significant correla-
bury are shown in Figure 16.1 and include, tions were evident among habitat parameters
for this exercise, the Common Loon (Gavia (Table 16.2). Average numbers of wetlands
immer), as well as the following ducks: Com- were higher in central plots compared with
mon Merganser (Mergus merganser), Common the northeast and far southwest, where fewer
Goldeneye (BueephaJa clanguJa), Hooded Mer- but larger lakes predominate (Fig. 16.3). North
ganser (Lophodytes cueul!atus), American Black of Sudbury, high wetland densities coincide
Duck (Anas ruhripes), Ring-necked Duck (Ayt- with high open water areas, a situation that
hya collaris), Mallard (Anas platyrhynehos), and might arise if large numbers of small lakes
Wood Duck (Aixsponsa). Aspects of their breed- were found in close proximity. Large areas
ing biology are summarized in Table 16.1. northeast and southwest of Sudbury con-
Studies of waterfowl breeding populations, tained surface waters with pH less than 6 in
habitat quality, and aquatic food webs were the early 1980s (Fig. 16.3).
conducted in the Sudbury area between 1983 After emission reductions in the 1970s, acidic
and 1993. This study area covers approxi- lakes distant from Sudbury showed marked
mately 17,000 km2 , generally corresponding increases in pH and alkalinity and declines in
to the area southwest and northeast of Sud- sulfate between 1980 and 1987 (Keller et al.
bury (Fig. 16.2), defined by Neary et al. (1990) 1992b) (see Chapter 5). Similar trends were evi-
as the zone influenced by past sulfur emissions dent in small lakes monitored for waterfowl
from Sudbury smelters (see Chapter 3). Sur- near Wanapitei (McNicol and Mallory 1994).
veys of breeding populations were undertaken However, further improvements to water qual-
in 4-km 2 plots located throughout this zone ity have not been observed since 1987, nor are
between 1985 and 1993 (Ross 1987) (Fig. 16.2). any expected until additional abatement mea-
Numbers of wetlands and estimates of open sures are implemented.
water area were determined for each plot The invertebrate communities in these lakes
(Fig. 16.3). Data from 363 lakes sampled in are strongly influenced by the presence or ab-
the early 1980s (Neary et al. 1990) were used sence of fish (McNicol and Wayland 1992).
to map lake pH distributions in the area; sur- Approximately 25% of lakes sampled at Wana-
vey plots were then assigned a pH class. pitei in 1993 continue to have pH less than 5
The ecology of waterfowl breeding in the acid- and are fishless. This abundance of small
stressed area north of Lake Wanapitei has been 8 hal, fishless, acidic lakes is a unique feature
studied since 1983. A total of 174 lakes and wet- of the Wanapitei area. In the absence of fish
lands was surveyed or sampled to varying degrees predation, these small acid lakes contain large
in the Wanapitei study area (see Fig. 16.2). These populations of a few types of acid-tolerant in-
lakes varied substantially in pH (3.9-7.6) and fish vertebrate taxa. Larger lakes (>8 hal, ranging
and invertebrate populations (Bendell and in pH between 5 and 6.3, often support acid-
McNicol 1987, in press). The relative production tolerant fish species, such as yellow perch (Perea
of waterfowl breeding at Wanapitei was com- f!aveseens) , which, coupled with acid stress, re-
pared among pH classes based on the most recent duce invertebrate prey abundance and diversity
pH reading, usually 1993. (Bendell and McNicol 1987, in press).
FIGURE 16.1. Waterfowl species that commonly breed in the Sudbury area: (A) Common Loon,
(B) Common Merganser, (C) Common Goldeneye, (D) Hooded Merganser, (E) Black Duck, (F) Ring-
necked Duck, (G) Mallard, (H) Wood Duck. (Photos for A, B, E-H by Michael W.P. Runtz; photos for
C and D by Jim Flynn.)
208 McNicol et a1.
TABLE 16.1. Habitat requirements of waterfowl species found in the Sudbury area.
Species Diet Nesting habitat Brood-rearing habitat

Common Loon Small to medium-sized fish Ground (prefers Lakes; medium-to-Iarge, meso- to
islands) near water oligotrophic
Wood Duck Adults-plant matter Tree cavity Wetlands; small, meso- to
Ducklings-invertebrates eutrophic with marshy cover
Black Duck Adults-plant matter Ground in heavy cover Wetlands; small, meso- to
Ducklings-invertebrates eutrophic with shoreline cover
Mallard Adults-plant matter Ground in heavy cover Wetlands; small, eutrophic with
Ducklings-invertebrates marshy cover
Ring-necked Adults-plant matter Ground in heavy cover Wetlands; small, meso- to
Duck Ducklings-invertebrates near water eutrophic with shoreline cover
Common Mostly invertebrates Tree cavity Lakes; small-to-medium,
Goldeneye oligotrophic
Hooded Small fish and invertebrates Tree cavity Wetlands; small, meso- to oligo-
Merganser trophic with shoreline cover
Common Small to medium -sized fish Tree cavity Rivers and medium-to-Iarge lakes
Merganser
Legend

.. N
DSudbury Study Area
Wanapilei Study Area
i
I
'It
.Survey Plots I 47 30'
e Quebec
-+-Sudbury
-
50km
.'.
\
-,,
\
..
\
......
.

46 30'
:~ Lake Nlp/sslng
lake Huron
45 30'
83 81 80 79'
FIGURE 16.2. Map of northeastern Ontario showing outlines of the Sudbury study area (from Neary et a1.
1990) and the Wanapitei study area (from McNicol et al. 1987a). Waterfowl and habitat survey plots (2 x
2 km) that fall inside the Sudbury area (N = 57) or within 20 km (N = 26) are also identified.
pH Number of Wetlands Open Water Area
e.!:! ha
>6.5 [}2 0 <20
6.0-6.5 2-4 0-40
15.5-6.0 14-6 1 40-60
15.0-5.5 16-s 160-s0
1<5.0 18-10 I>so
~ L--..J
~ 50km 50 km
FIGURE 16.3. Maps of the distribution of pH, number of wetlands, and open water area (derived from 83
4-km2 plots) in the Sudbury area. The pH map was derived from 363 lakes (from Neary et al. 1990). Maps
were constructed using the POTMAP use of SPANS (Intera Tydac 1991). Sudbury is shown by Et>.
TABLE 16.2. Relationships between the densities of eight

waterfowl species breeding in the Sudbury area and habitat
parameters, based on 5-year average densities for 57 plots,
expressed as Spearman rank correlation coefficients.
Habitat parameter
Open Water
pH No. wetlands Area (ha)
No. wetlands 0.04
Open Water Area 0.10 0.19
Common Loon 0.26 * 0.37 ** 0.78**
Common Merganser -0.08 -0.11 0.31 *
Common Goldeneye -0.29 ** 0.16 0.11
Hooded Merganser
Black Duck
0.07
-0.06 0.45
..
0.61 ** 0.20
0.06
Ring-necked Duck -0.20 0.45 ** 0.06
Mallard -0.02 0.18 -0.15
Wood Duck -0.11 0.08 -0.03
* P< .05; ** P< .01.
210 McNicol et al.
risk from acidic predpitation due to reduced

Waterfowl Species availability and quality of-fish prey as lake pH
Accounts declines. Because they are long-lived and re-
turn to the same lake each year, loons breed-
The following accounts discuss patterns in ing on acidic lakes may experience impaired
species' distribution, density, and productiv- reproduction from elevated levels of mercury
ity in the context of recovery of Sudbury in fish prey (Scheuhammer 1991). Studies have
area lakes. The results of the surveys are shown that loons breed less frequently on
illustrated in Figures 16.3 to 16.6 and Ta- addic lakes (DesGranges and Darveau 1985;
bles 16.1 and 16.2. McNicol et al. 1987a) and that nest attempts
on these lakes are often unsuccessful due to
higher chick mortality (Alvo et al. 1988). The
Common Loon dominant factor influendng loon breeding dis-
This well-known spedes is common on large tribution and success across Ontario is lake
oligotrophic lakes, where it feeds primarily on area (Wayland and McNicol 1990). At Sud-
small fish. Loons and other piscivores are at bury, breeding densities correlate strongly with
Common Loon Common Goldeneye Black Duck Mallard

a 191PIlOOk/n2 a 9 IF'Jl00km2 a 31 IPJ1()()1<m2
a 29 IPJ1()()km2
bS,900 IP
c 2OY.
>40
Common Merganser Hooded Merganser Ring-necked Duck Wood Duck

a 17 IP/1 ookfn2 a 21 IPJ100km2 a 13 IP/l()()km2
a 8 IPJI 00km2
b 3 4, 40 IP b 4,310 IP
b 1.570 IF'
c 14 Of.
cS %
1020
120-30
130-4&
1>40
FIGURE 16.4. Maps of the distribution and density (indicated pairs per 100 km 2) of eight waterfowl species
breeding in the Sudbury area, based on 5-year average densities for 83 survey plots (from Ross 1987). The
location and number of pairs were determined using helicopter surveys conducted during nest initiation in
May 1985, 1987-89, and 1993. Maps were constructed using the POTMAP use of SPANS (Intera Tydac 1991).
Estimates of (a) mean density, (b) total number of indicated breeding pairs (IP), and (c) percentage of total
waterfowl count are included for each species. Sudbury is shown by Etl.
FIGURE 16.5. Trends in the average Common Loon Common Merganser

density (indicated pairs per 100 krn2 ) 30 30
of six waterfowl spedes breeding in ,- _ Il- _. _ iI . *
*
56 plots within the Sudbury study
~
20 ** 20
area surveyed in 4 years between I .
~
1985 and 1989 (thick line). Also pre- ~ '. .
sented are trends for plots assigned ... ./"
10 10 .
-..
to broad pH classes: less than 5.5 ~ - .. -.I' ' .. ..
(+ - +; N = 15), 5.5-6.3 (* - *; N
= 18), greater than 6.3 ( .. ..; 0 0
N = 23). Statistical tests are based
on non-parametric trend analyses >- Common Goldeneye Hooded Merganser
(*-p< .05; **-P< .01) from Ross
:!::
f/)
30 30 . ,.
et aL 1984). r:::
Q
CI)
20 20
~- - ..
~
C') .
r::: .
.- 10 ... y
.. 10 .'
'C . -"
-./
...
CI)
..... -
CI)
0
m
0
Black Duck Ring-necked Duck

50 40
40
30
20
10
;;;;
. .....
- .,.,.. -. ... -
,.;
~
30
20
10
0
~
,
., / '-
/
1985198719881989 1985 1987 1988 1989
open water area, reflecting its preference for (>6.3) pH areas have increased substantially.
larger water bodies, but also correlate with pH. Presumably, increases in local breeding popu-
Loons are abundant in the northwest (Lake lations are related to recovery in water quality
Onaping area), far northeast (Lady Evelyn area), and biological communities (see Chapter 5),
and southwest (Lake Panache area), where especially to the west and far north of Sud-
average pHs are generally greater than 5.5. bury, where pHs in the early 1980s were great-
Loons have a very localized distribution in the er than 5.5. As the fish prey base in large lakes
immediate vicinity of Sudbury, where appro- improves and habitat suited for nesting and
priate nesting lakes are rare. Northeast of Sud- raising chicks becomes more available, in-
bury, near Lake Chiniguchi, suitable breeding creased immigration, coupled with enhanced
habitat is available (Le., large lakes), but few productivity, has ultimately led to the in-
loons are recorded. Extremely acidic lakes (pH creased recruitment to local breeding popula-
< 5.5), typical of the general area, are used tions witnessed recently.
infrequently by loons.
Common Loon numbers have increased near
Sudbury in recent years (Fig. 16.5). Although
Common Merganser
average breeding densities in acidified areas In summer, this fish-eating species favors clear
(pH <5.5) have not changed and remain low, lakes, rivers, and streams of the Precambrian
populations in medium (5.5-6.3) and high Shield. As with loons, mergansers display an
212 McNicol et al.
Piscivores FIGURE 16.6. Comparisons of relative production of

0.6. . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - , young (% dass 2 broods/% indicated pairs) for pisd-
vores (Common Loon, Common Merganser) and in-
sectivores (Common Goldeneye, Hooded Merganser)
or omnivores (Black Duck, Ring-necked Duck) using
174 lakes in the Wanapitei study area. Indicated pair
data were collected in 1983, 1985-86, and 1993, and
brood data were collected in 1983-87 and 1993. Data
were then pooled across years per lake, and lakes were
><
Q)
scored as used or unused by each spedes. Number of
lakes in each pH dass: less than 5 (N = 43),5-5.5 (N =
-c::
'C 39),5.5-6.3 (N=46), greater than 6.3 (N=46).
c:: o
o
I_COmmon Loon 0 Common Merganser 1
t) 2 Insectivores/Omnivores
::::J
'C
...c.o
<5.0 5.0-5.5 5.5-6.3
_Common Goldeneve ~Hooded Merganser

o Bilek Duck g) Rlngnecked Duck
obvious preference for lakes greater than pH 6 Nicol et al. 1987a). Breeding distributions were
that contain fish (McNicol et al. 1990). How- influenced by two main factors: (1) preference
ever, these two fish-eating species differ in to breed near very large inland lakes (Lady
their breeding habits; loons raise only one or Evelyn, Temagami, Onaping, Wanapitei, and
two young, which are restricted to their nest- Panache) and near Georgian Bay, and (2) pref-
ing lake, whereas Common Mergansers at- erence for large river systems, such as the
tempt to raise many ducklings that are highly Spanish. Both patterns support the tendency of
mobile and can move to lakes with a greater broods to move progressively downstream to
food supply. brood-rearing habitat after hatch.
Fewer than 1600 pairs of Common Mergan-
sers nest in the Sudbury area, with especially
low breeding densities (less than five pairs per
Common Goldeneye
100 km 2) recorded near Sudbury, where fish The Common Goldeneye is one of the few
populations continue to be stressed (see Chap- species that can exploit acidified environments
ter 5). Although production in the acid- associated with industrial regions (Gilyazov
stressed Wanapitei area was strongly related to 1993). Early studies indicated that goldeneyes
pH, no population trends .were evident among compete with fish for similar invertebrate prey
any pH classes. Breeding densities were only (Eriksson 1979), which influences their distri-
correlated with open water area, confirming bution (McNicol et al. 1987a) and partially
their preference for larger water bodies (Mc- explains the negative correlation with pH ob-
FIGURE 16.7. Predicted re- pH Fish Presence

l00 ~----------------~
sponses of pH, fish presence,
and four waterfowl species in
the Sudbury study area to sev-
eral emission control scenar-
ios. Waterfowl brood indices
are scaled to original (pre-
acidification) values.
Common Goldeneye
><
Q)
"c::
"...oo
m Black Duck
::
--...
o
Q)
m
3:
Emission Scenario
Orlg = Pre-acidification 2 = Canada 42%
1 = 1980 levels 3 =
Canada 42% + US 50%
served in the Sudbury area (Table 16.2). Here, land and McNicol, 1994). These assodations are
goldeneyes are at the southern limit of their clearly linked to the rich supply of preferred
breeding range, but pockets of small, fishless, invertebrate prey found in fishless lakes in the
acid lakes support local concentrations of nest- area, most of which are very acidic (pH <5.0)
ing pairs. The population fluctuated between (McNicol et al. 1987b; McNicol and Wayland
1985 and 1989, with no consistent trend. 1992). As pH improves and fish return to many
However, goldeneye breeding densities did in- of these lakes, the Common Goldeneye is the
crease on lakes where recovery should be only species whose population is expected to
rapid (pH 5.5-6.3), perhaps because inverte- decrease in the Sudbury area as a direct result of
brate prey abundance and diversity increased, acidity shifts (Fig. 16.7).
but fish have not yet invaded.
Research on goldeneyes at Wanapitei has
confirmed that, given a variety of small oligo-
Hooded Merganser
trophic lakes to choose from, fishless, often This merganser prefers small beaver-influenced
clustered lakes are preferred during all stages lakes and wetlands in northeastern Ontario
of breeding (Mallory et al. 1993, 1994; Way- and is often associated with non-acidic, natu-
214 McNicol et al.
rally fishless lakes (Blancher et al. 1992). Un- Ring-Necked Duck

like goldeneyes, adult Hooded Mergansers can
forage on small fish; however, their young rely This ground-nesting species prefers small pro-
exclusively on conspicuous aquatic insects and ductive wetlands and marshes in the boreal re-
thus compete with fish for prey (McNicol et al. gion and is common in the Sudbury area (4300
1987b). Hooded Mergansers are common near pairs), particularly in the northeast. Ring-
Sudbury (3440 pairs), especially in central and necked Ducks have a diverse diet (Bellrose 1980;
southeastern areas, but rarely occur in the far McNicol et al. 1987b), and production of young
northeast. Their distribution only correlates is highest in lakes at each pH extreme (pH <5.0;
with number of wetlands, with higher breed- pH >6.3), similar to the pattern for other insecti-
ing densities in plots containing large numbers vores and omnivores. Again, this may be due to
of small lakes (Table 16.2). Significant in- the combined effects of fish predation and pH on
invertebrate prey in lakes between pH 5 and 6.3.
creases in populations were noted and were
Its distribution, however, only correlates with
most consistent in high and low pH areas (see
wetlands numbers (Table 16.2). Given the lack
Figs. 16.4 and 16.5). Unlike goldeneyes, this
of any relationship to pH, it is not surprising that
species appears to produce more young at pH
Ring-necked Duck populations remained rela-
extremes at Wanapitei. At low pH, young may
tively stable in all pH classes during this study.
have an easier time finding relatively abun-
dant invertebrate prey consisting of few spe-
cies, and at high pH they can find abundant Wood Duck
diverse prey. In mid-range pHs, fish predation
This tree-nesting species prefers more south-
and pH effects reduce invertebrate prey avail-
erly marshes, swamps, and small lakes (Bell-
ability. The plastic nature of its feeding habits, rose 1980). At the northern limit of its present
combined with its broad ecological niche, may range near Sudbury, it is virtually absent in
alloW this species to take full advantage of any more boreal habitat to the north and west but
habitat improvement after recovery. is common in the southeast where it is keying
on nutrient-rich clay substrates (Wickware
American Black Duck and Rubec 1989). The Wood Duck has risen in
numbers during the study, but this appears
The Black Duck is closely related to the Mal- unrelated to pH changes. Instead, this reflects
lard but is highly adapted to boreal conditions the sharp population increase this species has
(Ross 1987). Although similarly abundant at undergone in southern Ontario (Dennis et al.
Sudbury, its distribution is different from that 1989), which has led to expansion at the edges
of the Mallard. It is found throughout the area of its range into appropriate habitat created
and shows a strong correlation to numbers of by increasing amounts of beaver flowage in
wetlands per plot (Table 16.2), a reflection of Ontario.
its preference for smaller breeding ponds (MC-
Nicol et al. 1987a). Its population has shown
an upward tendency, consistent with recent Mallard
patterns for northeastern Ontario. This trend The Mallard is the most widely distributed
probably reflects reductions of hunter bag lim- waterfowl species in the world and the most
its instituted during the study in response to abundant duck in the Sudbury area. It is a
an overall population decline detected over marsh-dwelling species with a high tolerance
the past 30 years (NAWMP 1986). Interest- of human activity and has a distribution very
ingly, the sharpest rise occurs in the lowest pH similar to the Wood Duck's, showing the same
range. Although an explanation is presently regional association with clay-dominated soils
being sought, this tendency suggests that addi- and a lack of relationship with other habitat
tional birds are being forced into less desirable variables. It selects the most fertile breeding
habitat. habitat (Merendino 1993), which is the least
likely to be affected by pH depression. The fish should provide more suitable foraging
local population is stable, and trends in all conditions for fish-eating spedes, such as the
three pH ranges appear similar. Common Merganser, when numbers of lakes
supporting broods are expected to increase
substantially.
Future Implications Conditions for Black Ducks and Hooded
Mergansers should also improve, although not
for Waterfowl of the magnitude of the Common Merganser.
Increases in broods of these two spedes will be
Most research on effects of addification on wa-
related to shifts in invertebrate assemblages
terfowl has focused on habitat and food chain (e.g., return of high-quality prey) resulting
relationships. However, waterfowl breeding in from chemical improvements and not strictly
affected areas must be monitored over a long fish presence. Broods of the insectivorous
period to reliably establish whether a consistent Common Goldeneye are expected to decline
trend of improvement in populations is occur- toward pre-addification levels, as fish return
ring as lake chemistries recover. Nonetheless, we to many lakes and reduce the supply of inver-
can use existing knowledge to make predictions tebrate foods.
on how spedes will respond to various emission Even under the strongest emission reduction
control scenarios. The Waterfowl Addification scenario (Canada 42% + United States 50%),
Response Modelling System (WARMS) is WARMS predicts that waterfowl populations in
composed of an underlying addification model the Sudbury area will not return to their pre-
(Jones et al. 1990) and fish and waterfowl mod- addification levels. However, under any reduc-
els derived from data collected in the Sudbury tion in sulfur dioxide emissions, populations of
and Algoma regions (Blancher et al. 1992). all local waterfowl spedes should remain stable
WARMS uses pH, lake area, dissolved organic or move toward pre-addification levels. Contin-
carbon, total phosphorus, and fish presence to ued monitoring of Sudbury area lakes is re-
predict independent waterfowl spedes respon- quired to refine these predictions, establish rates
ses to changing lake chemistry. It provides esti- of recovery, and most important, verify that cur-
mates of pre-addification, current and eventual rent abatement programs will indeed restore the
(steady-state) values for pH, fish presence, and capadty of sensitive aquatic habitats to sustain
waterfowl breeding parameters under various healthy populations of plants and animals, in-
emission scenarios. cluding waterfowl.
WARMS predictions for pH, fish presence,
and selected waterfowl spedes in the Sudbury
area (based on 227 lakes) (Neary et al. 1990) Acknowledgments. We thank Don Fillman for
for the following emission scenarios-( 1) pre- assistance with aerial surveys, Don Kurylo
addification (background) levels of sulfur di- (GLFC lab) for chemical analyses, Chris Wedeles
oxide, (2) 1980 levels of sulfur dioxide, (ESSA Technologies Ltd.) for the WARMS anal-
(3) Canadian emissions reduced by about 42 % ysis, and Bill Keller, John Cairns, Karen Laws,
(by 1994), and (4) scenario 3 with about a and John Gunn for their reviews of the manu-
50% reduction in U.S. emissions (by year script. Bernie Neary (OMEE) kindly provided
2000)-are shown in Figure 16.7. Fish pres- chemical data for the Sudbury area. This on-
ence, pH, and waterfowl broods are all lower going research is funded by the Long Range
currently and under future scenarios than Transport of Airborne Pollutants program of En-
calculated values before lake addification (ex- vironment Canada.
cept goldeneyes). However, as sulfur dioxide
emissions decline, lake pH is predicted to im-
prove dramatically. This is expected to result in References
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were lost due to addification. The return of breeding success of common loons in relation to
216 McNicol et al.
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tario. Can. J. Zool. 66:746-752. M.E. Wayland. 1993. Nest site selection by Com-
Beilrose, Ee. 1980. Ducks, Geese and Swans of mon Goldeneyes in response to habitat features
North America. 3rd ed. Stackpole Books, Harris- influenced by acid precipitation. Ornis Scand. 24:
burg, PA. 59-64.
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insect assemblages. Hydrobiologia 150: 193-202. wildlife in Canada: waterfowl and trophic rela-
Bendell, B.E., and D.K McNicol. In press. Lake acidity, tionships in small lakes in northern Ontario. Occ.
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Blancher, P.J., D.K. McNicol, R.K Ross, e.H.R. Wed- Waterfowl as indicators of wetland acidification in
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Dennis, D.G., G.B. McCullough, N.R. North, and tario, Canada. Trans. Internat. Union Game BioI.
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DesGranges, J.L., and M. Darveau. 1985. Effects of ada, 1983-1991. Water Air Soil Pollut. 73:105-
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Ecol. 8:181-190. of waterfowl broods in Sudbury area lakes in
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for common prey. Oecologia 41:99-107. 1):122-l33.
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bird communities of the Lapland Biosphere Re- wetland productivity and distribution of breeding
serve, pp. 383-390. In M.V. Kozlov, E. Haokioja, Mallards, Black Ducks and their broods: histori-
and Y.T. Yarmishko (eds.). Aerial Pollution in cal and spatial analyses. Ph.D. thesis, University
Kola Peninsula. Proceedings of the International of Western Ontario, London.
Workshop, April 14-16, 1992. Kola Scientific Neary, B.P., P.J. Dillon, J.R. Munro, and B.J. Clark.
Center, Apatity, Russia. 1990. The Acidification of Ontario Lakes: An As-
Intera Tydac. 1991. SPANS 5.2 Reference Man- sessment of Their Sensitivity and Current Sta-
ual. Vol. 1. Intera Tydac Technologies, Ottawa, tus with Respect to Biological Damage. Report.
Ontario. Ontario Ministy of the Environment, Toronto,
Jones, M.L., C.K. Minns, D.R. Marmorek, and Ontario.
EC. Elder. 1990. Assessing the potential extent of North American Waterfowl Management Plan
damage to inland lakes in eastern Canada due to (NAWMP). 1986. North American Waterfowl
acidic deposition. II. Application of the regional Management Plan: A Strategy for Cooperation.
model. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 47:67-80. Canadian Wildlife Service/U.S. Fish and Wild-
Keller, W., J.M. Gunn, and N.D. Yan. 1992a. Evi- life Service, Ottawa, Canada.
dence of biological recovery in acid stressed Reinecke, K, and R. Owen. 1980. Food use and
lakes near Sudbury, Canada. Environ. Pollut. nutrition of Black Ducks nesting in Maine. J.
78:79-85. Wildl. Manage. 44:549-558.
Keller, W., J.R. Pitblado, and J. Carbone. 1992b. Ross, R.K 1987. Interim Report on Waterfowl
Chemical responses of acidic lakes in the Sud- Breeding Pair Surveys in Northern Ontario,
bury, Ontario, area to reduced smelter emissions, 1980-1983. Progress Note Series 168. Cana-
1981-1989. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 49(Suppl. dian Wildlife Service.
1 ):25-32. Ross, R.K, D.G. Dennis, and G. Butler. 1984.
Mallory, M.L., D.K. McNicol, and P.J. Weatherhead. Population trends of the five most common
1994. Habitat quality and reproductive effort of duck species breeding in southern Ontario,
Common Goldeneyes nesting near Sudbury, 1971-76, pp. 22-26. In S.G. Curtis, D.G. Den-
Canada. J. Wildl. Manage. 58:552-560. nis, and H. Boyd (eds.). Waterfowl Studies in
Ontario, 1973-81. Occ.Paper 54. Canadian Wild- Lakes Loon Survey. Technical Report Series 92.
life Service. Canadian Wildlife Service.
Scheuhammer, A.M. 1991. Effects of acidification Wayland, M, and D.K. McNicol. 1994. Movements and
on the availability of toxic metals and calcium to survival of Common Goldeneye broods near Sudbury,
wild birds and mammals. Environ. Pollut. 71: Ontario, Canada. Can. J. 2001. 72:1252-1259.
329-375. Wickware, G.M., and C.D.A. Rubec. 1989. Eco-
Wayland, M., and D.K. McNicol. 1990. Status Re- regions of Ontario. Ecological Land Classification
port on the Effects of Acid Precipitation on Com- Series 26. Sustainable Development Branch, En-
mon Loon Reproduction in Ontario: The Ontario vironment Canada, Ottawa, Ontario.
17
Acidification and Metal
Contamination: Implications for
the Soil Biota of Sudbury
Christine D. Maxwell
Considerable attention has been focused on scribed by Stotsky (1974) as undoubtedly the
the improvements in vascular plant commu- most complex microbial habitat.
nities in Sudbury that have occurred as a Soil is composed of (1) mineral particles of
result of the land reclamation programs and various dimensions and chemical characteris-
reduced industrial emissions during the past tics; (2) organic matter in many stages of decay;
two decades. Relatively little is known about (3) a liquid phase in the form of soil water that
the corresponding changes in soil microbial contains soluble materials; (4) a gaseous phase,
populations even though they are essential usually composed of oxygen, carbon dioxide,
for the successful development of plant com- and nitrogen; and (5) an active living metabo-
munities. In this chapter, the effects of in- lizing soil community.
dustrial emissions on the diverse biological The components of the soil biota are diverse,
communities within the soil are discussed. including viruses, bacteria, cyanobacteria, fungi,
The focus is on the effects of acidification algae, and the soil fauna. This biotic community
and toxic metals on Sudbury soils, but be- contributes to the structural integrity of the soil
cause of the limited number of studies in this through the process of aggregate formation and
area, a more general but very brief review of to the fertility of the soil through nitrogen fixa-
other literature is included. tion. Also, through the production of humus,
the soil biota contribute to soil texture, water-
holding capacity, and the complexation of min-
Soil Biota erals important in plant nutrition (Ehrlich 1981;
Paul and Clark 1989). Soil microorganisms, in
The importance of the soil biota in soil forma- tum, are affected by many factors, including the
tion' nutrient cycling, and the production of chemical status of the soil (e.g., nutrient content
organic matter is a key factor in the function- and ionic composition), the physical conditions
ing of ecosystems. Disruption of these activi- (e.g., temperature, moisture, gaseous compo-
ties by anthropogenic stresses such as smelter sition, pH, redox potential, particulates), and
emissions can have a profound effect on the the biological interactions between organisms
development of higher plant communities. (e.g., competition, parasitism, and predator-
Our general lack of knowledge of the effects of prey relationships).
anthropogenic stress on soil microbial popula- Soil microorganisms are not randomly dis-
tions is attributable, in part, to the very nature tributed in the soil profile. A general trend is
of the soil environment, which has been de- for soil populations to show a decrease in size
219
220 Maxwell
with increasing depth, and this is matched by activities are usually present as microscopically
a decrease in soil organic matter with depth. small particles, which may be sorbed, bound,
The A horizon is the most active zone from a chelated, or in salt form and are therefore more
biological point of view, because it harbors the available to microorganisms (Doelman 1985).
roots of higher plants, the bacterial flora, The availability, and hence potential toxicity, of
fungi, algae, and the fauna. Bacteria fre- metals is also governed by several physico-
quently form micro colonies on the surface of chemical characteristics of the soil system, such
aggregate particles, to which they are attached as pH, oxidation-reduction potential, aeration,
by means of fibrillae and mucigels. There is inorganic anions and cations, particulate and
increased bacterial and fungal activity in the soluble organic matter, clay minerals, salinity,
vicinity of plant roots, as a result of an increase and temperature (Babich and Stotsky 1985).
in organic matter provided by live, senescent, Not all microorganisms are eliminated from
and dead roots. This region has been termed industrially damaged areas. In fact, a wide
the rhizosphere. The root surface itself harbors a range of relatively resistant or tolerant micro-
distinct microbiota and is referred to as the organisms can be found in soils contaminated
rhizop/ane. Most actively growing algae and by toxic metals. They possess physiological
cyanobacteria are restricted to the upper few mechanisms that allow them to survive and
millimeters of the soil surface where light per- reproduce (Gadd 1990). These mechanisms
mits photosynthesis. include the ability to produce polysaccharides,
which act as biosorbents for metal cations, the
ability to precipitate and crystallize metals on
Toxic Metals, Acid the cell surface, reduced permeability of the
Conditions, and cell wall or cell membranes, or the ability to
compartmentalize or bind metals to proteins
Soil Microorganisms- intracellularly. In many bacterial strains, the
General Considerations genetic determinants of resistances to metals
are located on plasmids, which are pieces of
In unpolluted soils, the abundance of toxic DNA that are separate from the chromosome
metals (copper, nickel, etc.) is generally low (Gadd 1990).
(Table 17.1), and they are most often in forms Bacteria can carry out transformation of toxic
unavailable to living organisms. By contrast, metals through oxidation, reduction, methyl-
metals introduced as a result of anthropogenic ation, and demethylation, and this may have
TABLE 17.1. Metal Concentrations (~g/g) in Sudbury Surface Soils from

Surveys Conducted within 20 km of Smelters*
Dudka et al. (submitted) OMOE (1992)
Background
Metal level Mean Range Mean Range
Arsenic 10 13 1-257
Cobalt 25 10 1-113 14 4-51
Copper 60 116 11-1891 155 14-2100
Lead 150 40 15-158 25 4-160
Nickel 60 104 5-2149 168 24-1500
*Surveys by Dudka et al. (submitted) and Ontario Ministry of the Environment (OMOE)
(J. Negusanti, unpublished data). Maximum background levels for non-agricultural soils
is also indicated (Compiled by Negusanti and Mcnveen [1990]). Geometric means and
ranges are presented.
-, no data.
17. Acidification and Metal Contamination 221
some implications for the soil community in the smelters where acidification and metal con-
terms of mediating the effects of toxic metals tamination are greatest, mineral soils may be
(Shannon and Unterman 1993). The ability to found in small pockets, but the loss of vegeta-
transform metals as a detoxification mecha- tion has resulted in severe soil erosion, with
nism could be potentially very useful in the the loss of typical soil profiles. In areas farther
remediation of metal-contaminated habitats; away, the typical soil profile is retained; how-
however, little is known about the importance ever, high concentrations of toxic metals and
of these organisms in the natural environment low pH conditions often occur in the surface
(Lovely 1993). layers of the soil, the layers of greatest biologi-
It is difficult to separate the effects of toxic cal activity (Hutchinson and Whitby 1974).
metals from those of high soil acidity, because Among the elements found at elevated con-
soil acidification increases the solubility of met- centrations in surface soils near the smelters
als. Soil acidity in natural (unpolluted) soils is are copper, nickel, cadmium, cobalt, chromium,
determined by several processes, some of which iron, manganese, sulfur, and zinc (Dudka et al.,
produce acids (e.g., decomposition of organic in press).
material through the production of organic and There is some evidence of reductions in the
carbonic acids and the mineralization of plant copper and nickel concentrations in surface
nutrients) and some of which consume acids soils over the past 20 years (Gundermann and
(weathering of soil minerals, and the anaerobic Hutchinson 1993; Dudka et aI., in press). The
reduction of nitrogen and sulfur) (Abrahamsen authors of the studies suggested that these
1987). Acid deposition has resulted in increased changes in concentration of metals in surface
soil acidity in the vicinity of point sources such as soils are due partly to leaching and erosion of
smelters (Hutchinson and Whitby 1974); how- the physically unstable barren soils and possi-
ever, it is difficult to determine the relative bly due to reduced atmospheric inputs. De-
contributions from atmospheric deposition and spite these reductions, bioassay results using
naturally occurring processes. There is some ev- lettuce seedlings suggest that the concentra-
idence to suggest the occurrence of seasonal tions of metals at sites close to the smelters are
changes in pH under some vegetational cover still inhibitory to root growth (Gundermann
types as a result of the uptake and return of and Hutchinson 1993). These inhibitory ef-
base cations to the soil (Johnson 1987).
fects may also be significant for the soil micro-
Whether small fluctuations in pH can signifi-
bial community.
cantly influence the soil biota remains a mat-
ter of conjecture.
Diversity and Abundance
Sudbury Soils: of Soil Organisms
Implications for
Soil Algae and Cyanobacteria
Soil Microorganisms
The photosynthetic components of the soil
A diverse series of habitats exists for the soil community, the soil algae and cyanobacteria,
microorganisms in the Sudbury area, ranging play several important roles. They are respon-
from heavily contaminated soils that are un- sible for the addition of carbon and organic
dergoing slow changes over time to less con- matter to the soil, and in addition, the growth
taminated areas undergoing the same changes of filamentous forms can result in the forma-
to sites in which amelioration has been rapid tion of crusts (sometimes with fungal hyphae
as a result of revegetation treatment. and moss protonemata) that reduce water and
The natural soils of the Sudbury area are wind erosion (Metting 1981).
podzols, which are acidic soils with a pH range The soil flora of three contaminated sites,
of approximately 3.8-5.2. On hillsides close to near Sudbury, were characterized by a low
222 Maxwell
FIGURE 17.1. Acid-tolerant Chlamydomonas acido-

phila. f flagellum; pa, papilla s, stigma; py, pyrenoid;
c, chloroplast. (Drawing by M. Twiss.)
f
PQ--~v
s
py---ht-h:
diversity of chlorophytes, one or two diatom a metal-tolerant organism in the Sudbury soils
spedes, and a notable absence of cyanobacte- (Hutchinson et al. 1981).
ria (Maxwell 1991). Similar results have been The absence of cyanobacteria from soils in
reported for soils subject to emissions from the Sudbury barren areas is not surprising.
various metallurgical plants in Russia (Shtina Several authors, including Brock (1973) and
et al. 1985). Dooley and Houghton (1974), have concluded
The chlorophyte-dominated flora of the Sud- that cyanobacteria are unable to live at pH
bury barrens is characteristic of add soils. levels less than 4.4, conditions that exist over
Chlamydomonas acidophila (Fig. 17.1), a single- much of the Sudbury area.
celled motile alga, is ubiquitous in these soils. The response of the autotrophic soil micro-
As the name suggests, this alga is add-tolerant flora to liming and fertilizer treatments was
and is reported to occur in such widespread surprisingly rapid. Maxwell (1991) followed
areas as Smoking Hills in the Canadian Arctic, the changes that occurred at a Wahnapitae site
where it is found in addic ponds with a pH of for 46 weeks. The first cyanobacteria were
1.8 (Sheath et al. 1982), and strip-mine ponds found just 2 weeks after the reclamation treat-
in Ohio with a pH of 3.3 (Rhodes 1981). Not ment, when a pH of 5.3 was recorded. The
only is it add-tolerant, but it also exhibits diversity of the cyanobacteria and chloro-
copper tolerance. Twiss (1990) compared the phytes increased with time. A nearby un-
copper tolerance of isolates from three Sud- treated control site showed no change over
bury soils, including a roast bed soil, and con- the 46 weeks (Table 17.2). Maxwell (1991)
cluded that in comparison with a laboratory also examined soils that had been subjected to
strain of C. acidophila, the isolates were indeed the revegetation treatment, 2, 4, and 5 years
tolerant. A second unicellular green alga, Chlo- before her study. A progressive increase both
rella saccharophila, has also been recognized as in the diversity of green algae and cyanobacte-
TABLE 17.2. Changes in the Soil Microflora in 46 Weeks after Treatment

with Lime and Fertilizer at a Contaminated Site at Wahnapitae
Post-treatment (weeks)
Control site Pretreatment 2 6 12 36 46

Cyanobacteria
Anabaena sp. x x x x
Gloeocapsa sp.
Lyngbya sp. (2) x x x
Nostoc muscorum x x x x x
Oscillatoria sp. (1) x x x x x
Chlorophyta
Chlamydomonas x x x x x x x
acidophila
Chlorella sp. x x
Chlorococcum sp. x x x x x x x
Chlorosarcina x
Desmococcus sp. x x x x x x x
Gloeocystis sp.
Oocystis sp.
Stichococcus subtilis x x x x x x x
Chrysophyta
Hantzchia x x
Navicula sp. x x x x x x x
Euglenophyta
Euglena sp. x x x x x x
x, Isolated in enrichment culture; -, not isolated in enrichment culture.
ria had occurred. Similar results have been lations both in field and laboratory experi-
documented in other studies of the photo- ments and noted that the bacteria are more
synthetic components of the soil community. sensitive to metals than fungi are. Metal con-
Shubert and Starks (1979) noted a distinct tamination generally causes an increase in the
algal succession occurring with time on natu- fungal biomass to bacterial biomass ratio, as a
rally revegetated mine spoil banks in North result of the different sensitivities of prokary-
Dakota. Balezina (1975) also reported in- otes and eukaryotes.
creases in the diversity and abundance of soil Hutchinson and Nakatsu (personal communi-
algae and cyanobacteria after the liming and cation) found a vigorous acid and metal-toler-
the application of fertilizer to an agricultural ant bacterial flora in the Coniston Valley, with
soil in the former Soviet Union. pseudomonads predominating. Tolerances to
nickel, copper, cobalt, and aluminum were es-
pecially high. Nickel tolerance appeared to be
Soil Bacteria controlled by a nickel-tolerant plasmid. Nord-
Little information is available on the diversity gren et al. (1983,1985) reported decreases in
and abundance of soil bacteria in Sudbury. bacterial numbers close to the brass mill at
That which is available relates to specific soil Gusum, where the soil is heavily contami-
processes such as nitrogen fixation and nitrifi- nated with copper (10-15 mg/g) and zinc (15-
cation and is covered in the next section. In a 20 mg/g), and close to a smelter in Northern
summary of the effects of various concen- Sweden, which emits a wide spectrum of
trations of metals on soil bacteria, Doelman metal particulates including lead, copper, zinc,
(1985) reported significant decreases in popu- and arsenic.
224 Maxwell
oribatid mites, representing 22 families from

Fungi sites around Sudbury. In the barren areas,
The soil fungi are of particular importance in they found a very limited oribatid fauna with
the decomposition of litter and the mineraliza- only three species. The semibarren fauna was
tion of organic matter, especially under acid more diverse with 33 species, although this
conditions. Some basidiomycetes form symbi- number is very low in comparison with uncon-
otic mycorrhizal associations, thereby directly taminated forest sites in Ontario and Quebec.
affecting the nutrient status of vascular plants. Revegetated sites had 13 spedes, indicating a
Freedman and Hutchinson (1980) compared slow recovery.
the abundance and diversity of soil fungi on Reports from other contaminated areas, such
contaminated sites close to the Copper Cliff as Palmerton, Pennsylvania (Strojan 1978),
smelter with uncontaminated sites, and al- show a reduced number and diversity of arthro-
though there were consistently fewer colonies pods in forest litter compared with control sites.
isolated from contaminated sites, the numbers Springtail spedes (collembolans) that live in the
were not significantly different from those at litter or surface layer of the soil decrease in the
uncontaminated sites. vicinity of the brass mill at Gusum, Sweden
Carter (1978) compared soil fungi in terms (Bengtsson and Rundgren 1984), but species
of species diversity and abundance at four sites that live deeper in the soil are not affected.
in Sudbury. The soils at the sites differed in
terms of copper and nickel concentrations, al-
though care was taken to select sites that had
similar conditions of moisture, pH, and or-
Carbon Dioxide Fixation
ganic matter and also similar leaf litter from and Litter Decomposition
red maple (Acer rubrum). At two highly con-
taminated sites, he found a lower species The fixation of carbon dioxide in terrestrial
diversity index and reduced number of ecosystems is mainly carried out by higher
colony-forming units than at the two less- plants, soil algae, and cyanobacteria. Several
contaminated sites. Also, Penicillium waksmanii groups of bacteria, the green bacteria, the
appeared to be restricted to contaminated methanogenic bacteria, and acetogenic bacte-
sites. In laboratory tests, Carter demonstrated ria, also fix carbon dioxide, but little is known
that the fungal flora of the contaminated sites about their contribution of carbon fixation to
were more tolerant of high nickel concentra- the ecosystem. Organic carbon from plants en-
tions than those of the less-contaminated sites ters the soil through the process of litter de-
(approximately 0.4 mg/g of copper, nickel). composition or, more directly, through the
Similar effects on soil fungi have been reported activity of the soil algae and cyanobacteria.
for metal-contaminated areas in Sweden (Ruh- Mycorrhizal fungi can also provide substantial
ling et al. 1984). quantities of organic matter, derived from the
photosynthetic activities of the host plants,
and also, there are recent reports of direct
Soil Fauna carbon dioxide fixation by both ectomycor-
The soil fauna is composed of protozoans and rhizal fungi (Lapeyrie 1988) and vesicular-
metazoans, living both in the soil and in the arbuscular fungi (Bechard and Piche 1989).
surface litter. The fauna play an important part The amount of organic matter entering the
in the early breakdown of litter, greatly facilitat- soil depends on the amount of litter input and
ing the activities of the soil microflora. Those that the rate of decomposition. On the barren slopes
fragment litter include the millipedes, mites, iso- close to the smelters where there is little or no
pods, and collembolans. vegetation, organic matter in the soil is either in
There is limited information on the soil fauna the form of residual humus or derived from the
in Sudbury. Behan-Pelletier and Wmterhalder reduced flora of soil algae or perhaps from
(unpublished manuscript) recorded 35 spedes of mosses such as Pohlia. Such organisms are often
FIGURE 17.2. Photomicro-

graph of a filament of Nostoc
showing a heterocyst. (Photo
by D. Woodfine.)
the primary colonizers of bare soil. Land reda- possess the enzyme nitrogenase. The organ-
mation programs should permit a progressive isms fall into two main categories, the as-
increase in this limited flora, although the ymbiotic forms, which may be autotrophic or
changes may be slow (see Chapter 13). heterotrophic, and the symbiotic forms, which
Metals from smelter emissions tend to accu- form associations with higher plants.
mulate in litter layers (Hutchinson and Whitby Many of the free-living photosynthetic cyano-
1974; Dumontet et al. 1992), and their toxicity bacteria are capable of nitrogen fixation. The
can result in the decreased activity of the decom- ability to fix nitrogen is found most often in
posers. Measurements of soil respiration and soil filamentous forms such as Nostoc and Anabaena;
metabolic activity have both shown reduced mi- these possess heterocysts, although some non-
crobial activity in litter at contaminated sites heterocystous forms may also have the ability
near the Copper Cliff smelter in Sudbury (Freed- (Fig. 17.2).
man and Hutchinson 1980), near to the smelter Maxwell (1991) found that cyanobacteria
at Gusum, Sweden (Nordgren et al. 1983), and were absent on contaminated sites in Sudbury
also downwind from the smelter at Rouyn- and conduded that pH was a limiting factor.
Noranda, Quebec (Dumontet et al. 1992). Stud- Rapid colonization of amended sites occurred
ies using litter bags have also shown reduced after the revegetation treatment, and among
decomposition rates at contaminated sites com- the colonists were two heterocystous forms,
pared with uncontaminated sites (Freedman and Nostoc muscorum and N. paZudosum. Their pres-
Hutchinson 1980; de Catanzaro 1983). In a labo- ence suggests that nitrogen fixation could be
ratory study, copper was shown to be more inhib- occurring; however, experimental evidence
itory to the decomposition process than nickel. for Nostoc punctiforme (Granhall 1970) shows
the fixation process occurring in a range from
pH 5.0 to 10.0, with an optimum of pH 7.6. If
this is the case with species found on revege-
The Nitrogen Cycle- tated sites, the pH may still be too low to
Nitrogen Fixation permit significant nitrogen fixation in Sudbury
soils.
The biological fixation of nitrogen from the A free-living heterotrophic bacterium, similar
atmosphere is carried out by prokaryotes that to Azotobacter was isolated from contaminated
226 Maxwell
soils in Sudbury by Winterhalder (1987). Al-

though this bacterium was capable of fixing
Other Nitrogen Cycling
nitrogen in laboratory conditions, no fixation Processes
could be detected in the field. De Catanzaro
(1983) was unable to detect any biological Studies on the effects of acidity and metals on
nitrogen fixation occurring in the contami- the remaining stages of the nitrogen cycle in
nated soils of remnant jack pine stands in Sudbury are limited, and none relates to tem-
Sudbury. poral changes that have occurred over the past
The symbiotic fixation of nitrogen far ex- decade.
ceeds the contributions of the asymbiotic De Catanzaro (1983) compared mineraliza-
forms, and the rates of fixation are several tion and nitrification in the contaminated soils
orders of magnitude higher. Two associations of remnant jack pine (Pinus banksiana) stands
are of importance, the legume-Rhizobium sym- in Sudbury with uncontaminated sites at
biosis, (Fig. 17.3) and the non-legume angio- Windy Lake (60 km northwest of Sudbury)
sperms-actinomycete symbiosis, in which the and Burt Lake (50 km west of Kirkland Lake)
and found higher levels of ammonium in the
actinomycete is often of the genus Frankia.
Sudbury soils. Laboratory studies confirmed
The efficiency of the two systems is appar-
that nickel was causing a stimulation of the
ently comparable, but the actinomycete asso-
mineralization process. Similar results have
ciation has the advantage of being able to
been shown for forest soils in Germany, con-
function in more acidic conditions (pH 4.2)
taminated with various metals (Necker and
than the rhizobial association.
Kunze 1986). Stimulation of mineralization is
There are no native legumes occurring on not necessarily beneficial, because ammonium,
the barren and semibarren soils in the Sud- if not taken up and used by higher plants or
bury area; however, two exotic acid-tolerant immobilized by microorganisms, may be lost in
legumes, Birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus) leaching.
and Alsike clover (Trifolium hybridum), have The study of nitrification in soils is import-
been introduced successfully as part of the ant from the standpoint of soil fertility, be-
revegetation program. Nodulation by Rhizo- cause higher plants readily take up nitrate ions
bium and nitrogen fixation have been dem- into their roots for assimilation into organic
0nstrated for both species, despite the fact compounds. Nitrate not used by higher plants
that the pH of the soils was considered to be may be leached from the soil or used by mi-
low for the survival of rhizobia (Winterhal- croorganisms capable of assimilatory nitrogen
der 1987). Another leguminous exotic, the reduction (denitrification). Nitrification is a
woody black locust (Robinia pseudo-acacia) two-stage process involving two chemoauto-
has also been introduced to the Sudbury trophic bacteria, Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter.
soils, where it is hardy and vigorous (see The former oxidizes NH! to NO:2, the latter
Chapter 8). NO:2 to NO). It is also considered to be a pro-
Frankia is a non-motile filamentous actino- cess that is highly pH-sensitive. Optimum pH
mycete that forms root nodules with several values range from pH 6.6 to 8.0. Below pH 6.0,
plants native to the Sudbury area, including nitrification rates decrease, and less than 4.5,
sweet fern (Comptonia peregrina) and the alders they cease. Other environmental factors such
(Alnus crispa and Alnus rugosa). Whereas as soil aeration, moisture, temperature, and
Frankia itself is non-motile, there is a recent organic matter are also important in determin-
report that spores of Frankia, which are resis- ing nitrification rates.
tant to desiccation, may be transported by the De Catanzaro (1983) found both Nitroso-
activities of birds (Paschke and Dawson 1993) monas and Nitrobacter in soils at contaminated
and that the nitrogen-fixing ability of this acti- sites in Sudbury in higher numbers than in
nomycete allows actinorhizal vascular plants uncontaminated forest soils. The contamina-
to become very invasive. ted sites had soil pH values of 3.2-3.4, whereas
FIGURE 17.3. (A) Root nodule

on Lotus cornicuiatus; (B) photo-
micrograph of a cross section of
a root (R) and root nodule show-
ing the location of the rhizobial
bacteria (B). The diameter of the
nodule is approximately 1 mm.
(Photo by D. Lietz.)
B
t
R .. B
the uncontaminated soils were also acidic (pH This suggests that low concentrations of nickel
3.4-3.6). Whereas pronounced seasonal trends may stimulate nitrification, whereas high con-
were seen, nitrate levels in organic Sudbury soils centrations will inhibit the process.
were generally higher than those of uncontami- There are two possible explanations for the
nated sites, perhaps as a result of the higher occurrence of nitrification in such acidic soils.
numbers of nitrifiers. Incubation studies in In the first, there may be microsites in the soil
which 100 Ilg g-l and 500 Ilg g-l nickel additions in which the pH is higher than that of the soil
were made to uncontaminated soils showed an solution. These could result from the de-
increase in nitrification at the lower concentra- composition of nitrogen-rich material with the
tion and a decrease at the higher concentration. production of ammonia in localized areas. In
228 Maxwell
Arbu$cula ------:lr;:.t.~.~
Coil ------wf-:-f.,IC-i,~V
~;~5~i~I:il~~;.Ji~~I;:j( _-_-_-_- - Hartig nat Vesicle ~~;;;;;;;;;;;:;~====I

, Fungal sheath Infecting hypha - -""'=-\OL....j"--------
'\.l-..J..l::~~--- Fungal hyphae
A B
FIGURE 17.4. Two common types of mycorrhizae: (A) Ectomycorrhiza on the root of a pine seedling; and
(B) vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhiza on the root of juniper. (Drawing by D. Woodfine.)
the second case, several heterotrophic bacte- (1984) reported a decrease in most mycorrhi-
ria, actinomycetes, and soil fungi are known zal forms, with an increase in copper con-
to produce NO) from.NH:t in laboratory concentrations in the soil at Gusum; however,
ditions; however, the significance of these find- some species, such as Laccaria laccaria, were
ings in field conditions is not known (Paul and apparently tolerant of fairly high levels of
Clark 1989). contamination.
Ectomycorrhizae may increase the tolerance
of their hosts to metals. Jones and Hutchinson
Mycorrhizae (1986) investigated the role of several species
of ectomycorrhizal fungi in conferring copper
Mycorrhizae are symbiotic associations formed and nickel tolerance on the paper birch (Betula
between fungi and the roots of most vascular papyrifera), which is widespread on contami-
plants (Fig. 17.4). The importance of mycorrhi- nated sites in Sudbury. They reported that the
zae in ecosystem dynamics has only recently ectomycorrhizal fungi conferred a degree of
been recognized. Potentially, they can affect all metal tolerance on the birch seedlings; how-
aspects of a functioning ecosystem, including ever, the four mycorrhizal isolates used in this
carbon allocation and nitrogen and phosphorus experiment differed in the degree of protec-
cycling. The assodation can confer greater abili- tion afforded to the seedlings. There were also
ties to withstand drought, nutrient stress, and differences in tolerance to nickel and copper.
environmental perturbation on the higher At lower nickel levels (34 IlM nickel) , one of
plants, allowing them to colonize areas pre- the fungal isolates, Scleroderma jlavidum, stim-
viously unavailable to them (Allen 1991). ulated growth, whereas at higher levels
The activity and diversity of mycorrhizal fungi (85 IlM nickel), growth was 86% of control
may be severely reduced by pollutants in smelter seedlings grown without nickel. Higher con-
emissions. In profoundly disturbed sites, mycor- centrations of nickel in seedling roots, com-
rhizae may be completely absent. Ruhling et al. pared with stems, suggested that nickel was
retained in the fungal tissues. In similar exper-

iments with copper, the infected seedlings
Conclusion
showed a reduction of growth in higher con-
The recovery of vegetation after environmental
centrations (63 ~ copper) and no difference destruction is dependent on several key factors.
from controls under low copper concentrations First, there must be a reduction or cessation of
(32 IlM copper). The results suggested that cop- the conditions that led to the degradation. Sec-
per and nickel may cause toxicity by different ond, an active, integrated soil community must
mechanisms. be re-established; and third, important biogeo-
In further experiments, Jones and Hutchin- chemical cycles such as the carbon and nitrogen
son (1986) examined some of the physiologi- cycles must become functional.
cal aspects of this mycorrhizal relationship and Over the past 20 years, there have been
concluded that the effectiveness of Scleroderma significant reductions in emissions in Sudbury
flavidum in protecting seedlings from nickel and improvements in some vascular plant
toxicity could be related in part to the larger communities, with and without the help of
fungal biomass produced by this mycobiont in soil amelioration. To many people, the "green-
comparison with Lactarius rufus and also to ing" of Sudbury provides concrete evidence of
significant differences in the mechanisms by recovery; however, as this chapter has shown,
which nickel is translocated from root to shoot we know little of the activities of the soil
(Jones et al. 1988). microbial communities despite the fact that
Wilkins (1991) investigated the growth of the success of the higher plant communities is
several tree species infected with a variety of dependent on the activities of the below-
ectomycorrhizal fungi in the presence of sev- ground biota. The biotic communities of Sud-
eral metals and found that the presence of bury soils remain the least investigated of all
mycorrhizae decreases the metal accumula- communities in the area. The main reasons
tion in the shoots and concentrates the metals for this may be the inherent complexity of the
in the extramatrical hyphae. Vesicular-arbus- soil biota, the spatial heterogeneity of soil
cular mycorrhizae have also been shown to be conditions, and the temporal aspects of colo-
effective in decreasing the toxic effects of high nization and species interactions.
soil metal concentrations (Angle et aJ. 1988).
As with ectomycorrhizae, the accumulation of
metals in shoots is generally reduced, but in Acknowledgments. I wish to thank B. Mountney,
this case, the concentration in roots may in- G.w. Brown, D.G. Woodfine, and F. Wilhelm for
crease significantly. Metal retention in the root technical assistance and R. Jones, G. Ferroni,
may be attributed to the complexation of met- J. Gunn, J. Cairns, and R. Benoit for helpful
als to proteins in the walls of the fungal comments on the manuscript.
hyphae (Dehn and Schuepp 1989). Vesicular-
arbuscular mycorrhizae may be involved in
the metal tolerance demonstrated by some of References
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the smelters. fication' pp. 321-331. In T.C. Hutchinson and
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18
Birch Coppice Woodlands
near the Sudbury Smelters:
Dynamics of a Forest Monoculture
Gerard M. eourtin
The combination of environmental stresses to of these altered features. Such trees are de-
which the Sudbury region has been subjected scribed as "coppiced."
has led to a series of distinct zones of vegeta- Coppicing is a term usually used to describe
tion surrounding the smelters. Closest to the a form of biomass rejuvenation that has been
smelters is a 170-km2 zone of barren land that a management practice in Europe for hun-
is nearly completely devoid of plant life. Ad- dreds and sometimes even thousands of
joining the barrens is a 720-km2 semibarren years (Buckley 1992). In the preface to his
area, a zone of transition between the barrens recent book, Buckley (1992) described the
and the natural plant community of the region process as follows:
(see Chapter 2). The two zones, the barren All coppice woodlands have one thing in com-
zone and transition zone (Amiro and Courtin mon-they are repeatedly cut down, in the very
1981), are the direct result of human activity, reasonable expectation that the trees will regrow
and neither is found naturally as a succes- by themselves. Whether this regrowth is the result
sional stage of the eastern hemlock-white of new shoots sprouting from cut stumps or tree
pine-northern hardwood forest (Braun 1950) roots is unimportant: the point is that the new
that was once typical of the area. canopy forms rapidly and, for the main part, vege-
The transition zone is divided into two largely tatively from the old, without the need for any
monocultural communities, one dominated by great management effort. The process is almost
infinitely repeatable.
white birch (Betula papyrijera) and the other by
red maple (Acer rubrum) , although each species In North America, coppicing has rarely if
may be found in the community dominated by ever been used as a forestry management
the other (Amiro and Courtin 1981). The birch practice; however, the birch transition forest
transition community is the more widespread of of Sudbury does fulfil the above definition,
the two communities and occurs across a variety except that the agency of biomass removal is
of slope and soil conditions, whereas the maple not direct as would be the case with cutting,
transition community is mainly restricted to but rather, it is the indirect result of human
glado-fluvial deposits. Both communities are impact. Nevertheless, the impact is cyclic,
composed of trees with unique growth charac- and the effects that result are both biotic and
teristics that become more prominent as one abiotic. In this chapter, I describe some of
approaches the edge of the barrens. The multiple these processes by which this unique plant
stems and slow growth of the trees in the birch community is maintained in a stressed eco-
transition forest is one of the more conspicuous system.
233
234 Courtin
FIGURE 18.1. (A) Aerial view from 10 m of a typical birch transition community to indicate the general
morphology of the woodland and the absence of surface vegetation. (B) Example of a large birch coppice
(stem diameter >5 em at a height of 20 cm).
Site Characteristics exceed 30 years of age (James and Courtin

1985; Trepanier 1985). It is important to note
The birch transition forest (Amiro and Courtin that stools from which the individual coppices
1981) is characterized by small aggregates of arise are considerably older than the maxi-
highly coppiced birch that are usually widely mum age of the coppices, as is the case in
spaced such that the gaps in the canopy are traditional European coppice woodlands. At-
often larger than the coppice aggregates them- tempts to age the Sudbury stools have proved
selves (Fig. 18.1). Relatively few other vascu- impossible, owing to the chaotic ring pattern
1ar and non-vascular species exist among the that results from the cyclic regrowth of the
birch coppices (Table 18.1). Oke (1987) spoke aerial portion (Courtin, unpublished data). Al-
of such strong vegetational contrasts as having though no records exist other than photographs
a micro "oasis effect," and therefore, the pres- (see, for example, Wallace and Thomson 1993),
ent assemblage of coppices and the gaps be- I estimate that the forest in its present form
tween them, because of their relatively small probably arose during the time of open-bed
size, is considered to form a mosaic of micro- roasting that occurred during the first quarter of
oases and microdeserts. Each birch coppice the century (see Chapter 2).
rarely achieves a height of more than 6 m and Birch transition sites typically have very
a diameter of 12 em, and few individual stems acid soils (pH < 4.2) that result in high ex-
I H. Birch Coppice Woodlands 235
TAIILF. 18.1. Imp0rlann' Indice~ oltlw ,"'aim lain suhstantial amoullts (about ,0':''< of par-
SJ1l'lk~ 01 Tret'S, Shrllb~, I krhs, ami BrYllids Found
ticks smaller than, and indllding, the wry
ill I Ill' Birch Transilio!l Fores!"
rilll: sands (i.e .. < 70 !Jill ill dialtll'tl'r) .
.\k.111 Standard
importann' ilHkx l'ITor
Tn't's Effects of Microclimate

lleer rubrum 1.5 (l.ll)
/lell/la papyrifi:ra 27.7 ( 1.9) The mkrodimilte within the bin:h transition
{'''puills lI'<'1nlllaid,'S IIA ( 1.4)
forest is governed almost l'ntirl'ly by tllt, <;tnl{"-
Shruh,
IlIrl' 01 the stano (Fig. 18.2). In summer, thl'
Acer rubrllm 5.2 (151
/lelllhi papyri/era 21.1l ( ~A) canopy openings are areas wlH're solar irradi-
P(lpulus Iremlli<,;ci('s 11.2 ( 1.(1] alKe 1ll'Ill'tratl's \0 the soil surfan' during the
Saiix b"b"iaffa (,.2 ( 1.11) day, which results in high soil surfan' and trl'C
Salix discolor 0.') (0.6) canopy temperatures (Tahle 18.2), whl'rl'as
Herbs the nlian-oases arl' {'ookr hy vin lIl' of Sll rfaCl'
Aorostis scabra 13.3 (2.4)
shading, evaporative cooling frUlll the soil. and
Betula papyri/era 9.8 (3.1)
transpiration. The soil surface with its tempera-
Calamagrostis canadensis 5.9 (1.7)
Comptonia peregrina 6.7 (2.6) tures as high as 70C provide an environment
Comus canadensis 3.7 (1.6) that causes most of the birch seedlings recruited
Deschampsia flexuosa 12.5 (3.8) the same spring to die by desiccation. In au-
Diervilla lonicera 4.3 (2.2) tumn, it is the nighttime reradiation regime that
Vaccinium angustifolium 23.9 (4.9) strongly influences the micro-deserts. On dear
Bryophytes and lichens calm nights, any solar radiation stored as heat
Pohlia nutans 37.8 (4.5)
during the day is rapidly lost to the night sky,
Polytrichum commune 5.9 (1.6)
Stereocaulon spp. 5.0b with the result that freezing of the surface soil
Other layers gives rise to the formation of either segre-
Bare rock 29.0 (4.6) gated ice lenses or needle ice (Fig. 18.3). This
Bare soil 28.6 (4.3) vertical displacement of the soil by ice uproots
Dead material 67.5 (3.0) the majority of seedlings that either managed to
QFrorn Arniro 1979. The importance index is based on survive the summer drought and heat or were
the density, frequency, and cover of a given species rel- recruited to the site in early autumn, a period
ative to all other species in a given layer. characterized by frequent rains. It is also the
bEstirnated. presence of wet or even saturated soils that
provides the moisture source for the frost
effects observed in autumn. The processes
just described are summarized schematically
tractable levels of copper, nickel, aluminum, in Figure 18.4.
and manganese (James 1982). Sudbury's Just as there is a mosaic pattern to the entire
transition and barren zone soils are prone to woodland, so too is there a mosaic pattern
heave, owing to segregated ice and needle within the microdeserts. The ice formation
ice formation. The reason is that the so- and heaving of the soil occurs in very localized
called heavable fraction, the silt and very areas. At the edge of these areas of extreme
fine sand textural classes, compose approxi- surface instability (Fig. 18.5A), the occasional
mately 50% of the mineral material in the white birch seedling manages to survive past
upper 50 em of the soil column. The remain- the first, critical growing season but grows ex-
der is made up of coarse and fine sand (ap- tremely slowly for several years because of soil
proximately 35%) and the balance is clay drought in summer and severe pruning of the
(Sahi 1983). Schramm (1958) stated that soils roots through frost action in the autumn.
are susceptible to heaving when they con- These trees can be referred to as "bonsai" birch
236 Courtin
FIGURE 18.2. Schematic repre-

sentation of the major short-
wave (5), longwave (L), and
evapotranspiration (E) fluxes
operating in the birch coppice
woodland during the day
(A) and during the night (B).
1
(Fig. 18.5B). Their stunted growth mimics, in
part, the Japanese horticultural practice for
TABLE 18.2. Typical Values of White Birch
producing dwarf trees.
Physiological Response and Environmental
Conditions on Days with Fine Weather between
June 11 and July 31, 1981* Effects of Insects
Parameter Range of values
The dominance of white birch across much of
Temperature CC) the Sudbury landscape has led to an insect
Air 21-26 problem analogous to that found in agricul-
Leaf 27-28
Soil surface 40-70
ture. A monoculture provides an abundance
Stomatal conductance (s/m) 12-125 of the same food source, and insect outbreaks
Shoot water potential (MPa) -1.25 - -1.3 rapidly reach epidemic proportions. The chronic
Gravimetric water content stress due to contaminated soils that plants are
(g/gDW) subjected to in industrial areas may also in-
0-5 cm 0.12-0.40
crease the trees' susceptibility to insect attack
I{}-I5 ern 1.12-0.40
(Louda 1988; Riemer and Whittaker 1989).
*From James 1982; eourtin, unpublished data. Also, the ability of pathogens or other natural
18. Birch Coppice Woodlands 237
FIGURE 18.3. Examples of frost

disturbance within the birch
coppice woodland owing to
heaving of the entire surface
soil through the formation of
segregated ice lenses (A) and
efflorescence of needle ice cov-
ering an area of about 2 m 2
(B). Ice lenses typically dis-
place the soil vertically up to
3 em, whereas needle ice often
exceeds 10 em in height.
enemies to control herbivorous insects may be ralis) completely defoliated many trees. At least
reduced at industrially affected sites (Haukioja some of these trees have died subsequently, in-
1992). dicating that the loss of leaves (even though
Several insects representing different orders late in the season after the majority of photo-
and each having a cycle of abundance that is synthetic storage for the following spring was
different from the others have subjected birch completed) caused a shock which they were
in the Sudbury area to an almost unremitting unable to overcome. At least three major in-
onslaught of either damage or defoliation festations of forest tent caterpillar (Malacasoma
(Fig. 18.6). The leaf miners (Messa nana, Fenusa distria) have occurred over the past two de-
pusiZla) were numerous in the late 1970s cades. The primary target has been trembling
through 1975, but their impact on the Sud- aspen (Populus tremuloides) , but the insect
bury birch is unknown. In 1986, a single tended to move to birch once the aspen food
severe infestation of birch sawfly (Arge pedo- source was exhausted. Each infestation has
238 Courtin
SEED FIGURE 18.4. Model of the barriers to
~<.---.: seedling establishment in the birch
coppice woodland.
SEEDLING
r----_+o DROUGHT + FROST -+----~
TOXICITY
SEEDLING
1DEATH
HIGH SURFACE STRONG

TEMPERATURE NIGHT-TIME
RERADIATION
CANOPY OPENINGS
PERSIST
1
SEVERE mCROCLIMATE
PERSISTS
lasted 2-3 years, until checked by natural presumed to be the ease of accessibility on the
predators. one hand and a warmer microclimate on the
The most serious problems have been other. In the coppice woodland, with its large
caused by bronze birch borer (Agrilus anxius). canopy openings, most trees are therefore vul-
Its method of attacking the cambium layer nerable to insect attack.
beneath the bark causes girdling and subse-
quent death of the stem. In the spring after
the first attack, the emerging canopy is com- Comparison with Other
prised of very small leaves, and there is an
abundance of female catkins. This prolif- Simplified Ecosystems:
eration of reproductive tissue in birch after High Arctic Tundra
insect attack is perhaps analogous to the pro-
duction of "agony cones" in stressed conifer One result of the combination of anthropo-
species. genic stressors that exist in the Sudbury area is
Three years ago, the gypsy moth (Lymantria the simplification of the entire food web. The
dispar) reached Sudbury from eastern On- dominant trophic level is the primary pro-
tario, and although the heaviest damage has ducer but with low species diversity. The spa-
been on red oak (Quercus borealis), the larvae tial distribution of the vegetation leads to a
also vigorously attack trembling aspen and very harsh microclimate that has a tremen-
white birch. A generalization that can be dous impact on the remainder of the food
made with respect to all the above insects is web. The dominant herbivores are the insects
that attack is always more severe at the edges and the dominant carnivores are the insects
of stands than within stands. The reason is that feed on the herbivorous insects. The cop-
FIGURE 18.5. Examples of ef-

fects of frost disturbance in
the birch coppice woodland.
(A) Frost hummock showing
patches of bare soil, patches
of fragmented moss, and tree
roots that have been heaved
to the soil surface. (B) A Bon-
sai birch "seedling" that is
7 years old but only 15 cm
high. Note the distorted trunk
(just above the thumb) owing
to repeated heaving, the very
shallow root system with few
feeder roots, and the branch-
ing just above the root collar
that is an indication that cop-
pidng has already begun.
pice woodland with its large canopy openings very slow because of drought and heat in sum-
offers little shelter for vertebrates so that the mer and surface reradiative cooling in spring
only representatives are a few insect-eating and autumn. In essence, the ecosystem sim-
birds in summer and a few seed-eating birds in plicity that one observes near Sudbury not
winter. No sign has been found of either voles only rivals that of the High Arctic tundra but
or mice, and the occasional larger mammals possibly exceeds it (Table 18.3).
such as red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and red squirrel Although the driving forces are different in
(Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) uses such sites simply most cases, the results are very similar. Cham-
as a travel route. Again, because of microcli- aephytes dominate in the arctic and phan-
mate extremes, the litter accumulates only in aerophytes dominate in Sudbury, but both are
sheltered depressions, and decomposition is dwarfed. Reproductive success through seeds
240 Courtin
FIGURE 18.6. Insects that attack white birch in Sudbury area. (A) leaf miner (Penusa pusilla) larvae within
birch leaf; (B) leaf miner (Messa nana) larvae within birch leaf; (C) birch sawfly (Arge pectoralis) larvae;
(D) forest tent caterpillar (Malacasoma distria) larvae; (E) gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) larvae; (F) bronze
birch borer (Agrilus anxius) adult. (Photos by J.D. Shorthouse.)
in both systems is low. Decomposition is slow, Discussion

in the arctic because of cold and in Sudbury
because of drought, metal toxicity, and low Long-term changes in the birch transition for-
pH. Even the dominant characteristic of pat- est toward greater environmental stability and
terned ground through frost action in the arc- species diversity is predicated on two possible
tic (Washburn 1956) is found in a modified mechanisms operating either separately or in
form in Sudbury. concert. Amelioration of the severe surface
FIGURE 18.6. (Continued).
micro climatic conditions could take place if canopy or a combination of both increased
the ground vegetation of herbs, shrubs, tree tree cover and ground vegetation cover
seedlings, and mosses develops sufficiently to (Fig. 18.7). With the progressive curbing of air
provide (1) a closed canopy to reduce intense pollution in recent years, the way seemed to
surface radiation and reradiation, (2) a litter be paved for major improvements in health,
layer that does not become redistributed by vigor, and diversity of Sudbury's vegetation. In
wind, and (3) a network of roots that bind the fact, in the early 1970s, birch did appear to be
soil. Alternatively, the same ends would be growing better than in the past. At that time,
achieved either by complete closure of the tree however, there were no quantitative data on
Table 18.3. Characteristics of Industrially Disturbed Sudbury and High Arctic Tundra Ecosystems
Characteristic Industrially disturbed

Temperature Microclimatic owing to site characteristics Macroclimatic owing to latitude
extremes
Low spedes diversity Historical Climatic
Low productivity Add, metal-toxic soils Climatic
Slow decomposition High surface temperatures and drought Low summer temperatures; short snow-free
season
Low fertility Low cation exchange capadty owing to Slow decomposition owing to cold and
low pH anaerobic conditions
Drought Physically induced owing to topography Physiologically induced owing to frost
action and anaerobic soils
Frost disturbance Diel freeze-thaw owing to clear sky reradia- Seasonal fre eze-thaw owing to macro-
tion; formation of needle ice and ice lenses climate; formation of patterned ground
Studies from Devon Island (Bliss 1977; Courtin and Labine 1977) are used to provide the overviews for the tundra.
242 Courtin
FIGURE 18.7. Schematic rep-

resentation of the two possible
strategies proposed for long-term
site stability and increase in di-
versity through rnicroclirnatic
amelioration. (A) Establishment
of seedlings and other growth of
low stature; (B) canopy closure
of the existing coppices.
productivity, and it appears that if there was ration (Le., the revegetation of canopy open-
an improvement, it was short-lived. My obser- ings) is unlikely to occur rapidly. However,
vations of the birch coppice woodland over a there has been an increase in recent years in
period of 25 years and research into its the cover of the acid-loving mosses Pohlia
dynamics since 1977 indicate that little if nutans and P. cruda, and Sahi (1983) observed
any unidirectional change toward a stable that the most frost-stable areas were those that
and more diverse community has taken were moss-covered. Cracks develop in the moss
place (Fig. 18.8). through desiccation, and birch seeds lodge in
The most plausible explanation for the long- these cracks and germinate. The mulching effect
term lack of change may be found in the na- of the moss seems to provide a moist and stable
ture of the coppice birch woodland itself, first seed bed that, in time, may increase the num-
because of its structure and second because it bers of birch that establish from seed.
is a monoculture. Drought and frost, com- The second mechanism, that of canopy clo-
bined with acid, metal-toxic soils, operate to sure of the existing coppices, is unlikely to
minimize the recruitment of birches from seed occur, because in such a monoculture, the for-
and totally eliminate all seedlings of red maple, est appears particularly prone to the cyclic and
the other dominant tree species. Hence the first often devastating effect of defoliating insects.
mechanism proposed for micro climatic amelio- Entire coppices have been observed to die
FIGURE 18.8. Birch transition

coppice woodland. (A) Photo-
graph taken in 1980; (B) pho-
tograph taken in 1993. Few
changes have taken place in
the intervening years.
after complete defoliation by birch sawfly in directional change will take place in the up-
late summer, and bronze birch borer kills any land birch woodlands. The planting of the ad-
stem that it attacks because its larvae totally jacent barrenlands to mnifers (see Chapter 8)
girdle the tree in 2 years. In recent years, will provide a fu~ure seed source, but seedlings
bronze birch borer has increased in numbers will probably suffer the same fate as deciduous
to the point where as many as 90% of stems in seedlings that attempt to become established.
some stands have been killed. However, attack With soil amelioration, however, changes
by insects stimulates growth of basal sprouts to could be much more rapid. Winterhalder
re-initiate the coppice cycle in the same way (1983) reported that planting trials on the bar-
that cutting does in conventional coppice rens that received lime demonstrated better
woodlands. growth than unlimed trial plots. He suggested
Without the intervention of soil ameliora- that survival in summer was drought-depen-
tion (liming and fertilizing) and the re-intro- dent, whereas winter survival was a function
duction of native conifers (white and red pine, of the degree of frost-heaving. Liming alone,
white spruce) it is unlikely that any rapid uni- therefore, might well reduce the degree of
244 Courtin
frost damage sulficiently and increase the rate by John Cairns, Jr., .Iohn Gunn, and Mikhail
of seedling growth to the point at which re- KOl.lov.
vegetation of canopy opening is great enough
to reduce significantly the extremes of sur-
face microclimate. There certainly is evi-
References
dence that liming improves growing Amiro, B.D. 1979. Plant community patterns in an
conditions, but it is unlikely that improved industrially disturbed ecosystem. M.Sc. thesis,
growth will necessarily mean greater plant di- Laurentian University, Sudbury, Ontario.
versity unless other tree species, especially co- Anliro, B.D., and G.M. Courtin. 1981. Patterns of
nifers, are planted, as has been the case for the vegetation in the vicinity of an industrially dis-
reclaimed barrens (see Chapter 8). According turbed ecosystem, Sudbury, Ontario. Can . .I. Bot.
59:1623-1639.
to Winterhalder (personal communication), the
Bliss, L.c. (cd.). 1977. Truelove Lmvland, Devon
liming 01 organic soils stimulated the growth
Island, Canada: A High Arctic l:cosystcm. The
of 10 species that had been lying dormant as
University of Alberta Press, Edmonton, Alberta.
part of the seed bank. Winterhalder (1983)
Brilun, E.l.. 1950. The Eilstern Deciduous Forest.
found that the birch transition seed bank only Hilfner Publishing Co., New York.
contained white birch and tickle grass (Agrostis Buckley, G.P. 1992. Ecology and Management of Cop-
scabra). The paucity of a natural seed source is pice Woodlilnds. C1wprnan and lIilll, l.ondon.
a further indication that recovery of the birch Counin, G.M., ilnd CoL. Lilbine. ! 977. Microclima-
ecosystem, without human intervention, will tological studies on Truelove Lowland, pp. 73-
probably be extremely slow. 106. In L.c. Bliss (cd.). Truelove Lowland, Devon
The observed effects of smelter emissions on Island, Canada: A High Arctic Ecosystem. The
vegetation are not unique to Sudbury. Other University o[ Alberta Press, Edmonton, Alberta.
climatically similar areas such as northern Rus- Haukioja, E. 1992. Reseilrch on ecological effects of
sia, where birch is also a dominant species, have aerial pollution: a finnish perspective, pp. 67-69.
suffered serious damage from nickel and copper In M.V. Kozlov, E. Hilukioja, and V.T. Yarrnishko
(eds.). Aerial Pollution in Kola Peninsula. Pro-
smelting (Kryuchkov 1993). It is hoped that the
cCl~dings of the International Workshop; April
work on barriers to vegetation recovery per-
14-16, 1992, SI. Petersburg, Russia. Kola Scien-
formed in Sudbury may aid other workers at-
tific Centcr, Apatity, Russia.
tempting restoration 01 mine-damaged lands Jilmes, G.!. 1982. Factors influcncing the birch
elsewhere. transition coml1lllllity of the industrial barrens,
Sudbury, Ontario. M.Sc. thesis, Laurentian
University, Sudbury, Ontario.
Acknowledgments. The research described, which .James, G.I., and G.M. Counin. 1985. Stand structure
has spanned a period of 16 years, could not and growth form of the birch transition community
have been done without the help of many in an industrially damaged ecosystem, Sudbury,
generations of students. The following under- Ontario. Call . .J. ror. Res. 15:809-817.
graduates were invaluable either as summer I<ryuchkov, V.v. 1993. Degradation of ecosystems
assistants to me or to my graduate students or around the "Severonikel" smelter complex, pp.
through their undergraduate theses, or both: 35-46.111 M.V. Kozlov, E Haukioja, and V.T. Yar-
P.D. Thibodeau, M. Kalliomaki, L.r. Wal- rnishko (eds.). Aerial Pollution in Kola Peninsula.
Proceedings or the International Workshop, April
lenius, M. Trepanier, and .I. Fyfe. Their work,
14-16, 1992, 51. Petersburg, Hussia. Kola Scien-
their insight, and especially their friendship
tific Center, Apality, Russia.
and dedication are gratefully acknowledged. Louda, S.M. 1988. Insect pests and plant stresses as
The winter fieldwork and computer analysis considerations in revegetation of disturbed eco-
performed by secondary school co-op stu- systems, Pl'. 51-67. 111 .I. Cairns (ed.). Reha-
dents E. Morris and D. Pauze were most ap- bilitation of Damaged Ecosystems. CHC, Boca
preciated. Photographer M. Roche and artist Raton, PL.
L.I. Wallenius assisted in the preparation of Oke, T.R. 1987. Boundary Layer Climates. 2nd Ed.
the figures. Review comments were provided Methuen, London.
Riemer, J., and J.B. Whittaker. 1989. Air pollution tario. B.Sc. (Hon) thesis, Laurentian University,
and insect herbivores: observed interactions and Sudbury, Ontario.
possible mechanisms, pp. 73-105. In E.A. Ber- Wallace, C. M., and A. Thomson (eds.). 1993. Sud-
nays (ed.). Insect Plant Interactions. CRC Press, bury: From Rail Town to Regional Capital. Dun-
Boca Raton, FL. durn Press, Toronto, Ontario.
Sahi, S.V. 1983. Frost heaving and needle ice forma- Washburn, A.L. 1956. Classification of patterned
tion and their effect upon seedling survival at ground and review of suggested origins. Bull.
selected sites in Sudbury, Ontario. M.Sc. thesis, Geol. Soc. Am. 67:823-866.
Laurentian University, Sudbury, Ontario. Winterhalder, K. 1983. Limestone application as a
Schramm, J.R. 1958. The mechanism of frost heaving trigger factor in the revegetation of acid, metal-
of tree seedlings. Proc. Am. Philos. Soc. 102:333- contaminated soils of the Sudbury area, pp. 201-
350. 212. In Proceedings of the 8th Annual Meeting,
Trepanier, M. 1985. Stem analysis of white birch in Canadian Land Reclamation Association, August
the birch transition community, Sudbury, On- 1983. University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario.
19
Potential Role of Lowbush
Blueberry (Vaccinium
angustifolium) in Colonizing
Metal- Contaminated Ecosystems
Joseph D. Shorthouse and Giuseppe Bagatto
The industrially damaged lands around the nickel in its sap on a dry weight basis (Baker
smelters of Sudbury are inhabited by several 1987). However, many studies of metal ac-
spedes of plants that can tolerate high levels of cumulation and adaptation have been con-
toxic metals (Hogan and Rauser 1978; Cox ducted, not at naturally contaminated sites but
and Hutchinson 1980). One of these plants, in areas damaged by industrial activities, par-
the sweet lowbush blueberry (Vacdnium an- ticularly areas in which smelting and refining
gustifolium), has colonized large areas of the of metals occur. From these studies, it has been
smelter-affected area. It is particularly abun- determined that tolerance to metals can be
dant within the birch transition forest de- achieved by mechanisms that allow plants to
scribed in the previous chapter (Chapter 18). accumulate metals in their tissues without
This chapter reviews the attributes of V. an- causing damage or, alternatively, by mecha-
gustifolium that made it successful in the Sud- nisms that confer tolerance by excluding metal
bury industrially damaged lands. There are uptake. Tissue accumulation is often medi-
actually two spedes of blueberry near Sud- ated by cellular processes that sequester metals
bury, V. angustifolium and V. myrtilloides, of and render them biologically inactive. Metal-
which V. angustifolium is the more common of sequestering proteins and molecules such as
the two. Although they are similar (see de- metallothloneins and phytochelatins have been
scriptions of each in Vander Kloet [1988]) and implicated in this process (Rauser and Win-
grow in the same habitats, care was taken to terhalder 1984; Tomsett and Thurman 1988).
restrict our studies to V. angustifolium. Alternatively, metal exclusion by plants is
often mediated by spedfic energy-dependent
transport processes operating at the root-soil
Accumulation of Metals and interface or in assodation with mycorrhizal
Mechanisms of Tolerance symbionts, which aid in preventing movement
of metals into the root (Jones and Hutchinson
Extremely high levels of metals occur natu- 1986; Baker 1987).
rally in some parts of the world, and a surpris- Ecosystems influenced by mining and
ing array of plants are able to thrive at these smelting are useful for studying metal toler-
sites. For example, about 220 taxa are found ance because they provide a natural laboratory
on copper-rich soils in Upper Shaba in ZaIre, where selection for metal tolerance and accu-
and one tree in nickel-rich sites in New Cale- mulation in plants can be examined in detail.
donia thrives while accumulating up to 25% Elevated levels of metals in soils at such sites
247
248 Shorthouse and Bagatto
FIGURE 19.1. Lowbush blue-

berry growing on a barren
site in Sudbury's industrially
damaged ecosystem. (Photo by
J.D. Shorthouse.)
may act as powerful agents for rapidly select- The ability of lowbush blueberry to both colo-
ing genetically adapted, metal-tolerant eco- nize and survive (Le., relict species) smelter-
types of various species of plants (Freedman damaged lands near Sudbury has proved
and Hutchinson 1981; Baker 1987). Research beneficial to both revegetation programs within
in this area has consequently been driven by a the region and to the residents of the area who
need to understand the impact of metal pollu- enjoy picking and consuming the berries. It is
tion on plants and has a potential application commonly one of the first plants to become
in development of metal-tolerant ecotypes for established on sites devoid of almost all other
habitat restoration. plant species (Fig. 19.1).
Lowbush blueberry is one of many plants
involved in natural succession from cleared
Biology of Sweet land to forest. Most of the new shoots of ma-
ture plants develop from dormant buds on
Lowbush Blueberry underground rhizomes. The tips of growing
shoots die in the early part or middle of the
Vaccinium angustifolium is a broad-leaved, de- summer, and the buds develop into either veg-
ciduous, low shrub endemic to North Amer- etative or flowering types. The extensive rhi-
ica, whose range in Canada extends from the zome system of mature blueberry can play an
east coast of Newfoundland to central Mani- important role in preventing slope erosion.
toba (Vander Kloet 1988) . It tolerates a wide In Sudbury, lowbush blueberries have colo-
range of climatic conditions, is particularly nized part of the smelter damaged area and are
adapted to a temperate climate, and grows commonly associated with white birch (Betula
best in acidic soils with pH 4.0-5.5 (Hall et al. papyrifera) (Fig. 19.2). This association may
1964) and moderate-to-low fertility. It has benefit both species. Leaves of young birch
woody stems and averages 20 em in height. It growing in blueberry patches become en-
is an effective colonizer of disturbed sites, in- tangled in the stems of blueberries, which
cluding those modified by fire, smelters, and helps retain moisture the following season.
mine tailings (Sheppard 1991). Because of the Thick mats of blueberry also accumulate snow,
concern about metal contamination in the which similarly benefits both species. How-
berries, there have been several studies deal- ever, as birch increase in size, their shade be-
ing with contaminant accumulation in this comes harmful to blueberry shrubs, and they
plant (see Sheppard [1991] for references). disappear (Hall et al. 1979); but as described in
19. Lowbush Blueberry in Metal-Contaminated Ecosystems 249
FIGURE 19.2. Mat of lowbush

blueberry growing in associa-
tion with white birch in Sud-
bury's birch transition zone.
(Photo by J.D. Shorthouse.)
the previous chapter (Chapter 18), much of plants proliferate most rapidly once an organic
the coppiced birch forest in Sudbury is main- layer is formed (Trevett 1956), and this pre-
tained as an open canopy, and as a result, sumably explains why mats near Sudbury are
shading by birch here is less of a problem for thickest near birch trees, where leaves and
blueberries. other organic debris collect. Asexual reproduc-
Lowbush blueberry reproduces by both seeds tion occurs when the rhizomes are cut or killed by
and rhizomes. Each berry contains an average of fire, shading, burrowing, or frost action. The
13 seeds (Hall et al. 1979), and the seeds are high incidence of frost-heaving within Sud-
spread in the droppings of birds such as the bury's denuded areas (see Chapter 18) therefore
American robin (Turdus migratorius) and mam- likely contributes to asexual reproduction in this
mals such as black bears (Ursus american us) and plant (Fig. 19.3). Rhizomes are the key to a
red fox (Vulpes vulpes). Plants usually fl'ower and continuing high level of productivity because it
produce rhizomes 4 years after germination. The is primarily from rhizomes that new fruiting
berries ripen in early July in Sudbury. Blueberry wood is initiated. This extensive rhizome sys-
FIGURE 19.3. Blueberry plant-

lets separated by frost-heaving.
(Photo by J.D. Shorthouse.)
FIGURE 19.4. Larva of gypsy

moth defoliating lowbush blue-
berry on one of Sudbury's
barren sites. (Photo by J.D.
Shorthouse. )
tern can also play an important role in pre- fruiting, at six sampling sites ranging from 7 to
venting soil erosion. 74 km northwest from the Copper Cliff smelt-
Few insect herbivores attack lowbush blue- er (Bagatto and Shorthouse 1991). Data from
berry in the Sudbury region; however, forest this study and comparable information on a
tent caterpillars (Malacosoma disstria) and cater- variety of other plants in the area are provided
pillars of gypsy moths (Lymantria dispar) defoliate in Table 19.1.
plants during their peak years (Fig. 19.4). Import- The patterns of tissue accumulation of the
ant defoliators in the maritimes are the black metals (Fig. 19.5) is likely related to the phys-
army cutworm (Actebia fennica), the chain- iological fates of the metals. High levels of
spotted geometer (Cingilia catena ria ), and a pest copper (69 f.1g/g) and nickel (40 f.1g/g) in the
of the fruit, the blueberry maggot (Rhagoletis roots confirm the observation that roots are
mandax). A stem gall found on vegetative shoots sites of preferential copper and nickel accumu-
and induced by the chaldd wasp Hemadas nubi- lation when external supplies of these metals
lipennis is espedally common on Sudbury plants are excessive (Marschner 1986). These levels
(West and Shorthouse 1989). Shorthouse et al. of copper and nickel are considerably elevated
(1986) also suggested that this insect may bene- compared with root concentrations at 74 km
fit the blueberry plant because the pruning effect (6 f.1g/g dry wt. [Cu] and 6 f.1g/g dry wt. [Ni])
produces a bushier plant. and copper concentrations of 2-11 f.1g/g dry
wt. reported in the literature (Ingestad 1973;
Peterson et al. 1988). The considerably lower
Accumulation of Metals concentration of copper in leaves from the site
dosest to the smelter (22 f.1g/g) is below the
within Lowbush Blueberry 30 f.1g/g concentration considered toxic for most
near Sudbury, Ontario crop spedes (Robson and Reuter 1981).
It is interesting that the concentration of
Lowbush blueberry appears tolerant of ele- copper did not differ significantly between tis-
vated concentrations of certain metals. This sue types 23 km from the smelter and beyond.
spedes is therefore useful for studying the ef- This is the expected pattern in habitats with
fects of metal pollution (Sheppard 1991). We typical background levels of copper where it
examined the pattern of copper and nickel functions as a plant nutrient partidpating in
accumulation in tissues of lowbush blueberry enzymatically bound copper redox reactions
collected in mid-July, when the plants were (Marschner 1986). Furthermore, organic mat-
TABLE 19.1. Copper and Nickel Concentrations (ppm-dry wt. or /lg/g dry wt.) in Plants
Collected within 15 km of the Sudbury Smelters
Species Tissue Nickel Copper Reference
Vaccinium angustifolium Leaf 92 75 Hutchinson and Whitby 1974
Vaccinium angustifolium Leaf 70 50 Freedman and Hutchinson 1980a
Vaccinium angustifolium Leaf 33 21 Bagatto and Shorthouse 1991
Vaccinium angustifolium Stem 49 54 Bagatto and Shorthouse 1991
Vaccinium angustifolium Root 40 69 Bagatto and Shorthouse 1991
Vaccinium angustifolium Berries 7 4 Bagatto and Shorthouse 1991
Acerrubrum Leaf 98 37 Hutchinson and Whitby 1974
Acerrubrum Leaf 60 15 Lozano and Morrison 1981
Acerrubrum Leaf 100 140 Freedman and Hutchinson 1980a
Deschampsia flexuosa Leaf 902 726 Hutchinson and Whitby 1974
Comptonia peregrina Leaf 113 57 Hutchinson and Whitby 1977
Betula papyrifera Leaf 95 148 Hutchinson and Whitby 1977
Betula papyrifera Leaf 100 25 Lozano and Morrison 1981
Betula papyrifera Leaf 170 100 Freedman and Hutchinson 1980a
Quercus rubra Leaf 100 16 Lozano and Morrison 1981
Populus tremuloides Leaf 150 15 Lozano and Morrison 1981
Populus tremuloides Leaf 370 90 Freedman and Hutchinson 1980a
Osmunda claytoniana Fronds 11 61 Bums and Parker 1988
Matteuccia struthiopteris Fronds 111 47 Bums and Parker 1988
Typha latifolia Shoot 60 13 Taylor and Crowder 1983
Typha latifolia Fruit 19 17 Taylor and Crowder 1983
Typha latifolia Rhizome 40 30 Taylor and Crowder 1983
Typha latifolia Root 52 38 Taylor and Crowder 1983
Quercus borealis Leaf 70 20 Freedman and Hutchinson 1980a
Pinus resinosa Leaf 40 40 Freedman and Hutchinson 1980a
Salix humilis Leaf 220 260 Freedman and Hutchinson 1980a
Myrica asplenifolia Leaf 110 90 Freedman and Hutchinson 1980a
Diervilla lonicera Leaf 60 90 Freedman and Hutchinson 1980a
Polygonum cilinode Leaf 90 110 Freedman and Hutchinson 1980a
Solidago canadensis Leaf 200 180 Freedman and Hutchinson 1980a
Epilobium angustifolium Leaf 110 160 Freedman and Hutchinson 1980a
Deschampsia caespitosa Leaf 240 370 Freedman and Hutchinson 1980a
Agrostis stolonifera Leaf 130 70 Freedman and Hutchinson 1980a
Equisetum sylvaticum Leaf 450 250 Freedman and Hutchinson 1980a
Polytrichum commune Leaf 620 910 Freedman and Hutchinson 1980a
ter and pH increase with distance from the similar to those of berries growing near the
smelter (Freedman and Hutchinson 1980a,b), Sudbury smelters (Bagatto and Shorthouse
thereby decreasing the availability of copper 1991).
ions in the soil. Of interest, Sheppard (1991) The high concentration of nickel in blue-
found that copper was at significantly higher berry roots likely represents cell wall adhesion
concentrations in berries than in leaves and in this tissue. The behavior of nickel in plants
stems at many of the sites he examined across may be the result of it being a nonfunctional
central Canada; however, Sheppard did not analog of copper and zinc as shown in studies
examine the levels of copper and nickel in the of root transport (Cataldo et al. 1978). Al-
fruits of lowbush blueberry from near the Sud- though root concentrations of nickel were
bury smelters. Concentrations of copper and lower than that of copper, leaves and stems
nickel in the berries of V angustifolium far from from all sites had proportionally higher nickel
the North American sources of pollution are concentrations than copper. Also, the pattern
FIGURE 19.5. Concentrations of copper and nickel

E 74 Copper in tissues of lowbush blueberry at various distances
~
.... ~ Roots from the Inco smelter.
.! 44 [l] Stems
Qj
E
VI 32
o Leaves
Berries
E
e
u.
23
Q>
<.> 16
.,c:
iii 7
is
0 20 40 60 80
E 74 Nickel
~
]i 44
Qj
E 32
VI
E
a 23
at
..
<.>
c:
16
to
iii 7
is
0 20 40 60 80
Total Metal Content (Ilg/g dry wt .)
of nickel accumulation at all sites was the same and stems, appear non-toxic to the plants. It
(roots>stems>leaves>berries), whereas with cop- was particularly reassuring that the levels of
per, this pattern changed at sites ~eyond 23 kIn copper and nickel were low in berries col-
from the smelter. The general nonessentiality of lected near the smelters, compared with plants
nickel as a plant nutrient and its greater avail- from other parts of Canada, as plants in this
ability within acidic soils of the Sudbury area area produce heavy crops of berries that are
would account for this finding. popular with local residents.
Nickel is presumably taken up as a non- The only other site known to us where cop-
functioning analog of some other plant nutrient per and nickel in the tissues of berries growing
(copper or zinc), and its concentration in the near smelters have been examined is that of
plant would depend on the concentration of the "Severonikel" complex in the Kola Penin-
nickel in the environment. The levels of nickel sula of Russia (Barkan et al. 1993). Here, ex-
in lowbush blueberry closest to the smelter far tremely high levels of copper and nickel were
exceed requirements for nickel; however, they found in the berries of Vacdnium vitis-idaea, V.
fall within the range of 3-300 Ilg/g considered myrtillus, Rubus chamaemorus, and Empetrum
non-toxic, depending on the species of plant, hermaphroditum. Levels of copper and nickel
organ, developmental stage, and nutritional were highest in the upper organic soils closest
supply (Hutchinson and Whitby 1974). to the smelters, and the levels in berries were
We conclude that lowbush blueberry accu- dependent on metal contents of the soil. Lev-
mulate substantial amounts of copper and nickel els of copper as high as 53 Ilg/g dry wt. and
in structural and vegetative tissues when grow- nickel 96 Ilg/g dry wt. were found in berries of
ing in contaminated soils. However, the high V. vitis-idaea within 6 km of the smelter, with
levels of these metals, particularly in the roots copper at levels of 115 Ilg1 g dry wt. and nickel
at 83 ~g/g dry wt. in the berries of E. herma- undoubtably create a complex set of effects,
phroditum at the same site, all of which are many of which may be detrimental to the
about 10 times above the safe levels recom- plant.
mended by the Russian Health Protection Although there is little information about
Ministry and are unsuitable for food. the adaptation to metal stress, it is known that
populations of plants will evolve through nat-
ural selection in response to specific ecological
Summary conditions of its local environment and that
adaptive genetic differentiation may occur
The historical atmospheric deposition of metal (Bradshaw 1972). We suspect that populations
particulates from smelters has created a seri- of Sudbury blueberries have developed toler-
ous environmental stress on plant communi- ance to copper and nickel and represent dis-
ties, and most species of plants in the Sudbury tinct metal-tolerant ecotypes, as has been
area appear to suffer accordingly. Unlike other shown for some grass species in the Sudbury
forms of abiotic stress such as drought or area (Cox and Hutchinson 1980; Rauser and
anomalous weather, which are usually short- Winterhalder 1984; Archambault 1991). More
term, metal pollution represents a continuous important, the absence of elevated levels of
source of stress for plants and animals. The metals in the berries of Sudbury plants may
lasting character of metal-induced stress impl- mean that the same will occur at other smelter
ies that its effects on plants and animals may sites. If so, the introduction of Sudbury low-
differ from those of other stresses and may bush blueberry to polluted sites in other parts
result in certain adaptations by exposed organ- of the world with similar climates should be
isms. Consequently, studies of the effects of considered. Not only would the Sudbury
metals on different components of ecosystems plants help colonize denuded sites, but local
are not only of scientific interest but also are residents would be provided with edible ber-
economically important and represent an im- ries as well.
portant area of research. There is a shortage of
lri conclusion, we suggest that lowbush blue-
knowledge about the ways in which plants
berry plays an important role in areas such as
such as lowbush blueberry cope biochemi-
the industrially damaged lands near Sudbury
cally, physiologically, ecologically, arid geneti-
because
cally with elevated levels of pollutants.
Sulfur dioxide and heavy metals have po- they are adapted to high levels of copper
tentially different effects on plants and insects. and nickel and perhaps other metals
Moderate doses of sulfur dioxide can lead to they thrive on acidic soils
enhanced performance of phytophagous in- high levels of metals accumulated within
sects feeding on plants fumigated by sulfur plant tissues are not passed to the fruit
dioxide, whereas the effects of heavy metals they have few herbivores
on phytophagous insects are assumed to be once established, they produce a thick hu-
mainly negative (Alstad et al. 1982). Little at- mus, which retains soil moisture and re-
tention has been paid to possible interactions duces soil erosion
between sulfur dioxide and metals and the they can improve growing conditions for
consequences for plants and insects (Riemer trees such as birch
and Whittaker 1989). It has been suggested they exhibit good dispersal of seeds
that sulfur dioxide emissions cause soil acidifi- they can reproduce asexually as a result of
cation, which, in turn, increases solubility of heavy frost-heaving
metals in the soil and enhances uptake by
plants (Lobersli and Steinnes 1988). At certain We also suggest that future research aimed
levels, soil acidification can benefit some spe- at enhancing the colonizing ability of low-
cies such as blueberry, but the added metal bush blueberry be undertaken in the follow-
load in stressed lands such as Sudbury can ing areas:
testing for metal- and add-tolerant ecotypes Cox, R.M., and T.C. Hutchinson. 1980. Multiple
examining interactive relationships that af- metal tolerances in the grass Deschampsia cespitosa
fect the establishment and succession of (L.) Beauv. from the Sudbury smelting area. New
Phytol. 84:631-647.
other plants
Freedman, B., and T.C. Hutchinson. 1980a. Pollu-
identification of mechanisms for metal toler- tant inputs from the atmosphere and accumula-
ance (e.g., role of mycorrhizae) tions in soils and vegetation near a nickel-copper
smelter at Sudbury, Ontario, Canada. Can. J. Bot.
58:108-132.
Acknowledgments. Research on lowbush blue- Freedman, B., and T.C. Hutchinson. 1980b. Long-
berry in the Sudbury area was supported by term effects of smelter pollution at Sudbury, On-
grants from the Natural Sdences and Engi- tario, on forest community composition. Can. J.
neering Research Council of Canada and the Bot. 58:2123-2140.
Freedman, B., and T.C. Hutchinson. 1981. Sources
Laurentian University Research Fund award-
of metal and contamination of terrestrial envi-
ed to JDS. We thank E.K. Winterhalder and ronments, pp. 35-94. In N.W. Lepp (ed.). Effect
J .M. Gunn for suggestions for improving this of Heavy Metal Pollution on Plants. Applied Sd-
chapter. ence Publishers, London.
Hall, I.V., L.E. Aalders, N.L. Nickerson, and S.P. Van-
der Kloet. 1979. The biological flora of Canada. I.
References Vacdnium angustifolium Ait., sweet lowbush blue-
Alstad, D.N., G.F.J. Edmunds, and L.H. Weinstein. berry. Can. Field. Naturalist 93:414-430.
1982. Effects of air pollutants on insect popula- Hall, I.V., L.E. Aalders, and L.R. Townsend. 1964.
tions. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 27:369-384. The effects of soil pH on the mineral composition
and growth of the lowbush blueberry. Can. J.
Archambault, D.J.-P. 1991. Metal tolerance studies
Plant Sd. 44:433-438.
on populations of Agrostis scabra Willd. (tickle
Hogan, G.D., and W.E. Rauser. 1978. Tolerance and
grass) from the Sudbury area. M.Sc. thesis, Lau-
toxidty of cobalt, copper, nickel and in zinc clones
rentian University, Sudbury, Ontario.
of Agrostis gigantea. New Phytol. 83:665-670.
Bagatto, G., and J.D. Shorthouse. 1991. Accumula-
Hutchinson, T.C., and L.D. Whitby. 1974. Heavy
tion of copper and nickel in plant tissues and an
metal pollution in the Sudbury mining and
insect gall of lowbush blueberry, Vaccinium an-
smelting region of Canada. 1. Soil and vegetation
gustifolium, near an ore smelter at Sudbury, On-
contamination by nickel, copper and other met-
tario, Canada. Can. J. Bot. 69:1483-1490. als. Environ. Conserv. 1:123-132.
Baker, A.J.M. 1987. Metal tolerance. New Phytol. Hutchinson, T.e., and L.M. Whitby. 1977. The ef-
106 (Suppl.):93-111. fects of rainfall and heavy metal particulates on a
Barkan, V.S., M.S. Smetannikova, R.P. Pankratova, boreal forest ecosystem near the Sudbury smelt-
and A.V. Silina. 1993. Nickel and copper accumu- ing region of Canada. Water Air Soil Pollut. 7:
lation by edible forest berries in surroundings of 421-438.
"Severonikel" smelter complex, pp. 189-196. In Ingestad, T. 1973. Mineral nutrient requirements of
Aerial Pollution in Kola Peninsula. Proceedings Vacdnium vitis idaea and V. myrtillus. Physiol. Plant.
of the International Workshop, April 14-16, 1992, 29:239-246.
St. Petersburg, Russia. Kola Sdentific Center, Apat- Jones, M.D., and T.C. Hutchinson. 1986. The effect
ity, Russia. of mycorrhizal infection on the response of Betula
Bradshaw, A.D. 1972. Some evolutionary conse- papyrifera to nickel and copper. New Phytol. 102:
quences of being a plant. Evol. BioI. 5:25-47. 429-442.
Bums, L.V., and G.H. Parker. 1988. Metal burdens Lobersli, E.M., and E. Steinnes. 1988. Metal up-
in two spedes of fiddleheads growing near the take in plants from a birch forest area near a
ore smelters at Sudbury, Ontario, Canada. Bull. copper smelter in Norway. Water Air Soil Pollut.
Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 40:717-723. 37:25-39.
Cataldo, D.A., T.R. Garland, and R.E. Wildung. Lozano, F.C., and I.K. Morrison. 1981. Disruption of
1978. Nickel in plants. n. Distribution and chem- hardwood nutrition by sulfur dioxide, nickel,
ical form in soybean plants. Plant Physiol. 62: and copper air pollution near Sudbury, Canada.
566-570. J. Environ. Qual. 10:198-204.
Marschner, H. 1986. Mineral Nutrition in Higher Hemadas nubilipennis (Hymenoptera: Pteromali-

Plants. Academic Press, London. dae) as a factor in gall induction on lowbush
Peterson, L.A., E.J. Stang, and M.N. Dana. 1988. blueberry. Can. Entomol. 118:249-254.
Blueberry response to NJLt-N and N03-N. J. Am. Taylor, G.J., and A.A. Crowder. 1983. Uptake and
Soc. Hort. Sci. 113:9-12.
accumulation of heavy metals by IjIpha lati/olia in
Rauser, W.E., and E.K. Winterhalder. 1984. Evalua-
wetlands of the Sudbury, Ontario region. Can. J.
tion of copper, nickel, and zinc tolerances in four
Bot. 61:63-73.
grass species. Can. J. Bot. 63:58-63.
Tomsett, A.B., and D.A. Thurman. 1988. Molecular
Riemer, J., and J.B. Whittaker. 1989. Air pollution and
biology of metal tolerance of plants. Plant Cell.
insect herbivores: observed interactions and possible
Environ. 11 :383-394.
mechanisms, pp. 73-105 In E.A Bemays (ed.). In-
sect Plant Interactions. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. Trevett, M.E 1956. Observations on the Decline and
Robson, A.D., and D.J. Reuter. 1981. Diagnosis of Rehabilitation of Lowbush Blueberry Fields. Mis-
copper defidency and toxicity, pp. 287-312. In cellaneous Publication 626. Maine Agricultural
J.E Loneragan, A.D. Robson, and R.D. Graham Experiment Station, Orono, ME.
(eds.). Copper in Soils and Plants. Academic Vander Kloet, S. P. 1988. The Genus Vacdnium in
Press, London. North America. Agriculture Canada Publication
Sheppard, S.C. 1991. A field and literature survey, 1828. Ministry of Supply and Services, Ottawa.
with interpretation, of elemental concentrations West, A., and J.D. Shorthouse. 1989. Initiation and
in blueberry (Vacdnium angustifolium). Can. J. Bot. development of the stem gall induced by
69: 63-77. Hemadas nubilipennis (Hymenoptera: Pteromali-
Shorthouse, J.D., A. West, R.W. Landry, and P.D. dae) on lowbush blueberry, Vacdnium angustifol-
Thibodeau. 1986. Structural damage by female ium (Ericaceae). Can. J. Bot. 67:2187-2198.
20
Urban Lakes: Integrators of
and Recovery
John M. Gunn and W. (Bill) Keller
Most of the world's human populations now live the conditions within the associated catchment
in rapidly expanding urban areas (Richardson areas (see Chapter 24). Water, the "universal
1991). These cities and towns vary widely in size solvent," samples the available nutrients, soluble
and appearance, but they share a common fea- contaminants, and suspendible particles from
ture: They are near water. Urban waters, in the the terrestrial system as it flows to the lake.
form of lakes, streams, groundwater aquifers, Additional inputs of solutes, gases, and particles
and the nearshore areas of oceans, satisfy a wide come through the atmosphere or are added di-
variety of human needs (drinking water, trans- rectly by human activities. The resulting chemi-
portation, industrial use, agricultural use, etc.). cal solution, and the life that it supports, forms a
However, with few exceptions, urban waters rather large integrated sample, useful for assess-
have been and are being badly degraded by hu- ing the "health" of the associated urban area.
man activities (NRC 1992). To many, it may Recent studies of the urban lakes within the
therefore be surprising that urban waters, partic- city of Sudbury (Fig. 20.1) provide examples
ularly lakes, have received very little study by of the damaging effects of industrial and urban
ecologists in North America (Gilbert 1989; Mc- activities. They also illustrate the resilience
Donnell and Pickett 1990). of natural systems and the benefits to be
Like other aspects of the "massive, un- achieved by pollution abatement programs.
planned experiment" (McDonnell and Pickett
1990) that urbanization represents, the study
of the ecology of urban waters is complicated Sudbury Urban Lakes
by the wide variety of factors affecting urban
aquatic ecosystems. These confounding vari- Within the city of Sudbury, there are 33 lakes of
ables make it difficult for ecologists to con- more than 10 ha in size, as well as a wide variety
struct quantitative models of the functioning of smaller lakes and ponds. The larger lakes vary
of urban systems or even to establish clearly in surface area from 14 to 13 31 ha and in maxi-
the cause of specific problems, such as fish mum depth from 3 to 36 m. They make up more
kills, algal blooms, or the accumulation of con- than 10% of the surface area of this glacially
taminants. These problems degrade the value scoured landscape, giving Sudbury one of the
of these important aquatic resources and de- highest concentrations of urban lakes of any city
serve greater attention. in Canada (Fig. 20.2). The lakes are clustered
One potentially useful way of viewing ur- into two main watersheds that drain to the
ban lakes is to consider them as measures of French or Spanish rivers, tributaries of Lake
257
258 Gunn and Keller
WANAPITEI
LAKE
___ --+-----~17~-- ___

Copper Cliff
Smelter
Complex
Former
Coniston
Smelter
FIGURE 20.1. Municipal boundaries of Sudbury, showing urban lakes and the locations of nearby metal
smelters.
20. Urban Lakes 259
FIGURE 20.2. Sudbury-the city of lakes. Copper Cliff smelter is in the background. (Photo by E. Snucins.)
Huron. A string of lakes, called the Long Lake dence of an association between acidic lakes
chain, cuts diagonally across the city, following and proximity to smelters (Fig. 20.3), a more
an earthquake fault line (Fig. 20.1), and drains surprising observation is that not all lakes are
to the Whitefish River. acidic even though they are close to such
enormous sources of sulfur dioxide. This vari-
ability demonstrates the key role that the geo-
Stress Factors chemistry of the bedrock and surficial soils
within lake catchments plays in determining
Six main stresses affect the chemistry and biol- lake water quality (Jeffries et a1. 1984). Catch-
ogy of urban lakes within this industrial city: ments buffer the effects of incoming acid precip-
(1) acidification, (2) metal contamination, (3) eu- itation. In fact, the alkalinity of a few Sudbury
trophication, (4) shoreline or other watershed lakes has actually increased under the enhanced
alterations, (5) introductions and invasions of weathering rates produced by acidic precipi-
exotic species, and (6) altered hydrology. tation (Dixit et a1. 1992). However, the over-
whelming effect of the smelters has been a
decline in lake water alkalinity and pH through-
Acidification out the greater Sudbury area (see Chapter 5) :
The pH of the lakes ranges widely, from 4.3 to
8.9. Because of elevated sulfur deposition, due
to the local smelting industry, 11 of the lakes
Metal Contamination
are acidified to the point (pH <6.0) that dam- All the lakes in the city show the effects of
age to sensitive aquatic organisms is expected industrial emissions of metals to the atmo-
(see Chapter 5). Although there is some evi- sphere (Fig. 20.3). Copper (4-320 f..lg/L) and
260 Gunn and Keller
...
Melal Conlaminalian
Cu r - - I ~
j.J9/L L--J ~
<20 20-60 >60
(min 8) (I''l''10. "'0)
Shorelne and Valershed

AI era ions
c=J ~ _
nil-low moderale high
FIGURE 20.3. Effect of various environmental stresses on Sudbury urban lakes.

20. Urban Lakes 261
FIGURE 20.4. Concentrations of 5

copper and nickel in the surface
(2 em) sediments of several
Sudbury urban lakes in 1993.
While concentrations are dearly
highest in lakes nearest the Cop-
per Cliff smelter, all lakes have
~
very high concentrations, well
above Ontario provincial gov-
~
ernment sediment quality guide-
lines (PSQG: copper llO /lg/g,
nickel 75 /lg/g; MOEE 1993).
PSQG Cu
/
PSQG Ni
o Ramsey
(6)
Nepahwin
(7)
Long
(10)
McFarlane Clearwater
(11) (12)
Daisy
(15)
rJJ
Distance From Copper Cliff Smelter (km)
nickel (25-590 ~g/L) concentrations approach

or exceed Ontario government water quality
Cultural Eutrophication
protection objectives (copper 5 ~g/L, nickel Two lakes (Bethel, Kelly) show the classical
25 ~g/L; MOE 1984) in all lakes. Silver Lake, a symptoms of advanced cultural eutrophication
highly oligotrophic lake located about 6 km (Vollenweider 1968; Vallentyne 1974; Schind-
from the Copper Cliff smelter, is probably one ler 1977), as a result of nutrient inputs from
of the world's most heavily contaminated lakes, private and municipal sewage plants (see
considering lakes affected only by atmospheric Fig. 20.3). These symptoms include high levels
deposition. During water quality surveys since of phosphorus and nitrogen, high standing
1981, concentrations of copper, nickel, zinc, crops of algae, particularly nuisance blue-
and aluminum in Silver Lake of up to 460, green algae, and low dissolved oxygen levels
900, 120, and 1400 ~g/L, respectively, have with associated fish kills. The sewage treat-
been recorded. ment plant inputs to Bethel Lake were stopped
Most urban lakes in close proximity to the in 1986, and although lake phosphorus con-
smelter have high accumulation of toxic centrations declined from more than 200 ~g/L
metals in bottom sediments (Fig. 20.4). One in the late 1970s and early 1980s to less than
particularly contaminated lake, Kelly Lake, 100 ~g/L by the early 1990s, the lake is still
receives treated liquid effluent from the Cop- highly eutrophic. Similarly, despite construc-
per Cliff smelter site. The lake also receives tion of a municipal sewage treatment plant in
inputs of metals from several other tributar- 1972 and implementation of phosphorus re-
ies, as well as through atmospheric inputs and moval at the plant in 1987, Kelly Lake is still
from a municipal sewage treatment plant. eutrophic.
Sediments in Kelly Lake are not only heavily Eutrophication also occurs by inputs of nu-
contaminated with copper and nickel but also trients from a variety of diffuse sources (lawn
have high concentrations of rare metals such and garden fertilizer, septic fields, eroding soil,
as palladium, iridium, and platinum (Crocket etc.). This problem is not as severe in the nu-
and Teruta 1976). trient-poor landscape of Sudbury as it is in
262 Gunn and Keller
20 0 FIGURE 20.5. Comparison be-

tween recent measured con-
centrations of total phosphorus
~ in several Sudbury urban lakes
--.
Cl
(Ministry of Environment and
315 Energy, unpublished data) and
U)
::l pristine (predevelopment) con-
.....
0 0 o
..c centrations estimated from a
c..
U) o watershed-based total phos-
~ 10 0 phorus model (Dillon et al.
a.. 0 o 1986).
i
-
;
c:
~
.....
::l
5
o ~ : ~ relationshiP
o
()
0
3 4 5 6
Background Total Phosphorus (.ug/L)
many agricultural areas, but most lakes with urban lakes, through the loss of reproductive
houses and cottages within their catchments or other critical habitats for fish (Bryan and
show nutrient enrichment (Fig. 20.5). Scarnecchia 1992).
Shoreline and Exotic Species

Watershed Alterations Like the more familiar terrestrial examples,
Sudbury's city lakes vary widely in the extent such as the House Sparrow (Passer domesticus)
and type of residential and industrial develop- and the many introduced plants, urban lakes
ment around their shorelines-from nearly are affected by exotic species, intentionally or
complete circling of the lakes by houses in the unintentionally introduced by humans. The
center of the city, to lakes with only a few introduction of the eurasian water milfoil (My-
seasonal cottages, to parkland lakes with no riophyllum spicatum), a nuisance aquatic plant
current development in the lake catchment that has proliferated in lakes within the Long
areas (see Fig. 20.3). Typically, housing devel- Lake chain, and the establishment of a marine
opment has occurred in the low-lying areas fish species, the highly competitive rainbow
along a web of stream valleys and lake shore- smelt (Osmerus mordax) in Nepahwin Lake, are
lines at the base of the rocky hills and knobs two examples of exotic species in Sudbury
that characterize Sudbury. Loss of wetlands urban lakes. In neither case is the source of the
has been a common feature of much of the colonizers known.
development.
In a few cases, lakes have been eliminated
through infilling by industrial waste (Fig. 20.6).
Altered Hydrology
However, most shoreline alterations are of a Urbanization creates dramatic effects on the
less-extreme type (construction of beaches, flow path of water and the extent and timing of
docks, breakwalls, etc.). These incremental release and storage of water in the catchment.
changes also eventually lead to dramatic dele- Usually, urban development encourages the ra-
terious effects, particularly on the biology of pid discharge of precipitation and meltwater
20. Urban Lakes 263
FIGURE 20.6. Infilling of lakes near the Copper Cliff smelter by expanding tailings and slag piles,
1953-1986.
through channelization, elimination of wet- solutions are far from perfect. Dams affect fish
lands, and reduced infiltration of water by in- and other animal movement and the supply of
creasing the amount of impermeable surfaces water for downstream lakes. Storm water drain-
(pavement, roofs, hard-packed fill). In Sudbury, age (Fig. 20.7) brings high levels of road salt,
the historical loss of soil and vegetation cover metals, and other contaminants to the lakes
from the hillsides further decreases water reten- (Pye et al. 1983). For example, chloride con-
tion and reduces evapotranspiration. centrations increased from about 40 to 50 and
Flooding in the spring and lowered ground- 75 to 100 mg/L in lakes Ramsey and Nepah-
water or lake levels in the summer are the win, respectively, between the late 1970s and
well-known consequences of the alterations de- the late 1980s (Ministry of Environment and
scribed above. Sudbury urban lakes have all Energy, unpublished data). It is estimated that
these usual problems, necessitating engineered the background concentration of chloride in
flood control structures and water-level control lakes before urbanization is usually under
dams on many of the lakes. However, these 2 mg/L (Neary et al. 1990).
FIGURE 20.7. Stonnwater drain-

age. (Photo by 1.M. Gunn.)
264 Gunn and Keller
12
Zooplankton lakes is obviously difficult. However, many
en
44
44 management questions deal with the overall
en
Q) 10 30 35 condition of lakes rather than the details of
c:
.c 8
18 11 specific causes (e.g., are the lakes improving?
0 5
0: deteriorating? What recreational opportuni-
2
en 6 5
ties do they provide?). For these types of ques-
Q)
tions, biological monitoring provides the most
"~
0
I
4
Q)
a. direct measure of the effects of stresses operat-
en 2
ing in urban ecosystems. Some of the advan-
tages of biological monitoring over inferring,
0
< 5.0 5.0-5.4 5.5-5.9 6.0-6.4 6.5-6.9 > 7.0 or modeling, ecosystem responses from chem-
pH Category ical or physical variables include (Schindler
1987; Fausch et al. 1990; Brinkhurst 1993;
Johnsonetal.1993)
1. biological communities integrate the
II Expected ~ Observed effects of temporal and spatial habitat
degradation
2. mOnitoring of carefully chosen sensitive
"indicator species" can be useful for iden-
Fish tifying the type of stress(es) operating
11
en 3. biological attributes (e.g., presence offish
en
Q) species) often have high societal values,
c:
.c aiding in the interpretation of the find-
o
0: 6 2 ings to the public
en
Q)
4. biological monitoring by experts can be
0 4 more cost-effective than reliance on inten-
Q)
a. sive sampling of organic and inorganic
en contaminants
~ In contrast with the limited information avail-
< 5.0 5.0-5.4 5.5-5.9 6.0-6.4 6.5-6.9 > 7.0
able on the effects of urbanization, there has
pH Category
been a great deal of work on the effects of
FIGURE 20.8. The observed and expected average acidification on the biology of freshwater
number of spedes of crustacean zoop1ankton and fish lakes in north temperate areas (Baker et al.
in Sudbury urban lakes. For zooplankton, the ex- 1990) (see Chapter 5). This literature pro-
pected number of spedes by pH interval is that ob- vides a basis for beginning to examine the
served in more remote lakes of a similar size range in effects of multiple stresses on Sudbury lakes
Ontario (Keller and Pitblado 1984). For fish, the ex-
by first attempting to separate the effects of
pected number is calculated from established relation-
ships between spedes richness, pH, and lake area
low pH from other stresses. For example, an
(Matuszek et al. 1990). Numbers above the bars indi- assessment of the species richness (the num-
cate the number of lakes in the interval. ber of species present) of fish and crustacean
zooplankton suggests that there are far
fewer species present in Sudbury urban
lakes than would be predicted from the mea-
Integrators of Ecosystem sured acidity of these waters (Fig. 20.8). This
result is surprising, because human activities
Function and Health often introduce new species (e.g., through
release of bait fish). In this case, two differ-
Distinguishing the magnitude or relative iment hypotheses can be proposed for the ob-
portance of the multiple stresses on urban served scarcity of species:
20. Urban Lakes 265
100
FIGURE 20.9. The distribution of
amphipods (Hyalella azteca) and
11
molluscs from the 1990-1993 pH=5.3
80 mollusca
biological survey of the Sudbury C]) threshold
urban lakes. Occurrence was ()
c value
determined from a standard ~ pH=5.6
:; 60
sampling effort on each lake.
.H.
() Hyalella azteca (11 )
()
threshold value
The vertical lines are the lower o
azteca
limit of pH tolerance of Hyalella 5 (4)
ELl
j
40 Molluscs
azteca (Stephenson and Mackie (4) /
1986) and the minimum pH of
5~
occurrence for most common
mollusc species (Eilers et al. 20
1984). Numbers above bars in-
dicate the number of lakes sam- 9 (6) 1 (2)
pled in the pH intervals for 0
< 5.5 5.5-5.9 6.0-6.4 6.5-7.0 >7.0
Hyalella azteca and common
mollusc species (in brackets). pH Category
1. species are missing because of the pres- Loss of habitat diversity through input of
ence of additional stresses (e.g., metals, eroded soils from hillsides, or construction of
habitat loss) human structures such as beaches and break-
2. chemical changes have occurred, but bio- walls, may also contribute to the low species
logical responses lag behind richness in urban lakes.
There is some support for both of these
hypotheses. Improvements in Lake
Chemistry and the Effects of
Biological Lag Time
Additional Stress Factors
There is very encouraging evidence from
The high concentrations of metals in the water long-term monitoring studies on Clearwater
column and sediments (see Fig. 20.4) in Sud- Lake (Fig. 20.10) that water quality has begun
bury urban lakes probably create toxic condi- to improve with reductions in industrial emis-
tions for many aquatic species (Campbell and sions (see Chapter 5). Although such inten-
Stokes 1985; Spry and Weiner 1991; Wren and sive monitoring data do not exist for many of
Stephenson 1991). This may be the reason the urban lakes, it can be shown through
that certain sensitive benthic macroinverte- paleolimnological reconstructions, using dia-
brates, such as molluscs and the amphipod tom and chrysophycean fossils preserved in
HyaZeZZa azteca, are absent from many relatively lake sediments (Dixit et al. 1989) (see Chap-
high pH lakes (Fig. 20.9). The common sedi- ters 3 and 5) that water quality has recently
ment burrowing mayfly (Hexagenia sp.) is ab- improved in several Sudbury lakes. Because
sent from Ramsey, Nepahwin, McFarlane, and of the limited dispersal ability of some orgap.-
Long lakes, the only Sudbury urban lakes sur- isms (see Chapter 15), biological communities
veyed for this species to date (W. Keller, un- may be delayed in recovering in urban lakes
published data). Although metal contamination where water quality has improved. The dis-
may be particularly severe in an industrial city, crepancy between observed and expected com-
elevated metal concentrations are a common munity and population status in Figures 20.8
problem in many urban areas (Purves and and 20.9 may therefore partially reflect the
MacKenzie 1969; Culbard et al. 1988). lag time needed for the biological components
266 Gunn and Keller
4.8 500 FIGURE 20.10. Changes in lake

water pH and dissolved metals
in Clearwater Lake, 1973-
pH 1990 (from Bodo and Dillon,
400 in press).
4.6
300 --
::J
Cl
.3.
Ul
Q)
~4.4 >
~
Ni
200 12
(])
::;;!
4.2
100
Cu
4 0
1975 1980 1985 1990
Year
of the system to catch up with the chemical similar to more pristine systems with the same
changes. levels of nutrients (Dillon et al. 1979). There
The sediment accumulation of metals re- may be some unique problems in Sudbury
mains a potential encumbrance to recoloniza- lakes because of extreme metal contamination
tion by sensitive benthic invertebrates. But, as of sediments, but it is probably safe to con-
shown in Chapter 14, sediments can become clude that general functional characteristics of
an effective sink for contaminants, where over the lakes, such as respiration rates, primary
a very long time metals become buried under productivity, and nutrient cycling, are not
layers of less-contaminated sediments. How- markedly affected. Such characteristics are
ever, with the abundance of metal particulates therefore not particularly useful early indi-
in most urban environments (Purves and cators of ecosystem damage (Schindler 1987)
MacKenzie 1969), lake sediments may always or recovery.
remain as biologically impoverished habitats. The structure and composition of biological
populations and communities that inhabit
urban lakes can provide more sensitive and
Summary more useful indicators of ecosystem health
than the functional characteristics descibed
Given the stresses that urban lakes are sub- above (Karr 1991). The presences of naturally
jected to, it may be surprising to some readers reproducing sensitive species (Marshall et al.
that there is no such thing as a "dead lake". 1987; Baker et al. 1990), without skin or spi-
Even the most severely stressed lakes contain nal abnormalities (Hinton and Lauren 1990)
a variety of aquatic life forms. Generally, and without elevated burdens of toxic con-
highly stressed lakes have simplified aquatic taminants (Campbell and Stokes 1985; Wren
communities, represented mainly by rather and Stephenson 1991), are some of the en-
tolerant spedes (Stokes et al. 1973; Baker et couraging signs that human activities are not
al. 1990); but the overall productivity of the adversely affecting urban lakes. These are
urban lakes in industrial dties may be very some of the types of measures that should be
20. Urban Lakes 267
FIGURE 20.11. Winter angling on Ramsey Lake in downtown Sudbury. (Photo by W. Keller.)
268 Gunn and Keller
used in long-term biological monitoring pro- Bowlby, J.N., J.M. Gunn, and v.A. Liimatainen.
grams to examine changing conditions in 1988. Metals in stocked lake trout (Salve linus na-
urban lakes. maycush) in lakes near Sudbury, Ontario. Water
Although there are still many severe prob- Air Soil Pollut. 39:217-230.
lems in Sudbury urban lakes, there are also Brinkhurst, R.O. 1993. Future directions in fresh-
convincing signs of improving ecosystem health. water biomonitoring using benthic macroinver-
tebrates, pp. 442-460. In D.M. Rosenburg and
One of the most tangible indicators is the vari-
V.H. Resh (eds.). Freshwater Biomonitoring and
ety of fish species that occupy the lakes. Among
Benthic Macroinvertebrates. Chapman & Hall,
the 30 species present are sportfish species New York.
such as smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolo- Bryan, M.D., and D.L. Scarnecchia. 1992. Species
mieui), northern pike (Esox ludus), largemouth richness, composition, and abundance of larvae
bass (M. salmoides) , lake trout (Salvelinus na- and juveniles inhabiting natural and developed
maycush) , and walleye (Stizostedion vitreum). shorelines of a glacial Iowa lake. Environ. Bio!.
Most of these species have been recently intro- Fish. 35:329-34l.
duced or re-introduced and have established Campbell, P.G.c., and P.M. Stokes. 1985. Addifica-
reproducing populations that are the focus of tion and toxicity of metals to aquatic biota. Can.
an intensive recreational fishery (Fig. 20.11). J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 42:2034-2049.
A positive aspect of this fishery, and a still Crocket, J.H., and Y. Teruta. 1976. Pt, Pd, Au and Ir
intriguing scientific issue, is the fact that mer- content of Kelley Lake bottom sediments. Can.
Miner. 14:58-6l.
cury and other metal contaminants are found
Culbard, E.B., I. Thornton, M. Watt, S. Wheatley,
in low concentration in fish and other biota in
S. Moorcroft, and M. Thompson. 1988. Metal con-
these lakes (Bowlby et a1. 1988; Wren and tamination in British urban dusts and soils. J.
Stokes 1988). Environ. Quality 17:226-234.
It is hoped that with further industrial cleanup Dillon, P.J., K.H. Nicholls, W.A. Scheider, N.D. Yan,
and more "environmentally friendly" planning and D.S. Jeffries. 1986. Lakeshore Capacity Study:
(see Chapter 24), the many still-degraded sys- Trophic Status. Technical Report. Ontario Minis-
tems can some day be restored as valuable natu- try of Munidpal Affairs, Ontario.
ral assets in this urban environment. Dillon, P.J., N.D. Yan, W.A. Scheider, and N. Con-
roy. 1979. Addic lakes in Ontario: characteriza-
tion, extent and responses to base and nutrient
Acknowledgments. We thank Jim Carbone, Nancy additions. Arch. Hydrobio!. Beih. 13:317-336.
Dolson, Rob Kirk, Rod Sein, Ed Snucins, and the Dixit, S.S., A.S. Dixit, and J.P. Smo!. 1989. Lake
acidification recovery can be monitored using
many summer students who helped with the
chrysophycean microfossils. Can. J. Fish. Aquat.
urban lakes survey. Bill Lautenbach and Marty
Sci. 46:1309-1312.
Puro provided review comments. Michael Con-
Dixit, S.S., A.S. Dixit, and J.P. Smo!. 1992. Assess-
lon and Leo Lariviere assisted with the graphics. ment of changes in lake water chemistry in Sud-
bury area lakes since pre-industrial times. Can. J.
Fish. Aquat. Sci. 49 (Supp!. 1):8-16.
References Eilers, J.M., G.L. Lien, and R.G. Berg. 1984. Aquatic
Baker, J.P., D.P. Bernard, S.W. Christensen, and Organisms in Acidic Environments: A Literature
M.J. Sale. 1990. Biological effects of changes in Review. Technical Bulletin 150. Department of
surface water add-base chemistry. State of Sd- Natural Resources, Madison, WI.
ence Technical Report 13. National Add Predpi- Fausch, K.D., J. Lyons, J.R. Karr, and P.L. Angerme-
tation Assessment Program. Report for the U.S. ier. 1990. Fish communities as indicators of envi-
Environmental Protection Agency, Corvallis, OR. ronmental degradation. Am. Fish. Soc. Sympos.
Bodo, B.A., and P.J. Dillon. In press. De-addifica- 8:123-144.
tion trends in Clearwater Lake near Sudbury, Gilbert, O.L. 1989. The Ecology of Urban Habitats.
Ontario 1973-1992. In Proceedings-Stochastic Chapman and Hall Ltd., New York.
and Statistical Methods in Hydrology and Envi- Hinton, D.E., and D.L. Lauren. 1990. Integrative
ronmental Engineering. Kluwer Academic. histopathological approaches to detecting effects
20. Urban Lakes 269
of environmental stressors on fishes. Am. Fish. Neary, B.P., P.J. Dillon, J.R. Munro, and B.J. Clark.
Soc. Sympos. 8:51-66. 1990. The Acidification of Ontario Lakes: An As-
Jeffries, D.S., W.A. Scheider, and w.R. Snyder. 1984. sessment of Their Sensitivity and Current Status
Geochemical interactions of watersheds with pre- with Respect to Biological Damage. Technical Re-
cipitation in areas affected by smelter emissions port. Ontario Ministry of Environment, Dorset,
near Sudbury, Ontario. pp. 196-241. In J. Nriagu Ontario.
(ed.). Environmental Impacts of Smelters. John Purves, D., and E.J. MacKenzie. 1969. Trace ele-
Wiley and Sons, New York. ment contamination of parklands in urban areas.
Johnson, R.K., T. Wiederholm, and D.M. Rosen- J. Soil Sci. 20:288-290.
berg. 1993. Freshwater biomonitoring using in- Pye, V.I., R. Patrick, and J. Quarles. 1983. Ground-
dividual organisms, populations, and species water Contamination in the United States. Uni-
assemblages of benthic macroinvertebrates, pp. 40- versity of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.
158. In D.M. Rosenberg and Y.H. Resh (eds.). Richardson, N. 1991. Urbanization: building human
Freshwater Biomonitoring and Benthic Macro- habitats. pp. 13-1-13-31. In S. Burns, M. Sheffer,
invertebrates. Chapman and Hall, New York. and R. Lanthier (eds.). The State of Canada's
Karr, J.R. 1991. Biological integrity: a long ne- Environment. Government of Canada, Ottawa.
glected aspect of water resource management. Schindler, D.W. 1977. Evolution of phosphorus lim-
Eco!. Applie. 1:66-84. itation in lakes. Science 195:260-262.
Schindler, D.W. 1987. Detecting ecosystem response
Keller, W., and J.R. Pitblado. 1984. Crustacean
to anthropogenic stress. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci.
plankton in northeastern Ontario lakes subjected
44(Suppl. 1):6-25.
to acidic deposition. Water Air Soil Pollut. 23:
Spry, D.J., and J.G. Weiner. 1991. Metal bioavail-
271-291.
ability and toxicity to fish in low alkalinity
Marshall, T.R., R.A. Ryder, C.J. Edwards, and G.R.
lakes: a critical review. Environ. Pollu!. 71:
Spangler. 1987. Using the Lake Trout as an Indi-
243-304.
cator of Ecosystem Health-Application of the
Stephenson, M., and G.L. Mackie. 1986. Lake acid-
Dichotomus Key. Technical Report 49. Great Lakes
ification as a limiting factor for the distribution of
Fishery Commission, Ann Arbor, MI.
the freshwater amphipod HyaZeUa azteca. Can. J.
Matuszek, J.E., J. Goodier, and D.L. Wales. 1990. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 43:288-292.
The occurrence of Cyprinidae and other small Stokes, P.M., T.C. Hutchinson, and K. Krauter. 1973.
fish species in relation to pH of Ontario lakes. Heavy metal tolerance in algae isolated from con-
Trans. Am. Fish. Soe. 119:850-861. taminated lakes near Sudbury, Ontario. Can. J.
McDonnell, M.J., and S.T.A. Pickett. 1990. Ecosys- Bot. 51:2155-2168.
tem structure and function along urban-rural Vallentyne, J.R. 1974. The Algal Bowl-Lakes and
gradients: an unexploited opportunity for ecol- Man. Mise. Special Publication 22. Department of
ogy. Ecology 71(4):1232-1237. the Environment, Ottawa.
Ministry of Environment (MOE). 1984. Water Vollenweider, R.A. 1968. Scientific fundamentals of
management-goals, policies, objectives and the eutrophication of lakes and flowing waters,
implementation procedures of the Ministry of with particular reference to nitrogen and phos-
the Environment. Technical Report. Toronto, phorus as factors in eutrophication. Report DAS/
Ontario. CSI/68.27. Organization of Economic Coopera-
Ministry of Environment and Energy (MOEE). tion and Development, Paris.
1993. Guidelines for the Protection and Manage- Wren, C.D., and G.L. Stephenson. 1991. The effect
ment of Aquatic Sediment Quality in Ontario. of acidification on the accumulation and toxicity
Technical Report. Toronto, Ontario. of metals to freshwater invertebrates. Environ.
National Research Council (NRC). 1992. Restora- Pollut.71:205-241.
tion of Aquatic Ecosystems: Science, Technology, Wren, C.D., and P.M. Stokes. 1988. Depressed mer-
and Public Policy. National Academy Press, Wash- cury levels in biota from acid and metal stressed
ington, DC. lakes near Sudbury, Ontario. Ambia 17:28-30.
Section E
Planning for the Future
Maurice F. Strong
From an environmentalist's point of view, the story of the Sud-

bury area is one of both bitter and sweet irony. It is certainly
embittering to reflect that this southerly outcropping of the an-
cient Canadian Shield, an ecosystem created and preserved by
nature over hundreds of millions of years, was converted to a
barren wasteland in less than a century by the human hand. But
at the risk of making a virtue of a necessity, it is sweet to contem-
plate that this devastated pocket of planet earth may yet become
a global model of determined, if belated, environmental enlight-
enment and a case history of ecological rejuvenation.
At the conclusion of the United Nations Conference on Envi-
ronment and Development at Rio de Janeiro in June 1992, I said
that our task was now to "move down from the Summit and into
the trenches" to the level of practical action and meaningful
decisions that will be needed to fulfil the vision of Rio and to
implement the agreements reached there. As the Earth Summit
concluded, the people of the Sudbury community had already
been toiling in the ecological trenches for nearly two decades,
working to restore their blighted patch of earth to a condition that
would again resemble a functioning ecosystem.
One of the happiest and most proud moments of the entire
Earth Summit, for me as a Canadian, came when the Sudbury
community was given the 1992 United Nations Local Govern-
ment Honours Award for its work to reverse the process of envi-
ronmental degradation.
Sudbury was one of the earliest regions to feel the baneful
brunt of unsustainable industrial practices. It was also one of the
first to recognize that, no matter how afflicted their environment
was, it was not beyond repair. And so the people of Sudbury,
through their local and provincial governments, and with guid-
ance and assistance from the academic and industrial sectors, set
out to show the world how it is done.
271
272 E. Planning for the Future
Unfortunately, such enlightenment is not yet universal, despite

the heightened awareness of global environmental issues created
by the Rio Earth Summit and its predecessors. In the 20 years
between the first World Conference on the Human Environment
in Stockholm in 1972 and the Rio Summit, much progress was
made in some areas, including our understanding of the complex
system of interaction through which human activities have an
effect on the environment and resources of the planet. A host of
new institutions were established at various levels to deal with
the policy, regulatory, scientific, economic, and other dimensions
of these issues. Virtually every nation, including developing coun-
tries, established national ministries or agencies with responsibil-
ity for environmental policies and regulations.
The initiatives were accompanied by some significant progress
in addressing several substantive environmental concerns, nota-
bly the "close-in" problems of air, water, and land pollution in
industrialized countries.
But despite this progress, it became evident by the mid-1980s
that, overall, the conditions of the earth's environment and some
of its most vital ecosystems had continued to deteriorate and
some of the primary risks such as global warming and ozone
depletion had become more acute and menacing than they ap-
peared at Stockholm. At the same time, developing countries
were experiencing problems of pollution and environmental deg-
radation rapidly approaching the levels of the more industrialized
countries while lacking the resources to cope with them. It was
also becoming increasingly evident that there was a direct and
inextricable link between economic development and its environ-
mental impacts.
Against this background, the United Nations General Assembly
decided in December 1983 to establish the World Commission on
Environment and Development to examine the condition of and
prospects for the economy and the environment in the perspective
of the year 2000 and beyond. The commission, under the leadership
of Norwegian Prime Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland, in its land-
mark report released in 1987, "Our Common Future," made a
compelling case for sustainable development as the only viable
pathway to a secure and promising future for the human commu-
nity and produced a set of recommendations for achieving it.
This report provided the basis for the UN General Assembly's
decision to convene, on the twentieth anniversary of the Stock-
holm conference, the United Nations Conference on Environ-
ment and Development. Studies made in preparation for Rio
made it starkly clear that fundamental changes in economic be-
havior offer the only real prospect of effecting a transition to a
secure and sustainable future as we move toward the twenty-first
century. And the impressive case history of Sudbury shows that it
can be done.
The desolation of the Sudbury area is not an isolated case. With
the demise of the communist regimes of eastern Europe and the
E. Planning for the Future 273
Soviet Union, we are only beginning to see the full extent of the
massive environmental devastation they produced. Closer to home,
in the Atlantic provinces and New England states, an entire industry
and a way of life are threatened by profligate and exploitative fishing
practices.
But Sudbury's immense achievement is a beacon of encourage-
ment. It holds out the prospect that even the most resolute
ravaging by humankind can be reversed if action is taken early
enough. Beyond that broad object lesson, the Sudbury case also
demonstrates that economic benefits can flow from good envi-
ronmental practices. As is pointed out elsewhere in this book, the
reclamation project has provided short-term jobs for more than
3000 persons over the past 15 years. The improved landscape is
also serving to assist in attracting prospective businesses, as well
as tourists.
This is a novel and welcome twist on one of the main themes of
the Earth Summit-that good environmental performance is fully
compatible with positive economic performance. Japan and other
countries have demonstrated this in terms of converting a large
and dynamic economy to sustainable principles. Now, Sudbury is
proving the point with an impressive remedial project.
21
Developments in Emission
Control Technologies/Strategies:
A Case Study
Dan F. Bouillon
Initiated by government legislation and en- tal problems (AWMA 1992). The standard air
couraged by economic factors (Box 21.1), de- quality control technologies of baghouses, cy-
velopments in emission control technologies clones, electrostatic precipitators, and scrubbers
and strategies are taking place at an accel- are examples of such efforts. However, these
erating pace within industrialized nations. The approaches can be considered "react and cure"
sophistication of these developments is in- modes of developing environmental control
creasing at the same time. However, global technology and strategies (Watson 1992). In the
application of the technology is lacking, partic- future, a proactive approach must be taken to
ularly in developing countries. prevent or at least reduce environmental pollu-
To meet more stringent environmental pro- tants at the source. The case study illustrates this
tection regulations, many industries are de- concept in its infancy.
veloping new and usually very broad-scale Pollution abatement programs need not be
emission control technologies and strategies. limited to dealing only with environmental
As illustrated in the following case study, such problems at a particular industrial site. In fact,
development can achieve environmental pro- once they are developed, they can be pro-
tection goals while at the same time produce fitably expanded to solve other companies'
economic benefits for industry. problems as well. The case study includes an
example.
Strategies
Public Awareness and
Early control strategies largely adopted the ap-
proach that "dilution was the solution to pol-
Development of Legislation
lution." One example of this approach was the In the 1960s and 1970s, the deteriorating state
installation of tall stacks, such as the study of the global environment led to a public Qut-
company's 381-m stack. These stacks were de- cry for action. The period saw the birth of
signed to improve the local air quality by in- vocal non-government environmental organi-
creased dispersion of waste gases. zations such as Greenpeace. The study of en-
To date, most pollution control technologies vironmental sciences was also added to the
and strategies have been directed at intercept- educational system during this period. Along
ing pollutants before they leave the plant, a with increased media coverage of environ-
so-called end of pipe solution to environmen- mental issues, these factors combined to create
275
276 Bouillon
Box 21.1. Trading in Pollution Permits U.S. Clean Air Act contain similar provisions
for emissions controls but also introduced in-
As part of the sulfur dioxide emission reduction novative economic incentives to achieve them
program established through the 1990 revisions (Box 21.1). The case study presented here
of the U.S. Clean Air Act, an innovative market- demonstrates how one company, Inco Lim-
driven process of pollution control was estab- ited, responded to these pressures to reduce
lished in the United States. To begin the process sulfur dioxide emissions at its Copper Cliff
of initiating trading in pollution permits, the smelter.
government establishes a cap on the total emis-
sions of a pollutant in a given airshed. This cap is
divided into multiple equal units of the pollu- Inco Limited's Sulfur
tant. The release of each unit of a pollutant
within the given airshed requires a permit for
Dioxide Emission
that amount. Reduction Program
All emitters of the pollutant in the airshed
would need to acquire enough permits to match Inco's Sudbury operations are one of the
their output. Permits would be transferable at world's largest facilities for the integrated
prices determined in a free market. New indus- mining, milling, smelting, and refining of sul-
tries would need to purchase existing permits. fide ore, with current production rates of
Supply-and-demand economics would drive 115,000 tonnes nickel and 120,000 tonnes
emission reductions. These reductions would copper per year. The company is also a sig-
continue until the cost of additional reduction nificant producer of cobalt, selenium, tellu-
equals the price of a pollution permit. rium, gold, silver, platinum group metals,
Interested groups could purchase permits liquid sulfur dioxide, and sulfuric acid as by-
and remove them from the free market. This products of nickel and copper processing
would drive further pollution reduction in the (Figure 21.1). The company mines approxi-
airshed. The government could also lower mately 12 million tonnes of ore yearly to
emissions in the airshed by reducing the unit achieve these production levels.
size of each permit without 4lcreasing the
number of permits (Lee 1993). Not all compa- Ore Chemistry and Composition
nies agree with this approach, considering it
buying the right to pollute. The Sudbury ore is approximately 25% mixed
iron, copper, and nickel sulfide minerals in a
6: 1: 1 ratio, respectively. The remainder, which
is waste rock or "gangue," is discarded as "tail-
pressure on the various levels of governments ings." Most of the ore's sulfur content is asso-
to act on environmental problems. ciated with the iron minerals. The copper
Governments around the globe began to de- (chalcopyrite) and nickel (pentlandite) miner-
velop, modify, and enforce new and broader als contain approximately equal amounts of
environmental legislation (IUAPPA 1991). In metal and sulfur. The copper mineral is easily
1967, the Ontario government introduced the separated from the ore, but the nickel mineral
Environmental Protection Act, which pro- is finely spread throughout the iron minerals.
vided the framework for further legislation A small fraction of the nickel is also tied up in
dealing with specific environmental problems. the crystal structure of the iron minerals.
An example of this type of legislation was the Therefore, large quantities of waste iron min-
Countdown Acid Rain program, discussed in erals must be processed to extract nickel, and
Chapter 4, which mandated the reduction of for each tonne of nickel produced, 8 tonnes of
acid gas emission from selected companies and sulfur will be processed (Fig. 21.1). These facts
facilities in Ontario. The 1990 revisions of the affect both the milling and smelting processes.
21. Development in Emission Control 277
FIGURE 21.1. Typical Sudbury district are analysis. :oo::----Iron
Sulfur
~~': I- Nickel
Copper
Cobalt
Selenium
Tellurium
Precious Metals
Platinum
Palladium
Rhodium
Rock Ruthenium
Iridium
Osmium
Gold
Silver
Sulfur, Smelting, and Sulfur Dioxide Emissions

Sulfur Dioxide Control Strategies
As described in Chapter 2, the early mining Three strategies are available to reduce the
companies in the Sudbury area used "roast sulfur dioxide emissions that are the result of
yards" to make a crude matte out of bulk smelting of sulfide ore:
sulfide ore. Large volumes of high-concentra-
1. remove sulfur before processing in the
tion sulfur dioxide gas were released at ground
smelting furnaces
level from the roast yards. The consumption of
2. recover the sulfur dioxide as marketable
wood for the roast yards and low-level release
products such as elemental sulfur, liquid
of sulfur dioxide compounded existing vege-
sulfur dioxide, and sulfuric acid
tation damage caused by clear-cut forestry
3. use a process such as a hydrometallurgi-
(Chapter 2).
cal process that does not convert sulfur to
In 1929, the first Inco smelter was built at
sulfur dioxide
Copper Cliff, and the use of "roast yards"
stopped. As the size of the smelter increased
and the demand for products grew, the sulfur Strategy I-Iron Mineral Rejection
dioxide emissions increased correspondingly.
Inco's sulfur dioxide emissions peaked at more Much of Inco's current effort at sulfur di-
than 5600 tonnes/day or about 2 million oxide emissions reduction is directed at sul-
tonnes/year in the early 1960s. At this time, fur removal before smelting. This has largely
almost all the smelter fumes were released been achieved through more efficient sepa-
into the atmosphere through three approxi- ration of the waste high sulfur iron minerals
mately 150-m stacks. Lesser amounts also es- from the valuable copper and nickel miner-
caped through vents in the roof of the smelter als at the milling stage of ore processing.
as fugitive emissions. Improved milling techniques, developed af-
The resulting ground-level sulfur dioxide fu- ter many years of research, have allowed for
migations created serious local air quality condi- increased rejection of the iron minerals
tions and contributed to widespread vegetation while minimizing the loss of the valuable
damage. Growing public awareness and concern copper and nickel minerals. Adoption of this
regarding the sulfur dioxide pollution problem separation approach reduces sulfur dioxide
led to pressure on all levels of government to- emissions by removing approximately 67%
ward control and abatement legislation aimed of the original sulfur in the ore before the
specifically at Inco's sulfur dioxide emissions. ore enters the smelting furnaces.
278 Bouillon
Strategy 2-Liquid Sulfur Dioxide and The gypsum produced during chemical
Sulfuric Acid Production extraction of metals would not meet market
requirements in density and chemistry. Simi-
Inco began implementing the second emission larly, waste iron hydroxide would be of poor
reduction strategy in the early 1930s when a quality (Le., particle size and contamination
400-tonnes/day sulfuric acid plant was con- with other material). Given the tonnage of ore
structed at the Copper Cliff smelter. More and used in the Copper Cliff operation, these un-
larger capacity acid plants were built at an- usable waste products would then require a
other company facility in response to a grow- large dedicated disposal site, which simply trans-
ing market. Peak acid production capacity was fers the pollution liability from air to land.
3000 tonnes/day. Sulfuric acid production now Such transfers of environmental problems
plays a key role in the company's ongoing from one site to another, called "media trans-
sulfur dioxide abatement program. fers," cannot be considered true environmen-
In 1952, liquid sulfur dioxide production tal solutions (see Chapter 22).
began at the Copper Cliff smelter using stan-
dard compression and refrigeration technol-
ogy. The plant has a production capacity of History of Sulfur Dioxide
about 400 tonnes/day, with an average annual
production of about 80,000 tonnes. The prod-
Abatement Efforts at
uct is in high demand by many different users Copper Cliff
such as specialty chemical manufacturers, the
largest single market being the pulp and paper Smelting Process Changes
industry.
About 1950, Inco and Outkumpu Oy, the Fin-
To produce elemental sulfur from the sul-
nish mining company, developed separate
fur dioxide is not economically feasible with
flash furnace technologies for use in copper
current technology at the Copper Cliff smelt-
sulfide smelting. This new technology bene-
er. Moreover, the process requires extensive
fited the mining companies in two ways.
use of fossil fuels. Combustion of fossil fuels
generates large amounts of carbon dioxide, a 1. Once the furnace was brought up to oper-
greenhouse gas, and nitrogen oXide, an acid- ating temperature by fossil fuel burners,
forming gas. The increased emissions of ni- flash smelting became an "autogenous"
trogen oxide would therefore defeat a prime process. Heat released by the combustion
objective of the sulfur dioxide abatement proof sulfur in the feed into sulfur dioxide
gram-to reduce acid rain. replaced that provided by fossil fuels in
the earlier process. The incoming feed pro-
Strategy 3-Alternative Processes vided the flow of sulfur fuel to maintain
the smelting reactions.
The third strategy, to use a chemical leaching 2. Pure oxygen was used for combustion. As
or extraction method (hydrometallurgical pro- a result, the offgas from the flash furnace
cesses), that does not produce sulfur dioxide contains about 70-75 % sulfur dioxide.
is not technically or economically feasible No carbon dioxide and minimal nitrogen
for the Copper Cliff operations. The capital oxides were coproduced. This high sulfur
costs and technological problems associated dioxide strength offgas allowed the use
with the hydrometallurgical processes are of existing fixation technology to cap-
too great. The current processes used in ture, as marketable products, sulfur di-
these methods would also result in the pro- oxide that would otherwise have been
duction of vast quantities of unwanted waste released to atmosphere. Liquid sulfur
materials such as iron hydroxide and cal- dioxide was produced by compression
cium sulfate (gypsum). and refrigeration.
3. Process efficiency was increased while stage was removal of the nickeL cobalt, and a
minimizing the production of nitrogen ox- residual copper via an ammonia-carbon diox-
ides. Fossil fuel consumption use was kept ide leach. The remaining iron oxide was pel-
to a minimum, with the main use being letized for sale to the steel industry.
heating the furnace to operating tempera-
ture. The minimal need to use fossil fuel
enhanced the operations' economic com- Recent Control
petitiveness.
Technologies and Strategies
Iron Processing Early company developments in environmen-
tal control technologies and strategies were
To maximize the recovery of copper and nickel
driven by economics. The early 1970s saw the
from the ore, the iron minerals were processed
establishment of government regulations en-
through the smelter until 1954. This increased
forcing environmental control initiatives. To
the environmental liability of the operation
meet these initiatives, the pace of technologi-
through increased production of sulfur dioxide
cal developments began to accelerate.
and created a waste storage problem. The un-
To meet these more stringent environmen-
wanted iron also had to be removed from the
tal requirements, Inco designed a comprehen-
furnaces as a waste iron silicate or "slag." Be-
cause the furnaces have a finite capacity, treat- sive sulfur dioxide abatement program in the
ing and handling unwanted iron limits the mid-1980s. At a cost of implementation of
production rates of nickel and copper. Increas- more than $Can 600 million, it became one of
ing demand for the company's metal products the largest industrial pollution abatement pro-
pushed the development of a separate treat- grams in the world. The following is a brief
ment process for the iron minerals to remove description of this new program.
this load from the smelter. Improved tech- Rather than attempt to use entirely new
niques and technology allowed more of the technology, the company adapted the proven
iron minerals to be rejected at the milling copper smelting flash furnace to treat a com-
stage. bined nickel-copper concentrate (Figs. 21.2 and
In 1954, a nickel bearing (about 0:8-1.0%), 21.3). From the new bulk flash furnaces, a
high sulfur (about 32%) fraction of the re- portion of the high-strength sulfur dioxide gas
jected iron minerals was routed to the new is then directly compressed into liquid sulfur
iron ore recovery plant. The first stage in the dioxide while the remainder is diluted with air
new process was the controlled roasting of the to meet the requirements of a new 2900 tonnesl
iron minerals down to about 0.5% sulfur, day (100% sulfuric acid basis) sulfuric acid
using fluid bed roaster technology. These plant (Fig. 21.4). The sulfuric acid plant is cru-
roasters generated offgases at about 10-12% cial to achieving legislated sulfur dioxide emis-
sulfur dioxide, which is ideal for conversion sion limits. By the mid-1980s, the economics
into sulfuric acid. The 400-tonnes/day sulfuric changed and the company was losing money
acid plant was moved over to this new facility by making sulfuric acid at the iron ore recov-
from the Copper Cliff smelter in 1958. Two ery plant. However, the facility remained in
new acid plants were constructed. Final total operation to maintain the company's share of
production capacity was 3000 tonnes/day of the sulfuric acid market. The company needed
100% sulfuric acid equivalent. The various this market share for the sulfuric acid that
strengths of sulfuric acid and grades of sulfuric would be produced to meet the government's
acid concentrate (oleum) produced by these 1994 emission limit. The old facility was closed
plants found ready and varied markets, such in May 1991 when the new acid plant at the
as the Elliot Lake uranium mines (located 150 smelter began operation.
km west of Sudbury), lead acid battery mak- The finished flash furnace product (Besse-
ers, and detergent manufacturers. The second mer matte) is separated into a nickel sulfide
280 Bouillon
SLAG RETURN LAUNDER

AND BURNER VENTS
\
SLAG LAUNDER AND
BURNER VENTS
MUD GUN
AND DRILL
P<n-19I
FIGURE 21.2. Inca Copper Cliff smelter flash furnace-external view of northeast side.
fraction and a pure copper sulfide. The copper In addition to the environmental benefits of
sulfide is then treated in a proprietary melter, the new smelter, there are considerable eco-
which also produces a high sulfur dioxide nomic benefits from the new facility. Econom-
strength offgas (Fig. 21. 5). The melter offgas is ic benefits consist of lowered energy costs,
combined with those of the bulk flash furnaces increased worker productivity, and the con-
for fixation as either liquid sulfur dioxide or version of former emitted sulfur dioxide gases
sulfuric acid. into salable products. The payback time for the
HUNG ROOF SEC TION

WATER COOLED
OXYGEN BURNER
PORTS
WATER COOLED
COPPER UPTAKE
BLOCKS
3' COPPER
SHELF
COOLERS
6' COPPER
FINGER
COOLERS --I---~OO;;:;'-H:
FIGURE 21.3. Inco Copper Cliff smelter flash furnace-internal view of refractory detail and cooling equipment.
capital expenditures for the construction of The company also operates a meterological
the new facilities and operating procedures station. Data gathered at this station are input
($600 million) has been estimated to be ap- to computer models. The computer models
proximately 10 years, based on projected en- calculate a maximum allowable sulfur dioxide
ergy and worker productivity gains and emission rate for the Copper Cliff smelter com-
reductions in maintenance costs at the new plex, which would theoretically keep ground-
operation (Table 21.1). level sulfur dioxide concentrations below the
government limits. These data are transferred
to operators at the smelter who adjust the
Environmental Monitoring processes so that the average sulfur dioxide
emission rates do not exceed the given value.
In the early 1970s, a voluntary strategy to con- Air quality data from the governments fixed
trol ground-level concentrations of sulfur diox- stations and the company's mobile monitors
ide was initiated. A network of Ontario Ministry along with continuously updated meteorolog-
of Environment and Energy-owned and -oper- ical data are used to adjust the smelter's sulfur
ated fixed monitoring stations was installed to dioxide emission rates to meet required ground-
continuously monitor ground-level sulfur diox- level concentrations. This combination of com-
ide concentrations. In addition to the govern- pany and government monitoring for emissions
ment stations, company-owned and -operated control is unique to Sudbury.
sulfur dioxide emission monitoring vehicles pa- In 1978, the government passed legislation
trol and measure ground-level sulfur dioxide that changed the formerly voluntary program
concentrations. into a legally binding abatement program and
282 Bouillon
FIGURE 21.4. Inco Copper Cliff smelter-isometric view of add plant.
imposed limits on sulfur dioxide emissions. To In addition to ground-level concentration lim-

achieve these requirements, ground-level sul- its, annual limits on sulfur dioxide emissions
fur dioxide concentrations are measured every from all the company's Copper Cliff facilities
5 minutes. Running averages of these readings were imposed by the government starting in
are used to determine compliance with the the early 1970s. These limits have decreased in
government regulations. The government has stages over the years, as described in Chapter
imposed two different limits on emissions 4. An annual sulfur dioxide emission limit of
from the Copper Cliff smelter: 265,000 tonnes from all of Inco's Sudbury op-
erations was imposed effective for 1994. This
1. The first limit is on emissions from the represents a 90% reduction from the peak
381-m stack, either alone or in combina- 1960 emission values.
tion with other company stack emissions.
The running hourly average of consecu-
tive 5-min ground-level sulfur dioxide Discussion
concentration readings caused by these
emissions must not exceed 0.50 ppm. Given current technology and economics, the
2. The second limit concerns fugitive emis- smelting of sulfide ore will inevitably result in
sions from the complex. The running the release of sulfur dioxide. Fixation of sulfur
half-hour average of consecutive 5-min dioxide as liquid sulfur dioxide or sulfuric acid
ground-level sulfur dioxide concentra- is a viable environmental protection strategy
tion readings caused by these emissions and can be economically favorable. It is argued
must not exceed 0.30 ppm. that the sulfur content of these chemicals
D~Sl
COlLcno
tAGHOUSf.
S ~AM O'WQ
FIGURE 21.5. Inco Copper Cliff smelter-general arrangement of copper sulfide (MK) melter.
eventually ends up being discharged into the be used to produce a product that stimulates,
natural environment by consumers. 'However, rather than inhibits, plant growth.
the opportunity for pollution prevention is Most other treatment methods involve some
much greater with these solid forms than is form of "scrubbing," which generates solid
possible with gaseous release as sulfur dioxide. and/or liquid wastes. The amount of the sec-
One of the larger markets for sulfuric acid is ondary waste(s) that would be generated from
for making phosphate fertilizer. Through the a scrubbing creates a different set of pollution
manufacture of fertilizers, the sulfur that pre- problems. Disposal of the wastes, such as a
viously became a pollutant, sulfur dioxide, can low-quality gypsum (CaS04), unsuitable for
TABLE 21.1. Energy and Productivity Gains from Implementation of the Sulfur
Dioxide Emissions Abatement Program at Inco Limited Copper Cliff Smelter"
Add Production
Energy consumption Productivity (100% sulfuric acid basis)
(BTUllb Ni+Cu) Ibs Ni+Cu per manshift (tonnes per annum)
1980 15,500 1440 480,000
1989 10,000 2600 580,000
1994 4500 3030 720,000
aAssumes that liquid sulfur dioxide production remains at 80,000 tonnes/year.

284 Bouillon
FIGURE 21.6. Inco Limited sulfur distribution-l 994.
marketing, would add to present tailings dis- efits can be achieved in comparison with con-
posal problems and result in the need for addi- tinued use of only the original raw materials.
tional expensive disposal area. Rehabilitation
of these additional disposal areas would then
be required under current government legisla- Case Study Summary
tion. While redudng the atmospheric prob-
lem, increased sulfur disposal to tailings can Driven originally by government legislation
pose a storage and water treatment problem and realizing the potential economic benefits
under current technology. Progress and re- to be derived, Inco Limited, the company in
maining challenges in this field are the sub- this case history, devised a program of emis-
jects of the next chapter (Chapter 22). sion control technologies and strategies
designed to meet a wide variety of soda!, eco-
nmnic, and environmental needs. No single
Recycling Metals: technology or strategy would have been ef-
Converting a Problem fective in meeting these diverse needs. Only a
well-integrated, multifaceted approach to the
into a Profit development of environmental control technol-
ogies and strategies could have achieved its high
Economic incentives can readily convert an
degree of success.
environmental pollutant into a valuable re-
source. Inco Limited has become the world's Inco Limited now contains 90% of the sul-
largest recycler of automobile catalytic con- fur in mined ore, which is the reverse of the
verters for the platinum and palladium con- 1960s when 90% of the ore's sulfur was
tent. This converts a potential environmental emitted to the atmosphere as sulfur dioxide.
problem for one manufacturer, the automo- At yearend 1994, only 10% of the ore's sul-
bile industry, into a valuable product for an- fur content was emitted to the atmosphere
other company, the metal refining industry. as sulfur dioxide, a reduction of 1,735,000
Most metallurgical smelters and refineries tonnes/year in sulfur dioxide emissions
have implemented some type of recycling of (Fig. 21.6).
scrap or waste materials produced both within The company is now deriving the benefits
the company's operations and from other proof marketing its experience and technology
ducers. Substantial savings through reduced internationally. Most applications 01 these
energy and processing costs can be realized by technologies have taken place in the in-
processing recycled materials while at the dustrialized nations. Some applications of
same time diverting waste materials from land- improved technology are occurring in devel-
fill sites and other such dumping locations. oping nations such as Chile, where the na-
The recycling of aluminum cans is a prime tional copper company has installed Inco's
example in which considerable economic ben- flash furnace technology.
Global Comparisons sources. Control systems, the norm in indus-

trialized nations, must be implemented
The output of the nickel industry in Russia is throughout the world to prevent further oc-
similar to that of Inco Limited and Falcon- currences of the Sudbury experience.
bridge Limited combined. Based on the refer-
enced literature and the experiences of visiting
scientists and managers, Russian facilities are Acknowledgments. I wish to thank Inco Ltd.
at the stage of development in emission con- Audiovisual Department, especially Aurel Cour-
trol technologies/strategies that Inco was in ville, Charlie Hebert, Mike Barrette, and Ger-
the early 1960s. The Norilsk Mining and Met- ald Sauve.
allurgical Combine nickel facility has now be-
come the world's largest point source of sulfur
dioxide, with 1987 emissions estimated to be References
2.4 million tonnes (Saunders 1990; Peterson Air and Waste Management Assodation (AWMA).
1993). The current economic uncertainty in 1992. Air Pollution Control-Equipment, Inspec-
Russia diminishes the likelihood that effective tion, and Maintenance, Fuels, Management. Pa-
abatement technologies and strategies will pers from 85th Annual Meeting and Exhibition,
soon be implemented. Economic and political Pittsburgh, PA.
problems in many of the former East Bloc International Union of Air and Pollution and Pre-
countries also limit their ability to deal effec- vention Assodations (IUAPPA). 1991. Clean Air
tively with widespread environmental prob- around the World-National and International
lems. Similar problems and fears exist in Asian Approaches to Air Pollution. 2nd Ed. Brighton,
countries, particularly China, where industrial England.
development is occurring rapidly through the Lee, D.R. 1993. An economist's perspective on air
use of high-sulfur coal (SmilI993). In China, pollution. Environ. Sd. Technol. 27(10):1980-
approximately 900 million tonnes of coal per 1982.
Peterson, D.J. 1993. Troubled Lands-The Legacy of
year is burnt to supply 75% of its energy
Soviet Environmental Destruction. A Land Re-
needs. Only a small number of the most mod-
search Study. Westview Press, Boulder, CO.
ern, large, coal-fired plants are equipped with
Saunders, A. 1990. POisoning the arctic skies. Arctic
electrostatic precipitators. Most smaller boilers Circle 1(2):22-3l.
have only mechanical dust separators. Mil- Srnil, V. 1993. China's Environmental Crisis. M.E.
lions of small sources are completely uncon- Sharpe Inc., Armonk, NY.
trolled (SmiI1993). Watson, S. 1992. Pollution prevention: policies and
Technology transfer to these needy nations is approaches, IU-28.01. In Air and Waste Manage-
imperative if we are to meet the goals of sus- ment Association (ed.). Risk Assessment, Strate-
tainable development while reducing global en- gies and Pollution Prevention. Papers from the
vironmental degradation from anthropogenic 9th World Clean Air Congress, Pittsburgh, PA.
22
Integrated Management and
Progressive Rehabilitation of
Industrial Lands
Ellen L. Heale
Member companies of the Mining Associ- 1. the wise use of air, water, land, and energy
ation of Canada and the Ontario Mining As- 2. mitigating adverse environmental impacts
sociation are committed to the concept of arising from mining-related activities
sustainable development. "Sustainable de- 3. safeguarding the health of people and the
velopment requires balancing good project natural environment
stewardship in the protection of human 4. recycling and reducing wastes
health and the natural environment with 5. disposing of non-recyclable wastes in an
the need for economic growth" (Mining As- environmentally sound manner
sociation of Canada 1990; Ontario Mining 6. rehabilitating disturbed land to a safe, sta-
Association 1993). ble, and productive condition
To meet the challenge of sustainable devel-
In previous chapters, authors describe pro-
opment and improve the level of environmen-
grams for the rehabilitation of tailings areas
tal protection, it is necessary for companies to
(see Chapters 9 and 10) and technological
adopt several operating principles throughout
developments for the reduction of atmos-
exploration, mining, processing, and decom-
pheric emissions (see Chapter 21). In this
missioning activities. These basic principles in-
chapter, integrated planning approaches,
clude compliance with applicable legislation;
progress in achieving environmental im-
applying cost-effective best management prac-
provements in air and water quality, and site
tices to minimize environmental risks; main-
remediations are presented. Most of the ex-
taining self-monitoring programs; supporting
amples are drawn from work at Inco Lim-
research to improve treatment technologies;
ited's Sudbury area operations.
expanding scientific knowledge of mining
industry'S impact on the environment; and as-
sisting in the development of equitable, cost-
effective, and realistic laws for environmental Improvements in Air and .
protection. Water Quality
An integrated approach to decision making
and management is essential to implement In compliance with provincial government
environmentally sustainable economic devel- regulations, Sudbury companies have signifi-
opment (Lecuyer and Aitken 1987). Environ- cantly reduced sulfur dioxide emissions. Inco's
mental decision making involves sulfur dioxide abatement program (Inco Lim-
287
288 Reale
ited 1992) and Falconbridge Limited's smelter from the tailings area (Van Cruyningen and
environmental improvement project (Falcon- Puro 1987). Water levels in storage ponds and
bridge Limited 1992) represent the largest en- lakes, upstream of Inco's waste water treat-
vironmental projects ever undertaken by any ment plants, are controlled to ensure that suf-
mining companies. Since 1970, Falconbridge ficient water is available for processing, yet
has reduced their sulfur dioxide output by capacity is available in the system to retain
more than 85% (Falconbridge Limited 1992). water that enters during storm events and
Inco's emissions reduction program will achieve spring freshet. This prevents process interrup-
an 87% reduction in sulfur dioxide emissions tions and avoids spills to the environment.
from 1972 to 1994. Of the sulfur in the ore, Since 1992, the retention capacity upstream of
90% will be contained and not emitted into the Copper Cliff waste water treatment plant
the atmosphere (Inco Limited 1991). has been increased to 5.26 billion liters.
As described in the previous chapter, the air Not all water can be retained on site, pri-
pollution prevention approaches adopted in marily due to the large influx of precipita-
Sudbury have both environmental and eco- tion, which far exceeds the evaporation rate.
nomic benefits. Immediate improvements in Large volumes must be treated to satisfy gov-
air quality are some of the obvious environ- ernment regulations before being released to
mental benefits (Dobrin and Potvin 1992), but the environment. Inco operates two waste
as shown in other chapters in this book, the water treatment plants in the Copper Cliff
reduced emissions have also allowed for veg- area, having a combined treatment capacity
etation establishment (Allum and Dreisinger of 216,000 m 3 / day. Reactor-clarifier technol-
1986), restoration of land (see Chapter 8), and ogy is used, with hydrated lime and polymer
biological recovery of lakes (Keller et a1. 1992). as the reagents. According to an Ontario
Ministry of the Environment and Energy re-
port, this method has been identified as
Water Management among the best available treatment technol-
and Treatment ogies for base metal mine effluents. At
smaller more-remote sites, batch lime addi-
In addition to air quality improyements, both tion is used, with clarification occurring in
Inco and Falconbridge have developed exten- large retention ponds. Although much sim-
sive water management and treatment pro- pler, this method is equally effective.
grams aimed at reducing the downstream Lime treatment is relatively inexpensive com-
impact of mining effluents, as well as reducing pared with other treatment methods. Lime
costs. Water conservation and recycling initia- (Ca(OH)z) or calcium oxide (CaO) is added, at a
tives reduce the amount of fresh water that controlled rate, to raise the pH of waste water for
must be used for processing and, ultimately, the purpose of precipitating dissolved metals.
the amount of process waste water requiring Precipitation of dissolved iron occurs at pH 7,
treatment before discharge. To reduce the whereas other metals such as zinc and nickel
amount of surface drainage that must be require pHs between 9 and 10.6. Sludges gen-
treated, considerable amounts of stormwater erated by this process tend to be voluminous
are diverted away from areas of potential con- and are not stable when exposed to rain and
tamination. Research is ongoing to determine oxygen. Generally, recovery of metals from
the impact of revegetation on run-off water these sludges is currently not feasible, and dis-
quantity and quality within industrially disposal is expensive. At Copper Cliff, sludges are
turbed watersheds. With favorable research continually pumped from the waste water
results, substantial long-term environmental treatment plant to the tailings area. Remote
and economic benefits are possible. batch lime facilities are periodically dredged
Inco's ore processing facilities at Copper Cliff and the sludge transported by truck to the
operate entirely on recycled water decanted Copper Cliff tailings area.
22. Integrated Management and Progressive Rehabilitation 289
Ore from mines Products
FIGURE 22.1. Inco Limited,
~ Nickel oxide
Sudbury District operations CC North
CC South ~ LiquidS0 2
flowsheet. Crean Hill .---l...._.!.....;-_---' H 2 SO 4
Creighton
McCreedy West
Coleman Copper and
Frood ~ precious metals
Stobie
Little Stobie
Garson
Nickel pellets,
~ powders and
'-'-"':':=":";';"'_.....J oxide
'--_ _ _- - ' Tailings
Many companies are required to reduce the Inco, a leading producer of nickel, copper,
alkalinity of their effluent after lime treatment precious metals, and cobalt, has been operat-
and before discharge to the natural environ- ing since 1902. Falconbridge, a major pro-
ment. Recently, carbon dioxide, rather than ducer of nickel, copper, and cobalt, has been
strong acids, has been used because it is less in operation in Sudbury since 1928. In-
hazardous to handle and does not add chemi- dustrial operations are often complex, large,
cals to the treated water. There is less risk of or spread out over a variety of terrains
overdosing with carbon dioxide, and a mini- (Fig. 22.2). Other sites may be remote, with
mum pH of 5.6 is achievable. Falconbridge's limited access or abandoned. Sites do not
Moose Lake facility incorporates carbon diox- represent single confined processes or prob-
ide into the treatment process for neutraliza- lems (Moore and Luoma 1990), and therefore
tion of the final effluent to pH 7 (M. Wiseman, management of these sites must reflect a
personal communication). wide variety of factors.
Although the requirement for pH adjust- In addition to the plants and mines, by-
ment is intended to reduce the toxicity of products of these operations are stored on indus-
effluents, the desired effect is not always trial lands. For every 100 tonnes of ore that Inco
achieved. In tests performed on effluents of currently mines, 90 tonnes is rejected as tailings
member companies, the Ontario Mining As- waste. Inco produces 7.7-8 million tonnes of
sociation found that in some cases, toxicity tailings each year. Approximately 25% of this
actually increased after adjustment to pH 7. material is used to fill mined-out areas under-
ground. Falconbridge produces I million tonnes
of tailings annually, and two-thirds of the tail-
Industrial Lands ings is pumped back underground. The balance
of the tailings is disposed of in large tailings
Mining, milling, smelting, and refining opera- disposal areas (Fig. 22.3). Inco's Copper Cliff tail-
tions are very large and visible operations in the ings area has a total storage capacity of 700
Sudbury region. Privately owned industrial lands million tonnes and covers an area of 2225 h
include tailings disposal areas, mine and plant (Van Cruyningen and Puro 1987). Falconbridge
sites, adjacent barren rocky outcrops, waste rock stores 45 million tonnes of tailings in the Sud-
and slag piles, and sand pits. Integrated manage- bury area.
ment of these lands is required due to the his- Smelting produces 9 tonnes of slag (see Plate 13
tory, size, and scope of the impacted areas and following page 182) for every 100 tonnes of ore
because of the diversity of processes (Fig. 22.1), that is mined. Slag is a glasslike residue, primarily
the variety of land uses, and the many interac- an iron silicate material. Falconbridge stores ap-
tions between environmental stresses. proximately 10 million tonnes of slag. More than
FIGURE 22.2. Ineo Limited's Copper Cliff smelter complex. (Photo by Bob Chambers.)
FIGURE 22.3. Aerial view of tailings disposal area at Falconbridge. Treated waste water from the site has
developed into a productive marsh area supporting various fish and wildlife species. (Photo by Ed Snucins.)
290
FIGURE 22.4. Framed by Inco's

Frood-Stobie Mine complex,
the 33.4 million-m 3 open pit
was mined from 1938 to 1961.
This is one of several pits that
could be used for the disposal
of acid-generating waste rock
and tailings. (Photo by Bob
Chambers.)
119 million tormes of slag are stored on Inca Industrial sites also include areas for the stor-
property. The largest of four stockpiles is lo- age of waste rock. Large quantities of waste rock
cated at Copper Cliff, where more than 100 are generated with the development of open
million tonnes of slag are stored in an area pits, sinking of shafts, and mining of drifts
that covers 240 ha (see lower part of Fig. 22.2). (Fig. 22.4). It is estimated that Inco has 31 mil-
Slag is slow-cooled on dumps and crushed or lion tormes of waste rock located in more than
granulated. Some Inca slag is sold for road 65 piles. The largest storage pile contains 11
and rail ballast and domestic fill. Inco's 1993 million tormes of waste rock, spread to a maxi-
rate of slag production was approximately 1.3 mum depth of 21 m. Falconbridge's total waste
million tonnes/year. rock storage is in the order of 20 million tormes.
292 Reale
Acid Rock Drainage or at sites where the seepage can be collected

and treated. Falconbridge is involved in re-
The large amounts of sulfur in Sudbury ores search to develop oxygen barriers over tailings
present unique environmental challenges, be- to control acid seepage effectively. Covers of
cause for every 1 part of nickel, there are 8 partially decomposed domestic waste, digested
parts of sulfur. Tailings and waste rock contain sewage sludge combined with alkaline materi-
these sulfide minerals, and as the sulfides oxi- als, or shallow water covers are being exam-
dize' in the presence of water and oxygen, ined. Another approach that Falconbridge is
acidic drainage is generated (Steffen Robert- investigating is the construction of a porous
son and Kirsten 1989a,b). Traditional revege- envelope around tailings disposal areas. An
tation of tailings or waste rock piles will reduce impervious cap on top can prevent ground-
the infiltration of precipitation or surface and surface water from entering the tailings
water. However, vegetation will not stop the whereas groundwater will flow around the
acid generation process. tailings in the more porous envelope, mini-
mizing its contact with tailings (Falconbridge
MS + 30 2 + 2H 2 0 f 2HzS04 + M+ Limited 1991). Treatment of acid seepage
metal + oxygen + water sUlfuric + dissolved using wetlands to facilitate the development
sulfide acid metals of natural alkaline-generating, sulfate-reduc-
ing microbial processes is being tested at Inco
Acidic drainage or seepage waters are char-
and Falconbridge (see Chapter 10).
acterized by low pH, elevated levels of dis-
To demonstrate more economically feasible
solved solids, total acidity, trace elements, and
methods for detecting acid rock drainage and
inorganic compounds. Acidic seepage is also
identify areas requiring remediation, major
responsible for impacts on aquatic biota (Huck-
projects were conducted in and around Inco
abee et a1. 1975). Acid rock drainage is one of
the most significant environmental and eco- property in 1993. It was determined that non-
nomic challenges facing the mining industry. intrusive ground conductivity survey meth-
Both mining companies are active partici- ods, using standard exploration equipment,
pants in Mine Environment Neutral Drainage, were a useful tool in the environmental as-
a cooperative research program' sponsored by sessment of groundwater to detect acid rock
the Canadian mining industry and govern- drainage. Another project used an underwater
ment agencies. Research and investigations probe, dragged by a boat, to detect sources of
are underway to develop reliable and afford- acid rock drainage discharging into surface
able methods to prevent, monitor, control, waters. An investigation in the Copper Cliff
and treat acid rock drainage (Skousen et a1. tailings area involved piezocone technology.
1987; Itzkovitch 1993) (see Chapter 10). From Measurements from an electronic piezocone,
1988 to 1992, contributions (from all partici- typically used to characterize soil stratigraphy
pants) to the research program totalled SCan and geotechnical parameters, will be corre-
8.1 million. lated with chemical constituents from cor-
One solution to reducing the amount of sul- responding drilled samples to determine if a
fur released into the atmosphere during the relationship exists (Itzkovitch 1993).
smelting process is to ensure that much of the The production of a low-sulfur tailings is
pyrrhotite in the ore (up to 30% sulfur) is also currently being investigated by Inco. A
rejected before the ore is smelted. However, new process in the milling circuit will produce
storing pyrrhotite in the tailings area creates a low-sulfur (0.4%) tailings to encapsulate and
an additional source of acid generation. reduce the oxidation potential of the high-sulfur
To stop the oxidation process that leads to (15-20% sulfur) and pyrrhotite tailings stored in
acid formation, pyrrhotite tailings are stored the center of Inco's current tailings disposal
under water, or under a 30-100-cm cover of area. Low-sulfur tailings are a non-acid-gener-
less reactive tailings slimes (Michelutti 1987), ating waste.
Waste rock, containing sulfide minerals, is derwater disposal, demolition of abandoned

also a source of acidic drainage. As is practical, buildings, revegetation and restoration are cur-
waste rock remains underground. It is used as rent progressive rehabilitation activities. Per-
backfill and for road bed construction. On sur- petual monitoring and treatment of acidic
face, acid-generating waste rock is placed un- seepage, for example, are not economically
derwater in pits to stop the oxidation process. feasible or desirable. Companies may need to
Inco has 23 pits, with a total volume capacity modify current operating practices. Also, in-
of 145 million tonnes. These pits are potential dustries cannot afford to wait until a facility
sites for the disposal of add-generating waste closes to initiate rehabilitation activities.
rock (Fig. 22.4). When these alternatives are The challenges for restoration of industrial
not feasible, seepage from waste rock piles is lands include identifying and assessing envi-
collected for treatment before to its release to ronmental impacts (Bridges 1991), treatment,
the environment. Waste rock piles are cur- and rehabilitation costs. These factors must
rently being inventoried and assessed to deter- not be considered in isolation. Areas of impact,
mine add-generating potential. such as watersheds and neighboring lands, must
be managed as an ecosystem unit.
At locations where mining operations are
Progressive Rehabilitation in close proximity to one another, an inte-
grated approach to rehabilitation and closure
Mining companies in Ontario face additional is required. Inco's Levack Complex and Fal-
environmental and economic challenges. conbridge's Onaping Complex, northwest of
Recent amendments to the Mining Act of Sudbury, are within the same watershed
Ontario have introduced legislation to set management area. Joint technical planning
standards for the closure of mines and the groups have been established to implement a
rehabilitation of lands used for mining act- joint closure plan for this area. Integration of
ivities (Ontario Ministry of Northern De- planning efforts within a company is also re-
velopment and Mines 1992). Progressive quired. For example, Inco is currently devel-
rehabilitation and the development of clo- oping an integrated watershed management
sure plans are legislated to protect public plan for nine sites in the Copper Cliff area. For
health and safety, alleviate or eliminate en- a detailed discussion of watershed or catch-
vironmental damage, and allow productive ment planning, see Chapter 24.
use of land in its original condition or an
acceptable alternative.
Engineering and environmental studies re- Aerial Treatment Program
quired for the preparation of closure plans are
underway by both companies. Inco is monitor- Surface run-off from the Nolin Creek water-
ing groundwater, conducting site inventories at shed (850 ha), northeast of Copper Cliff, is
active and abandoned mines, properties, and currently being treated at one of Inco's waste
quarries, and sampling soil and vegetation. Clo- water treatment plants. However, as shown in
sure plans and the estimated costs to implement other parts of this book, the barren rocky out-
the plans will be submitted to the Ontario Min- crops in this area can be treated with surface
istry of Northem Development and Mines for applications of ground limestone to detoxify
acceptance. Once approved, finandal assurance soil and allow plant growth (Winterhalder
will be negotiated to ensure economic resources 1988) (see Chapter 8). Such treatments ofIer
for future work. Annual reports updating pro- considerable promise for redudng contain-
gressive rehabilitation and progress on studies ment export from metal-contaminated sites.
will be required. In 1980, Inco began a labor-intensive pro-
Progressive rehabilitation is essential to re- gram on company-owned property to man-
duce the company's finandal liability. Filling ually apply agricultural limestone, fertilizer,
pits with add-generating waste rock for un- and grass seed to treat a few hectares of land in
294 Heale
FIGURE 22.5. Airplane being loaded with agricultural limestone. Between 1990 and 1994, Inco treated
more than 650 ha of barren rocky outcrops with its innovative aerial treatment program. (Photo by
Ellen Heale.)
Copper Cliff. These areas were, virtually tree- areas in a safe, efficient, and cost-effective
less, with sparse vegetation or shallow pockets manner.
or crevices of bare soil. By the mid-1980s, It is expected that revegetation will have a
four-wheel-drive all-terrain vehicles, specially significant impact on the quantity and quality
fitted with spreaders, treated 8-12 ha/year. In of surface run-off water and thus reduce the
1990, an innovative program to reclaim barren amount requiring treatment. With the appli-
rocky outcrops began. Suitably equipped aircraft cation of agricultural limestone, a critical fac-
(Fig. 22.5), capable of carrying 1.5 tonnes of tor in the success of the revegetation program,
materiaL dropped agricultural limestone, fol- natural colonizing species quickly become es-
lowed by applications of a fertilizer and grass tablished. The grassed sites are subsequently
seed mix, over the stressed lands. planted with coniferous forestry seedlings.
In 1990, an initial 50-ha site in the Nolin
watershed was treated. With the establish-
ment of successful vegetation covers (Fig. 22.6),
the aerial treatment program was expanded.
Self-Sustaining Ecosystem
From 1990 to 1994, 650 ha of rocky out- Development
crops have been treated. Productivity was
increased in 1992 with the construction of a Restoration of mining land is necessary for
bulk lime-loading system for the aircraft (see many reasons, including responsible corporate
Fig. 22.5). This aerial technique allows the business practice, surface stabilization, im-
company to treat relatively inaccessible proving run-off water quality, aesthetic en-
Inco's Copper Cliff tailings area has been

designated as a wildlife management area (see
Chapter 9). Efforts continue to diversify the
number and types of vegetation species to
supply suitable habitats and food sources for
.. a wide variety of birds and wildlife. More
than 86 different native and introduced spe-
cies of vegetation have been identified on
the tailings, including trees, shrubs, grasses,
wetland species, legumes, field weeds, and
mosses (Heale 1991). Over an 8-year period,
92 species of native and migratory birds have
been identified on tailings (Peters 1984).
In less than 10 years, a 160-ha lifeless bog,
adjacent to the Falconbridge smelter, was suc-
cessfully converted into a productive wetland
with a transient population of hundreds of
birds, small fish, and mammals (Fig. 22.3).
Treated alkaline waste water was directed into
the bog to neutralize the existing acidity and
reduce metal toxicity (Michelutti 1987).
Cattails (TYpha Zatifolia) and reedgrass (Phrag-
mites australis) cover 90% of the area. Fal-
conbridge has turned this productive marsh
site into a wildlife sanctuary and conservation
area. Fish and waterfowl thrive in a natural
FIGURE 22.6. Seven months after an aerial applica-
tion of limestone, fertilizer, and grass seed, a vege- wildlife area in the settling pond of the Falcon-
tation cover has been established over rocky bridge tailings area. Red Pine Lake, 1 km from
outcrops on Inco Limited property. Volunteer na- the smelter complex, provides a stopover point
tive tree seedlings were 15 ern high 3 mOnths later. for migratory waterfowl and is a popular fish-
(Photo by Ellen Reale.) ing spot. The lake also supports thousands of
speckled trout (SaZveZinus fontinalis). Falcon-
bridge was a partner in the release of 45 Pere-
grine falcons in the Sudbury area from 1990 to
1993 (see Chapter 12).
hancement of the area, and compliance with Inco has initiated studies to identify poten-
legislation. These successful rehabilitation tial sites for the development of aquatic eco-
efforts lead to diversification of vegetation systems. Three abandoned sand pits, at various
species, promotion of wildlife habitats, and stages of rehabilitation, are being investigated
overall ecosystem development (Australian for water chemistry, physical features, aquatic
Mining Industry Council 1987; Green and invertebrate species, and vegetation diversity.
Slater 1987). This, in turn, leads to a reduc- Work is ongoing, in conjunction with the Sud-
tion in further soil erosion and surface water bury Game and Fish Protection Association, to
run-off and the need for mitigation of the develop walleye (Stizostedion vitreum vitreum)
effects of metal contaminants in run-off wa- fingerling rearing ponds on company property.
ters. A variety of land use options is available Habitat development is also being assisted
(Powell 1992). Both Inco and Falconbridge with the construction and placement of artifi-
have focused their efforts on the development cial nesting islands for loons (Cavia immer) in
of self-sustaining ecosystems with the promo- area lakes and the installation of osprey (Pand-
tion of wildlife habitats. ion haliaetus) nesting platforms.
296 Reale
different types of slag. A joint study between

Laurentian University and Inco is examining
the microbial leaching of slag.
Studies to assess the impacts of reclama-
tion on surface run-off water quantity and
quality are underway. Inco is in the first year
(1993) of an intensive long-term study to
establish a baseline by which to gauge future
conditions in revegetated watersheds, com-
pared with unreclaimed sites. Integrated
management of watersheds involves multi-
disciplinary expertise (see Chapter 24).
Work will include mapping watershed boun-
daries, water sampling, acute toxidty test-
ing, and soil and vegetation identification,
mapping, sampling, and analyses.
Research is also needed to develop a cost-
effective method of removing ammonia from
effluent streams. Groundwater investigations
will continue to examine the hydrogeology
and geochemistry of Inco's tailings area. This
involves the installation of boreholes and mon-
itoring wells and surface electromagnetic and
borehole conductivity mapping. Additional re-
search, technology development, and moni-
toring needs for the integrated management
FIGURE 22.7. Environmental sampling is being con-
ducted to characterize seepage from Inco's slag and progressive rehabilitation of industrial lands
piles. (Photo by Inco Limited.) are outlined (Box 22.1).
The cooperative efforts of government, in-
dustry' academic institutions, and private citi-
zens have resulted in significant progress and
success in the restoration of the Sudbury
Future Challenges region. Future environmental improvements
depend on continuing cooperation, innovative
There have been significant improvements in technology and techniques, and multidiscipli-
water quality in and around mining opera- nary research (Moore and Luoma 1990). Inco
tions (Ontario Mining Association 1993). and Falconbridge have formalized their com-
However, water quality remains a focus for mitment to sustainable development and
concern. The impacts of mining activities on decommissioning within corporate environ-
water quality continue to be assessed. Meth- mental policies.
ods to minimize risk, mitigate those impacts, To meet future challenges, environmental
or economically treat water must also be ex- and economic decision making and inte-
amined. The environmental impacts and eco- grated management will ensure continued
nomic realities of preventing, controlling, or progressive rehabilitation of industrial lands
treating add rock drainage are only one set of and ecosystem development in the Sudbury
challenges (see Chapter 10). region.
Sampling to assess the environmental im-
pacts of slag is ongping (Fig. 22.7). This in-
cludes identification and characterization of Acknowledgments. I thank Mark Wiseman of
seepage from slag piles and leachate tests on Falconbridge Limited and Dr. Tom Peters, re-
Box 22.1. References

Allum, J.A.E., and B.R. Dreisinger. 1986. Remote
Research, technology development, and mon-
sensing of vegetation change near Inco's Sudbury
itoring programs are key requirements for mining complexes. Int. J. Remote Sensing 8:399-
environmental protection and the ongoing re- 416.
habilitation of industrial lands and watersheds in Australian Mining Industry Council. 1987. Mining
the Sudbury area. Although not prioritized, the and the Return of the Living Environment. Can-
following list represents some of the environ- berra, Australia.
mental challenges and research needs facing the Bridges, E.M. 1991. An evaluation of surveys of soil
mining industry, not only in Sudbury but else- contamination in the dty of Swansea, South Wales,
where in Canada. pp. 40-49. In M.C.R. Davies (ed.). Land Reclama-
To ensure sustainable development of the tion: An End to Dereliction? Elsevier Applied Sd-
mining industry, proposed solutions must be ence, Oxford.
reliable, practical, and affordable. Dobrin, D.J., and R. Potvin. 1992. Air Quality Mon-
itoring Studies in the Sudbury Area 1978 to
I. methods to prevent and control acid rock 1988. Technical Report. Ontario Ministry of En-
drainage vironment, Toronto, Canada.
2. characterization of large waste rock piles Falconbridge Limited. 1991. Falconbridge Limited
3. rehabilitation techniques for waste ma- and the Environment. Falcon Nov.lDec. 1991
terials, including tailings disposal areas, Spedal Edition. Sudbury, Canada.
waste rock, and slag piles Falconbridge Limited. 1992. Falconbridge Limited
Report on the Environment. Toronto, Canada.
4. water use, re-use, treatment, and conser-
Green, J.E., and R.E. Slater. 1987. Methods for Recla-
vation management, including the im-
mation of WIldlife Habitat in the Canadian Prairie
pact of naturally occurring wetlands on Provinces. Prepared for Environment Canada and
industrial effluent Alberta Recreation, Parks and Wildlife Foundation
5. impact of industrial activities on ground- by the Delta Environmental Management Group
water movement, quality, and quantity Ltd., Edmonton, Canada.
and methods for mitigation Heale, E. 1. 1991. Reclamation of tailings and stressed
6. decommissioning of abandoned sites lands at the Sudbury, Ontario operations of Inco
7. impact and fate of trace me~s in the Limited, pp. 529-541. In Proceedings of the Second
environment International Conference on the Abatement of
8. potential for biotechnology and genetic Addic Drainage, MontreaL Canada. Vol. 2. MEND,
adaptation to enhance rehabilitation and Ottawa.
Huckabee, J.W., C.P. Goodyear, and R.D. Jones. 1975.
restoration techniques
Add rock in the Great Smokies: unantidpated im-
9. further initiatives for emission reductions pact on aquatic biota of road construction in the
and metals recovery regions of sulphide mineralization. Trans. Am. Fish.
10. recycling and waste reduction Soc. 104:677-684.
II. potential for ecosystem recovery with no Inco Limited. 1991. Inco Limited Ontario Division
direct treatment Publication. Copper Cliff, Canada.
12. maintenance and monitoring of perpet- Inco Limited. 1992. Inco Limited 1992 Annual Re-
ual treatment systems port. Toronto, Canada.
Itzkovitch, I.J. 1993. Mine Environment Neutral
Drainage Program 1992 Annual Report. Toronto,
Canada.
Keller, W., J.M. Gunn, and N.D. Yan. 1992. Evidence
tired from Inco Limited, for providing infor- of biological recovery in add-stressed lakes near
mation for this chapter. The assistance of Inco Sudbury, Canada. Environ. Pollut. 78: 79-85.
personnel Dr. Larry Banbury, Brian Bell, Caro- Lecuyer, G., and W.R.O. Aitken. 1987. Report ofthe
lyn Hunt, Marty Puro, and Paul Yearwood is National Task Force on Environment and Econ-
also appreciated. omy. Submitted to the Canadian Council of
298 Heale
Resource and Environment Ministers. Downs- face-MinedLands. Vol. 2. CRC Press, BocaRaton,
view, Canada. FL.
Michelutti, R.E. 1987. Reclamation programs and Skousen, J.G., J.c. Sencindiver, and R.M. Smith.
research at Falconbridge Limited's Sudbury oper- 1987. A Review of Procedures for Surface Mining
ations, pp. 1-10. In P.J. Beckett (ed.). Proceedings and Reclamation in Areas with Acid-Producing
of the 12th Annual Meeting of the Canadian Materials. West Virginia Surface Mine Drainage
Land Reclamation Association, Sudbury, Canada. Task Force, University Energy and Water Re-
CLRA, Guelph, Ontario. search Center and Mining and Reclamation As-
Mining Association of Canada. 1990. Guide for En- sociation, Morgantown, WV.
vironmental Practice. Ottawa, Canada. Steffen Robertson and Kirsten (B.C.) Inc. 1989a.
Moore, J.N., and S.N. Luoma. 1990. Hazardous wastes Draft Acid Rock Drainage Technical Guide. Vol.
from large-scale metal extraction. Environ. Sci. 1. British Columbia Acid Mine Drainage Task
Technol. 24:1278-1285. Force, Vancouver, Canada.
Ontario Mining Association. 1993. Sustainable Min- Steffen Robertson and Kirsten (B.C.) Inc. 1989b.
ing in Ontario. Environment Committee Report. Add Rock Drainage Draft Technical Guide. Vol.
Ontario Mining Association, Toronto, Canada. 2-Summary Guide. British Columbia Add Mine
Ontario Ministry of Northern Development and Drainage Task Force, Vancouver, Canada.
Mines. 1992. Rehabilitation of Mines Guidelines for Van Cruyningen, J.P., and M.J. Puro. 1987. Tailings
Proponents. Version 1.2. Sudbury, Canada. disposal area development at Inco Sudbury oper-
Peters, T.H. 1984. Rehabilitation of mine tailings: a ations. In Proceedings of the Conference of Cana-
case of complete ecosystem reconstruction and dian Mineral Processors, Ottawa, Canada.
revegetation of industrially stressed lands in the Winterhalder, K. 1988. Trigger factors initiating nat-
Sudbury area, Ontario, Canada, pp. 403-421. In ural revegetation processes on barren, acid,
P.J. Sheehan et al. (eds.). Effects of Pollutants at metal-toxic soils near Sudbury, Ontario smelters,
the Ecosystem Level. Wiley, New York. pp. 118-124. In U.S. Department of the Interior
Powell, J.L. 1992. Revegetation options, pp. 49- Circular 9184. Mine Drainage and Surface Mine
91. In L.R. Hossner (ed.). Reclamation of Sur- Reclamation Conference, Pittsburgh, PA.
23
Remote Sensing and Geographic
Information Systems: Technologies
for Mapping and Monitoring
Environmental Health
J. Roger Pitblado and E. Ann Gallie
The face of our land looks to the sky. To see its many features,
we must get above it and look down.
(Dill 1958)
Henry Dill's statement was made in the con- But monitoring is neither a simple nor an in-
text of using air photographs to evaluate expensive endeavor, especially of processes
changes in agricultural land use. Three and a such as the acidification and recovery of the
half decades later, his "bird's-eye view" is even Sudbury region, which affect large areas over
more relevant as specialized cameras, elec- long periods of time. It is here that remote
tronic scanners, satellites, and computer tech- sensing and GIS have a unique and important
nology have been added to the arsenal of tools role to play.
that help us gather, map, and mo'nitor the Remote sensors, especially satellite sensors,
characteristics of earth resources (Rudd 1974; produce images that cover large areas for a few
Harper 1976; Richards 1986; Star 1991). In cents per square kilometer, and most import-
this chapter, we illustrate how some of these ant, the same coverage is repeated month after
tools, remote sensing and geographic information month. If information relevant to the moni-
systems (GIS), are being used to assist in the toring program can be extracted from these
rehabilitation of the Sudbury region. images, then remote sensing can offer a full
Environmental monitoring is fundamental to two-dimensional view that cannot be matched
the complex task of natural resource manage- by point sampling. GIS offers other advan-
ment. A well-designed monitoring program tages. Developed from computer-assisted car-
should enable (Yan and Keller 1991) tography, GIS has many tools designed to
produce maps from point data, to analyze ex-
measurement of natural variation in the struc- isting maps, and to explore the spatial patterns
ture and dynamics of ecosystems within and between maps. Moreover, GIS en-
identification of sites with special attributes ables us to combine and transform useful but
exploration of patterns at various scales static maps into dynamic scenarios of our
detection of changes that are gradual or cyclic resources. In combination, GIS and remote
in nature sensing complement and enrich ground-
recognition and evaluation of unusual events based sampling programs, contributing to
improved capability to predict the ecological the cost-effective achievement of monitor-
outcome of future events ing goals.
299
300 Pitblado and Gallie
Box 23.1. Landsat 6 Disaster!! digital images taken from sensors mounted on
the Landsat series of satellites.
In the fall of 1993, remote sensing scientists Since the Landsat program began in 1972,
throughout the world were shocked to hear there have been five Landsat satellites (Box 23.1 ).
the news that the $200 million (US) Landsat 6 All five carried a recording instrument called the
had failed to reach orbit after launch and prob- multispectral scanner (MSS). An improved scan-
ably plunged to the ocean. Many had been ner, the thematic mapper (TM), was added to the
counting on this satellite, which included new last two satellites (Landsat 4 1982; Landsat 5
instrumentation, to supply applications data 1984). These instruments measure the earth's re-
until the year 2000. Fortunately, satellite data flected radiation in specific and relatively narrow
for resources monitoring continues to be re- bands of the electromagnetic spectrum (Table
ceived from Landsat 5 as well as French, joint 23.1). Also, TM is capable of sensing emitted or
European, Russian, Indian, and Japanese sat- thermal radiation from the earth.
ellite programs. As well, Canada's RADARSAT The Landsat sensors collect continuous
program is expected to be fully operational by readings over a 185-km-wide swath along the
1995 and promises to provide all-weather cover- orbital track of the satellites. The smallest area
age of exceptional value for geology, oceanog- on the ground for which measurements can
raphy, sea-ice monitoring, flood monitoring, be made is called a pixel, short for "picture
agriculture, and forestry. element." An MSS pixel covers an area that is
79 m by 79 m, slightly larger than 0.6 h. For
TM, the pixel size is 30 m by 30 m (0.1 ha).
Each image is made up of a set of four (MSS)
Remote Sensing or seven (TM) bands, with each band com-
posed of a grid of several million pixels.
Remote sensing is the measurement or acqui- In theory, every spot on earth is imaged at
sition of information by a recording device 16-18-day intervals, although this varies de-
that is not in physical contact with the object pending on the satellites in operation and
under study. This includes computer or digital cloud cover. The repetitive coverage is consid-
images taken from satellites,. photographs ered to be one of the great advantages of satel-
taken from airplanes, and color measurements lite resource monitoring.
taken with hand-held sensors. In the Sudbury The key to interpreting remotely sensed
region, several remote sensing studies have data is held in the concept that earth materials
been carried out, most of which have used reflect the sun's radiation differently, making
TABLE 23.1. Landsat Spectral Bandwidths for the Multispectral

and Thematic Mapper Scanners
Multispectral scanner Thematic mapper
(Landsat 1, 2, 3,4, 5) (Landsat 4, 5)
Band Band
no. Channel wavelengthsa no. Channel wavelengthsa
1 0.5-0.6 (green/yellow) 0.45-0.52 (blue)
2 0.6-0.7 (red) 2 0.52-0.60 (green/yellow)
3 0.7-0.8 (near-infrared) 3 0.63-0.69 (red)
4 0.8-1.1 (near-infrared) 4 0.76-0.90 (near infrared)
5 1. 5 5-1. 7 5 (mid -infrared)
6 10.4-12.5 (thermal IR)
7 2.08-2.35 (mid-infrared)
aWavelength bounds expressed in 1J.Il1.

23. Remote Sensing and GIS 301
each appear in unique but typical colors. Thus, VI values because these materials reflect al-
materials are said to have a characteristic spec- most equally at red and NIR wavelengths.
tral signature or spectral response pattern For the image analyzed, the lowest VI values
(Swain and Davis 1978; Richards 1986; Camp- were centered around the smelter sites where
bell 1987). In reality, different materials may the ground was barren or only a few stunted
sometimes look alike, or the same material trees survived, and progressively higher VI val-
may display a range of spectral responses. ues were found with distance from the smelters.
However, the spectral response measured by a Two such maps are shown in Figure 23.1 (1973)
satellite sensor usually can be interpreted in and Figure 23.2 (1986). The unvegetated run-
terms of the materials being viewed. For ex- ways of the Sudbury airport show as a dark gray
ample, deep clear water is most reflective in cross just south of Wanapitei Lake. Dark gray
the blue wavelengths, but as sediment is add- barren areas surround the Falconbridge smelting
ed to the water, the peak response shifts to the complex near the airport, the Coniston smelter
green. Vegetation, which humans see as green, (closed in 1972) east of Ramsey Lake, and the
in fact is most reflective in the near-infrared Copper Cliff smelting complex west of Ramsey
(NIR), and any decrease at this wavelength is Lake along the left edge of the image.
usually interpreted as a sign of plant stress. A simple visual comparison of these two
maps shows that the vegetation has increased
dramatically over the 1973-1986 period (Le.,
Remote Sensing Applications far less-dark, low biomass areas in 1986). Re-
Sudbury Vegetation Surveys search is currently in progress to quantify the
changes by revisiting the original field sites
The damaged area surrounding Sudbury is of (Winterhalder and Sinclair, personal commun-
suffident size that satellite imagery provides ication) and relating actual biomass to the
the only convenient and affordable means of MSS-derived VI (Courtin and Beckett, personal
monitoring it. One of the earliest studies was communication). These efforts will enable us to
undertaken using MSS imagery, with the goal provide quantitative estimates of change over
of mapping zones of anthropogenic influence the entire region and to monitor the spatial
in the Sudbury region (Pitblado and Amiro patterns of change. Without remote sensing,
1982). This project accompanied an 'extensive such analyses would be impossible at the scale
field program (Amiro and Courtin 1981) in required.
which many vegetation plots were described Vegetation change mapping has also been un-
to provide baseline data for future vegetation dertaken by Inco Limited to monitor the effects
monitoring. of emission reductions and reclamation efforts
For this study, a map of the vegetation index (Allum and Dreisinger 1986). The method used
(VI) was prepared from a late-summer MSS allows only qualitative estimates of vegetation
image using the second MSS NIR band (band change. In this example, change was recorded
4) and the red (band 2). for periods as short as 3 years. The company
conduded that Landsat imagery provides a cost-
VI= NIR-Red
effective and reliable means of monitoring vege-
NIR + Red
tation change over large areas.
Vegetation indices (of which VI is but one ver-
sion) have long been reported in the remote Lake Water Quality Surveys
sensing literature (Tucker 1979). These indices
are highly correlated with the density of veg- Lake water sampling is expensive, espedally of
etation canopy cover, biomass, leaf area, and many lakes scattered over a large area with
certain seasonal vegetation characteristics. limited accessibility. Remote sensing has the
Dense vigorous vegetation gives high VI val- capability to measure at least some surface
ues because of its strong NIR reflection. Water, water parameters and thus can be used to
bare soil or rock, clouds, and shadows give low extend and complement traditional sampling
FIGURE 23.1. Relative biomass

(vegetation index) image derived
from a Landsat 1 multispectral
scanner scene taken July 13,
1973. Wanapitei Lake is located
at the top center of the image.
Ramsey Lake is one-third up
from the bottom and one-quar-
ter in from the left edge of the
image. Lighter tones represent
higher biomass values.
programs. A few studies have focused on the tate out of the water column (Effler et al.
feasibility of remotely measuring acidity (Hardy 1985). Because DOC is the dominant coloring
and Jefferies 1981; Moniteq 1982). However, agent in northern lakes, acidic lakes are very
only one study has been undertaken in the Sud- clear or transparent. In tum, this affects the
bury region to map acidic and non-acidic lakes radiance viewed by satellite sensors, especially
(Pitblado 1992a,b). blue radiance viewed by TM band 1.
In this study, 227 lakes throughout northeast- For the 227 lakes, the DOC of 70% of the
ern Ontario (Fig. 23.3) were used to calibrate lakes was predicted within 1 mg/L, whereas
relationships between Landsat TM radiance 90% were within 2 mg/L (Fig. 23.4). 'This is
measurements and concentrations of dis- relevant to mapping pH because of the strong
solved organic carbon (DOC) collected from link between pH and DOC for anthropogenic-
field surveys. With the exception of bog or ally acidified lakes. The pH-DOC relationship
marsh waters, acidic lakes have very low DOC is similar, although weaker, when a wider se-
concentrations (Yan 1983), possibly due to lection of lakes is included. Thus, DOC can be
aluminum, which may cause DOC to precipi- used as a surrogate for mapping pH, especially
FIGURE 23.2. Relative biomass

(vegetation index) image de-
rived from a Landsat 5 multi-
spectral scanner scene taken
August 13, 1986. Vegetation re-
covery is suggested here by the
increase in areas of high bio-
mass values (lighter tones) com-
pared with the 1973 image.
Dark patches that look like lakes
in the lower right section but
that do not appear on the 1973
image are clouds and cloud
shadows.
in the greater Sudbury area. When this ap- (Pitblado 1992a,b). The images provided tanta-
proach was applied to the lakes north of Wana- lizing evidence of an increase, but the data were
pitei Lake, every one of the known acidic lakes not statistically significant. The actual change in
(pH <5.6) was identified, and it seems reason- DOC over the short time period, 1982-1985,
able to expect that the other lakes so identified was only 0.5 mg/L (Molot et al. 1990), and it
have also been mapped correctly. would appear that larger differences are re-
To meet the goals of monitoring, however, quired before MSS or TM can detect them.
one must be able to measure whether water
quality is changing with time. This is a more
challenging problem for remote sensing be- Geographic Information
cause differences in the atmosphere between
images may mask changes in a lake. Nine im-
Systems
ages of Bowland Lake (located 70 km north of Multifaceted and multifunctional, a GIS is a
Sudbury) from 1973 to 1986 were used to computerized database management system
look for small changes in DOC due to liming for the capture, storage, retrieval, analysis, and
~
\
\
\
Cochrane Quebec
\
.\ \
\
Marathon
0 100 lcm
,
'" - ". - .......
FIGURE 23.3. Location of 227 lakes used to calibrate Landsat thematic mapper radiance measurements and
concentrations of dissolved organic carbon. As well, Bowland Lake was used to assess thematic mapper
capability of detecting temporal changes in water quality (pre- and postneutralization with lime).
1.5 . . , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
'i
.!;!
0.5
"0
~
e:- O
g
0
.9 -0.5
-1 FIGURE 23.4. Highly correlated dissolved organic car-

bon measurements. Observed measurements (trans-
formed here to logarithms of the original mg/L values)
-1.5 were obtained using traditional field survey tech-
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0 .5 1 .5
niques, and the predicted measurements were com-
Log DOC (Observed) puted using Landsat thematic mapper data.
FIGURE 23.5. Schematic repre-

sentation of thematic layers
used in an overlay analysis
Lakes
using a geographic informa-
tion system.
Vegeto Ion
Watershed
Contours
Geology
display of spatial or mapped data (Burrough This map was created using GIS and illustrates
1986; Aronoff 1989). Evolving from computer overlay analysis and the capability to create
mapping programs written in the 1960s, GIS maps from point data stored in a database
programs transform paper maps into a digital (Neary et al. 1990; personal communication).
or computer form, calculate areas, lengths, and Between 1979 and 1988, water chemistry
perimeters, and facilitate the process of compar- was sampled from more than 2000 lakes in
ing two or more maps using overlay analyses. central Ontario by the Ministry of the En-
Thus, the integration of information from sev- vironment and the Ministry of Natural Re-
eral single-discipline maps can be performed sources. Data were stored in an extensive lakes
more quickly and reproducibly (Fig. 23.5). database and used to prepare two maps. The
The capabilities of GIS programs rapidly pro- first is a map of sulfate concentration
gressed beyond simple measurement and (Fig. 23.6) . The isolines (lines joining points of
overlay techniques, however. Users soon real- equal value) were found by applying the value
ized that entirely new map layers could be of sulfate concentration from each lake sample
developed from existing information. For in- station to a circular area (30-km radius) sur-
stance, the elevation contour data found on rounding the station. Where the circles from
topographic maps can be used to create maps two or more stations overlapped, the value
of slope and aspect. In turn, these and other was based on a weighted average, with the
GIS parameters can be used in ecological or weighting of adjacent points declining expo-
physical models that lead to a better under- nentially with distance.
standing of ecosystem function or the conse- The second map was prepared showing the
quences of land use planning decisions. ratio of sulfate concentration to sulfate plus
alkalinity. This ratio approaches zero when
sulfate concentrations are low or when car-
GIS Applications bonate-rich rocks maintain high alkalinity and
Sudbury Lake Acidification Zone approaches 1.0 when acidification has reduced
the alkalinity of lakes (Fig. 23 .7) .
In many of the previous chapters, a map of the The zone adversely affected by the Sudbury
Sudbury lake acidification zone has appeared. smelters was defined as the area where sulfate
306 Pitblado and Galiie
,
\
,
o
<100 \
Cochrane Quebec
If)
l00km
100
FIGURE 23.6. Lake surface water sulfate concentration. All contour values are in l1eq/L 50 4 (from Neary et
al. 1990).
concentration exceeded 200 p.g/L and the produced as required using many combina-
sulfate I (sulfate + alkalinity) ratio exceeded tions of variables in the database.
0.7. The intersection identifies zones af-
fected by local sulfur emissions as opposed to Daisy Lake Watershed Liming Study
long-range transport of sulfur. The Sudbury
Lake Acidification Zone stands out, calcu- Daisy Lake is a metal-contaminated acidified
lated to cover approximately 17,000 km 2 lake (pH 4.9) about 3 km from the former Con-
(Fig. 23.8). iston smelting complex. Two small subwater-
GIS was essential to this study. Traditionally, sheds have been intensively studied for several
detailed data have been stored in files or, more years in preparation for a watershed liming ex-
recently, in databases. To see how the infor- periment. GIS has helped with the visualization
mation varied locally or regionally, either and understanding of the data. For example, soil
many maps had to be prepared or the infor- pH, mapped from point samples, shows a dis-
mation had to be generalized. Because the tinct spatial pattern (see Plate 14 following page
process of plotting hundreds of points and 182). Low pH values in the northeast are 'easy to
then contouring them was costly, the spatial explain because this area is dosest to the former
variation of data was seldom studied. GIS al- smelter. The reason for the remaining pattern
lows isoline maps to be prepared rapidly and becomes dear when the pH map is draped over
provides new and advantageous techniques the topography. Low pH is found on exposed
for doing so. Also, specialized maps can be slopes facing the Coniston complex, slopes that
\
\
\
\

Cochrane \
Quebec
\
\
\
FIGURE 23.7. Zones where lakes have sulfate/ (sulfate+alkalinity) ratios greater than 0.7. The zone around
Sudbury is primarily due to local smelter effects. The other zones are probably due to long-range transport
of sulfur compounds (from Neary et al. 1990).
were fumigated by clouds of sulphur gases drifting

down the Daisy Lake valley. Highest pH is found Counts and Measures
in areas most protected from northeast winds (see
Plate 17 following page 182). For small-scale (large area) investigations, an
excellent example of remote sensing/GIS inte-
gration is the work recently completed by Helie
et al. (1993). Using 129 Landsat TM scenes for
Remote Sensing and most of eastern Canada (south of 52 north lati-
GIS Integration tude from the Manitoba-Ontario border to the
Atlantic provinces), 881,634 water bodies were
In the remote sensing examples discussed counted and measured in terms of size. GIS
earlier, analyses were undertaken without facilities enabled the researchers to assodate
the help of GIS. Similarly, in the GIS appli- these water bodies with major drainage basins
cations, all the information was derived and with digitized maps of ecodistricts interpre-
from ground surveys. As the two fields mated as areas having a low, moderate, or high
ture, the common spatial view of the world potential to reduce acidity (see Chapter 1). Sev-
that they share has lead to increasing fu- enty-three percent of these water bodies were
sion of the technologies. found to lie in areas having low potential.
,
\

Cochrane Quebec
\
\
o 100 11m
.....
'\.. - - --
FIGURE 23.8. Lake acidification zones. The small area near Elliot Lake is based on data from very few lakes
and may be altered with more lake data (from Neary et al. 1990).
Helie et al. (1993) correctly argued that centration and pH. This study is being ex-
"counts and measures data are an integral part panded to include GIS with two goals in mind:
of ongoing modelling efforts to describe and to develop our understanding of watershed-
predict the effects of anthropogenically in- water quality processes; and to improve the
duced acidification on surface water." The in- ability to interpret water color and hence
tegration of remote sensing and GIS tools water quality monitoring capabilities.
permitted them to address three critical char- There are two study sites: the Wanapitei
acteristics of the surface water bodies in area north of Sudbury, which has been af-
eastern Canada: extent, size, and the numbers fected by acid rain, and the Algoma area north
deemed to be at risk due to acidification. of Sault Ste. Marie, which is relatively pristine.
GIS databases have been developed for both
Wanapitei/ Algoma Dissolved sites that include information from many dif-
ferent sources . Field surveys have provided
Organic Carbon Study water quality information for about 150 lakes
At a much larger scale, similar integration of in each area. Existing map data have been
remote sensing/GIS tools is being performed digitized, giving coarse descriptions of geology,
in northeastern Ontario. The remote sensing surficial deposits, and soils. Topographic maps
lakes monitoring study described earlier in this have been used to develop digital terrain mod-
chapter found a correlation between water els of the landscapes, and from these, second-
color as measured by TM and lake DOC con- ary layers have been developed including
FIGURE 23.9. Selected thematic 8

maps from the geographic in-
formation system layers of the
Wanapitei area Dissolved Or-
ganic Carbon Study. (A) eleva-
tion contours; (B) geology;
(C) watersheds; (D) lakes and
streams.
slope, aspect, and watershed boundaries. view of the landscape. This is an important
Vegetation cover has been classified using move in the progress of these complementary
TM imagery, which also provides water color technologies for monitoring environmental
measurements for all lakes. Some of the GIS health.
layers that are being used in the Wanapitei
study area are illustrated as separate maps in
Figure 23.9 .
The next step is to address the interactions
Future Developments
between these landscape components. Most of and Applications
the colored DOC in a lake comes from the
surrounding watershed and wetlands. Anthro - The examples of remote sensing and GIS for
pogenic addity removes this DOC from the mapping and monitoring environmental
water, making the lakes clear. But some lakes health that have been outlined in this chapter
are naturally clear, and their transparency represent a minute fraction of the capabilities
does not mean that they are addic. The intent of these technologies. We have only dealt with
is to develop GIS models describing how DOC one sensor program, Landsat. But in this and
moves from a watershed into a lake. By com- many other space and airborne scanning pro-
bining such models with TM measures of co- grams, rapid progress is being made to en-
lor, it should be possible to monitor pH and hance our ability to characterize and
DOC even more accurately. discriminate earth features, particularly by in-
The Wanapiteil Algoma study represents a sig- creasing the spatial, spectral, temporaL and
nificant step of combining remote sensing and radiometric resolution of the scanners. At the
GIS through the development of an integrated same time, image processing and GIS software
is becoming more sophisticated with a trend Burrough, P.A. 1986. Principles of GIS for Land
toward more automated methods of environ- Resources Assessment. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
mental assessment. Campbell, J.B. 1987. Introduction to Remote Sens-
These trends are welcomed but must be ac- ing. Guilford Press, New York.
companied by true landscape integration (Dob- Dill, H.W., Jr. 1958. Information on land from air-
son 1993). Remote sensing brings a constantly photos, pp. 381-384. In A. Stefferud (ed.). Land,
updated view of the status of earth and envi- Yearbook of Agriculture. U.S. Department of Ag-
riculture, Washington, De.
ronmental processes. GIS has powerful spatial
Dobson, J.E. 1993. Commentary: a conceptual frame-
analysis tools with which to interpret the vast
work for integrating remote sensing, GIS, and ge-
store of geographic information in databases ography. Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens. 59:
and imagery. But the challenge of the future is 1491-1496.
to combine both technologies with quantita- Effler, S.W., G.e. Schafran, and e.T. Driscoll. 1985.
tive models describing the processes and inter- Partitioning light attenuation in an acidic lake.
connectivity of the many elements of the Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 42:1707-1711.
landscape. Then and only then will remote Hardy, N.B., and w.e. Jefferies. 1981. Chromaticity
sensing and GIS be fully appreciated by the analysis of color aerial photography and its appli-
scientific community and reach their true po- cation to detection of water quality changes in
tential in local and global natural resource acid-stressed lakes. Can. J. Remote Sens. 7:4-23.
management and monitoring. Harper, D. 1976. Eye in the Sky Introduction to
Remote Sensing. Multiscience Publications Ltd.,
Quebec.
Acknowledgments. The work discussed in this Helie, R.G., G.M. Wickware, and M. Sioh. 1993.
chapter draws on research activities that have Quantitative Assessment of Surface Water at Risk
been funded at various times by the Laurentian Due to Acidification in Eastern Canada. Environ-
University Research Fund, the Ontario Ministry ment Canada. Canada Communication Group,
of the Environment, the Ontario Ministry of Ottawa.
Northern Development and Mines (Environ- Molot, L.A., P.J. Dillon, and G.M. Booth. 1990.
mental Youth Corps), the Northern Ontario Her- Whole-lake and nearshore water chemistry in
itage Fund, and the Natural Science and Bowland Lake before and after treatment with
Engineering Research Council. We thank Leo CaC0 3 . Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 47:412-421.
Lariviere (Department of Geography, Laurent- Moniteq. 1982. Evaluation of Historical Landsat
ian University) and Michael Courtin (Remote Data on Water Reflectance for Acidic Precip-
itation Applications in the Sudbury Area. Mon-
Sensing/GIS Laboratory, Laurentian University
itoring Environmental Quality, Ltd., Concord,
Elliot Lake Field Station) for their assistance
Ontario.
with the illustrations and John Fortesque
Neary, B.P., P.J. Dillon, J.R. Munro, and B.J. Clark.
(Ontario Geological Surveys) for reviewing the 1990. The Acidification of Ontario Lakes An
manuscript. Assessment of Their Sensitivity and Current
Status with Respect to Biological Damage.
Technical Report. Ontario Ministry of the Envi-
References ronment, Dorset, Ontario.
Allum, J.A.E., and B.R. Dreisinger. 1986. Remote Pitblado, J.R. 1992a. The Mapping of Lake Surface
sensing of vegetation change near Inco's Sud- Water Characteristics of Northeastern Ontario
bury mining complexes. Int. J. Remote Sens. 8: Using Satellite Imagery. Research Advisory Com-
399-416. mittee Project 354G. Research and Technology
Amiro, B.D., and G.M. Courtin. 1981. Patterns of Branch, Ontario Ministry of the Environment,
vegetation in the vicinity of an industrially dis- Toronto.
turbed ecosystem, Sudbury, Ontario. Can. J. Bot. Pitblado, J.R. 1992b. Landsat views of Sudbury
59: 1623-1639. (Canada) area acidic and non-acidic lakes. Can.
Aronoff, S. 1989. Geographic Information Systems: J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 49 (Suppl. 1):33-39.
A Management Perspective. WDL Publications, Pitblado, J.R., and B.D. Amiro. 1982. Landsat map-
Ottawa. ping of the industrially disturbed vegetation
communities of Sudbury, Canada. Can. J. Re- Tucker, c.J. 1979. Red and photographic infra-red
mote Sens. 8:17-28. linear combinations for mOnitoring vegetation.
Richards, J.A. 1986. Remote Sensing Digital Image Remote Sens. Environ. 8:127-150.
Analysis. Springer-Verlag, New York. Yan, N.D. 1983. Effects of changes in pH on transpar-
Rudd, R.D. 1974. Remote Sensing A Better View. ency and thermal regimes of Lohi Lake, near Sud-
Duxbury Press, North Scituate, MA. bury, Ontario. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 40: 621-626.
Star, J.L. (ed.). 1991. The Integration of Remote Yan, N.D., and W. Keller. 1991. The value of spatial
Sensing and Geographic Information Systems. and temporal reference sites: responses of crusta-
American Society for Photogrammetry and Re- cean zooplankton to changes in habitat acidity,
mote Sensing, Bethesda, MD. pp. 82-86. In N.D. Yan (ed.). Natural Resources:
Swain, P.H., and S.M. Davis (eds.). 1978. Remote Riches or Remnants. Proceedings of the Cana-
Sensing: The Quantitative Approach. McGraw- dian Society of Environmental Biologists. CSEB
Hill, New York. North York, Ontario.
24
Catchment Management in the
Industrial Landscape
Peter J. Dillon and Hayia E. Evans
A catchment can be defined as the area that

encompasses a particular aquatic environment
Integrated Approach to
(e.g., a lake or a stream) including the land Catchment Management
that drains into it. In Sudbury, a catchment
can vary from a few hectares of area drained Managing catchments as ecosystems requires
by a small temporary stream to the thousands that the effort be integrated at various levels or
of square kilometres drained by major rivers in through various processes. First, the efforts of
the area. government, industry, academia, and non-
Catchments can be considered as individual government organizations must be integrated
ecosystems with their own sets of biological, effectively. This includes establishing agreed-
physical, and chemical inter-relationships; how- on goals for the management of the ecosystem
ever, it must be recognized that catchments and requires the integration of responsibilities
are linked to each other through processes and expertise from a wide cross section of
including material transport that occur in the organizations and, in many cases, from within
atmosphere and by hydrologic transport from an organization (Fig. 24.1). For example, within
one catchment to another. Catchments are government, integration must occur at all ju-
therefore very important ecological units, but risdiction levels. That is, it is essential that the
the concept of the catchment is also a very municipal, the provincial (or state), and the
tangible and appealing one from the human federal government be aware of what every
perspective. For example, municipal planners other level is doing and not be working at
have made increasing use of the catchment (or cross purpo~es or duplicating efforts.
watershed) as the appropriate level for envi- In the Sudbury region, an excellent exam-
ronmental planning (RCFTW 1992). The sense ple of a successful multidisciplinary group is
that the drainage water leaving a catchment the Vegetation Enhancement Technical Advi-
integrates the inputs to the area, as well as the sory Committee. This committee, establisned
human activities within the area, creates a real in 1974, consists of members from the local
sense of "place" for many people and thus a mining industries, various government agen-
recognition of the need for responsible man- cies, elected politicians, the academic com-
agement planning. Some suggestions and munity, public interest groups, and individual
challenges for providing effective manage- citizens. It has successfully developed, initi-
ment of catchment are the focus of this ated, and carried out many projects aimed at
chapter. improving highly visible barren land in and
313
314 Dillon and Evans
FIGURE 24.1. Levels of inte-

gration required for catch-
ment management.
around the environs of Sudbury (see Chap- water or run -off) as a consequence of changes
ter 8). in other environmental factors. The questions
In a similar manner, scientists and managers then become how, when, and in what form.
must integrate the disciplines needed to exam- It is also important when integrating the
ine the various components of the ecosystem measurements on the physical and biological
(Fig. 24.1). Chemists, biologists, ecologists, hy- components of the catchment not to overlook
drologists, atmospheric scientists, and others areas of the ecosystem. In the Sudbury region,
must work together. This means, too, that for example, very little work has been done on
methodologies must be consistent among the streams. Wetlands and the littoral zone of lakes
various scientists and disciplines. Most import- are other areas that are sometimes under-rep-
ant, the main subcomponents of the catch- resented in sampling and management strate-
ment ecosystem, the aquatic, terrestrial, and gies, but they are important because they link
atmospheric components, must all be consid- the aquatic and terrestrial environments. This
ered. Furthermore, it is necessary to study not lack of attention implies that these areas are
only the terrestrial, the atmospheric, and the less important as sources or sinks of pollutants
aquatic portions individually but also any or as refuges or dispersal routes for organisms.
interactions among them. For example, al- However, quite the contrary is true '(Dillon
though sulfate is deposited from the atmo- and LaZerte 1992; Devito and Dillon 1993).
sphere onto both the terrestrial and the Surveillance and monitoring (Le., assess-
aquatic portions of catchments, sulfate falling ment of the status of the ecosystem) and the
on forests or soils or wetland areas may be research efforts of scientists also must be inte-
stored there for an extended period and ulti- grated, not only with respect to each other but
mately enter a lake or stream (Le., as ground- also with respect to socioeconomic considera-
24. Catchment Management 315
tions. The establishment of surveillance and sound management policies a priori and/or, in
monitoring programs is critical to establish situations in which the stress has already oc-
"baseline" conditions and to determine natu- curred (such as in Sudbury), sound rehabilita-
ral variation in the ecosystem. Only then can tion or remediation practices. The return of
anthropogenic disturbances be readily detec- highly damaged areas to conditions that even
ted. Although one does not always need these closely resemble "historical" conditions (Le.,
scientific data to demonstrate that an environ- restoration) is often not possible (Moore and
ment is degraded (Le., it may be intuitive, as is Luoma 1990). Thus, it is important for society
the case in the Sudbury region), survey and to be able to assess the benefits (e.g., eco-
monitoring data are necessary to identify less nomic, health, environmental) to be achieved
severely damaged areas at a stage at which through reducing the magnitude of the stress-
abatement programs may be more effective. or before deciding how much stress they are
For example, it was only by routine monitor- willing to let an ecosystem tolerate.
ing of precipitation in the Muskoka/Halibur-
ton area of Ontario (250 km south of Sudbury)
in the mid-1970s, that the effects of long- Environmental
range transport of sulfur dioxide on remote
ecosystems became apparent (Dillon et al. Protection Model for
1978). Managing Catchments
The data from monitoring studies also provide
the foundation on which scientific research, in- Recently, Somers et al. (1994) developed a con-
cluding the important core component-predic- ceptual model of the environmental protection
tive models, are built. These research activities process (Fig. 24.2) that shows the inter-relation-
allow scientists to predict the effects on the eco- ship between monitoring/surveillance activities
system of a reduction or an increase in the level (collectively termed assessment in their model),
of the stressor. The accuracy of these predictions scientific research, policy development, and re-
can be tested only if monitoring studies are con- porting. This model is directly applicable to man-
tinued, even after the stress is entirely elimi- agement of industrial areas such as the Sudbury
nated. Thus, the integration of monitoring and region and emphasizes the need for integration
surveillance programs with scientific research is at many different levels. Step 1 involves report-
not only logical but essential. Unfortunately, ing on the state of the ecosystem. This requires
monitoring is an activity that governments and sound and extensive data that have been col-
academia are reluctant to undertake because of lected through monitoring activities (temporal
the amount of time and money involved. Fur- patterns) and surveys (spatial patterns). The re-
thermore, for many scientists, simply "describ- sponse of the public, non-government agencies,
ing the extent of the damage" (or lack thereof) is governments, industry, etc., (step 2) can then be
considered to be boring (Haukioja 1993). In used to set or revise the ecosystem goals or
other words, there is little interest in characteriz- objectives (step 3) (Le., what society views as
ing pristine ecosystems or in monitoring what acceptable conditions). These are then used to
is often a very gradual response to long-term judge if the current state of the ecosystem is
changes in stressor levels. Thus, monitoring and acceptable or unacceptable (step 4). If the eco-
surveillance programs often may not be initiated system is acceptable, then the "assessment" or
early enough to establish the initial conditions of monitoring/surveillance loop is followed. Ongo-
the ecosystem(s). ing characterization of the ecosystem through
The integration of scientific endeavors (mon- monitoring programs allows for the establish-
itoring, surveillance, and research) with socio- ment of baseline conditions (step 5). However,
economic considerations is perhaps the most because it is impossible to monitor all compo-
important area of integration in terms of over- nents of the ecosystem, chemical, physical, and/
all catchment management. This marriage of or biological indicators of ecosystem health are
science and society is essential to produce selected (step 6). This usually requires some sort
8. Monitor
Ecosystems ---l... 1. Report on ..L
State of the -
13. MonItor
Cc>mpllance and
/
Environment
Effectiveness
7. Set
Ecosystem
!
2. Assemble & Sunmarize
12. Implement
Preferred
Options
t
Objectives Societal Responses
Prevention
r Assessment or 11. Assess

Remedial or
3. Set or Revise Remediation Regulatory
S.O.E. Options
Goals
6. Select
Indicators
10. Model
!
Stressor
ActIon
FIGURE 24.2. Essential activities inherent in the environmental protection process (from Somers et al.
1994).
of sdentific research. Then, by using these indi- effectiveness of the prevention/rehabilitation

cators together with an idea of what the normal strategy. The prevention loop is identical to
ecosystem should look like, sdentifically based the rehabilitation loop except for the fact that
objectives that satisfy the goals established in prevention is initiated before the ecosystem
step 3 can be developed (step 7). However, as damage.
mentioned earlier, continued monitoring and In summary, the integration of monitoring
surveillance is required (step 8) to ensure that and research data with sodoeconomic factors
the ecosystem goals and objectives are met. means that although sdentists can collect data,
However, if in step 4 the state of the envi- test hypotheses, and make recommendations, it
ronment is deemed to be unacceptable, then is the responsibility of many people, often, most
the prevention/remediation loop is followed. important, the public, to determine the direction
First, the stressor must be identified (step 9), that management polides will take. An excel-
usually through sdentific research efforts. lent example is provided by the dty of Sudbury,
Once the stressor is identified, its origin, fate, which recently used an "ecosystem approach" to
and mode of action must be evaluated and mod- lake management to develop an award-winning
eled (step 10) so that the effect of the stressor on community improvement plan for Ramsey Lake
the ecosystem indicators can be predicted. This (see Chapter 25).
allows for the assessment of remedial or regula-
tory actions (step 11), followed by implementa-
tion of the preferred options (step 12), which
usually includes a reduction in the levels of the
Specific Management Issues
stressors, although in the worst scenario, it may in the Sudbury Region
include only ecosystem manipulation designed
to counter the effects of the stressor without As shown in previous chapters in this book,
redudng the magnitude of the stressor. Then, as management of the Sudbury region as a
in the assessment loop, monitoring programs whole generally provides a test of the inte-
must be pursued to assess the compliance and grated approach to catchment management
FIGURE 24.3. Contamination

pathways resulting from large- Types of contaminat ion resulting from large - scale metal extraction
scale metal extraction (from
Moore and Luoma 1990).
PRIMARY SECONDARY TERTIARY

10. Waste 20. Groundwaterot 2d. Aoodploin 30. River sediment
rock open pits sediment/soil rewor ~ed from
2e. R...... voir
Ib.c.T!:!lI
SIaQ
lnQI 2b. Ground water
bln'9th ponds sediment
floodplain
3b.Grol.ndwater
2c. sediment In 21. !iiOlis from from contaminated
r iver channels Olr pollution reservoir sediment
(see Fig. 24.1). First, the ability to manage and tion often has no political, geographical, social,
the responsibility for management of the area or temporal boundaries.
has rested with and continues to rest with many
organizations including government, industry, Secondary and Tertiary Pollution
academia, and non-government organizations,
but an informed public is increasingly becoming First, as illustrated in Figure 24.3, there is the
the force that ensures that these agencies honor problem of secondary and tertiary pollution.
these responsibilities. Second, a very significant This means that one cannot only look at one
body of scientific data, representing most com- ecosystem (catchment) in isolation but also
partments of the ecosystem, has been collected must study those downstream and downwind
by hundreds of scientists over the past 30 years, of that catchment. Most lakes in regions that
beginning with the first published studies by have been glaciated have an outflow. Conse-
Gorham and Gordon (1960). Finally, these data quently, the presence, for example, of elevated
have provided the foundation for sound man- metals in a lake means that potentially all the
agement practices and for the development of lakes downstream of it may become contami-
restoration techniques relevant to the regional nated with metals (Dillon et al. 1982). This is
problems. illustrated by the fact that large areas of metal-
contaminated sediments have been docu-
mented at the mouths of rivers that drain the
Difficulties in Applying the Sudbury area (Fitchko 1978; Spanish Harbour
Integrated Approach Rap Team 1993), as is the case in other metal
Despite this potential for an integrated approach smelting areas of the world (Baumann 1984;
to catchment management, serious challenges Moore and Luoma 1990). Similarly, although
have and still are faced by those attempting to the completion of the 341- m Superstack in
set policies for the Sudbury region. The reasons 1972 alleviated the unacceptable air quality
for the difficulties stem from the fact that pollu- conditions in Sudbury, it increased the area
FIGURE 24.4. La Cloche Mountain lakes located approximately 40-60 km south of Sudbury were the first
lakes in Canada where the damaging effects of acidification were identified (Ontario Ministry of Natural
Resources photograph).
affected by high sulfate and metal (copper and stocking, and watershed liming and fertiliza-
nickeL primarily) deposition. It has been esti- tion, which are only short-term solutions to
mated that as much as 97% of the sulfur emit- the long-term problem (Havas et al. 1984), are
ted from the Superstack is carried farther than not a substitute for reducing the levels of the
60 km from Copper Cliff and, thus, contributes stressors. These must be weighed against the
to more widespread problems of acid deposi- efforts invested in establishing the acceptable
tion (Hutchinson 1982). Thus, what was per- sulfur and metal emission and deposition rates.
ceived to be an acceptable solution to the local From a scientific perspective, time presents
problem may have far-ranging consequences a problem with respect to determining long-
(Fig. 24.4). term or sublethal effects of the stress on the
ecosystem. Although the extirpation of fish
Time Scale species such as the aurora trout (see Chap-
ter 11), the loss of entire fish populations
Another consideration in managing areas such (Beamish and Harvey 1972; Beamish 1974),
as Sudbury is one of time scale. From a man- and the denudation of the landscape (see Chap-
agement perspective, this is an issue because ter 2) are obvious and direct lethal effects of
both short-term and long-term remediation high acid and metal deposition, long-term or
efforts must be considered and the relative chronic effects on biota are not so readily dis-
effort to be placed on each must be assessed. cernible. For example, the copper concentra-
Thus, efforts spent on rehabilitation tech- tions in many of the Sudbury area lakes
niques such as lake liming (see Chapter 15) typically exceed 2 j.lg/L (Keller et al. 1992)
(Dillon et al. 1979; Molot et al. 1986, 1990) or (i.e., are greater than the provincial water
fertilization (Yan and LaFrance 1984), fish quality objective). Although the copper levels
in the worst cases are high enough to be been well documented that pH can have a
acutely toxic to some biota, in many cases synergistic (Le., enhancing) effect on metal
the effects may be chronic and therefore less toxicity (e.g., Campbell and Stokes 1985; Cusi-
readily observable. mano et al. 1986; Hutchinson and Sprague
Time presents a complication when manag- 1986; Rickie et al. 1993). For example, Welsh
ing systems for another reason. It is known et al. (1993) found that the toxicity (expressed
that the capacity for the terrestrial and wet- as the 96-hour LC 5o ) of copper to fathead min-
lands portion of catchments to "store" strong nows (Pimephales promelas) increased fourfold
acid (in the form of reduced sulfur com- as pH decreased from 7.2 to 5.6.
pounds) and trace metals is high (Urban et al. Acidic precipitation also can cause leaching
1989; Dillon and LaZerte 1992). However, ev- and mobilization of other metal ions such as
idence has shown (Bayley et al. 1987; RMCC calcium, magnesium, aluminum, manganese,
1990) that terrestrial areas may release these iron, and zinc from soils and bedrock (Mayer
compounds for periods of years to decades. For and Ulrich 1980; Jeffries et al. 1984). As a
example, in Plastic Lake, Ontario, the pH and result, biota that are in ecosystems remote
acid neutralizing capacity (ANC) of the water from industries that emit metals into the at-
decreased gradually from 1979 to 1985, de- mosphere may have to contend with the com-
spite the fact that atmospheric deposition of bination of high levels of both acid and metals.
sulfate and strong acid decreased sharply dur- A discussion of the complexities of metal-H+
ing that same period (Dillon et al. 1987). The or metal-metal interactions is beyond the
reason for this is that the wetlands in the scope of this chapter. However, depending on
catchment continued to supply sulfate to the the organism in question as well as the miti-
water despite the reductions in the sulfate de- gating circumstances in the lake/soil, the tox-
position. A similar situation has been docu- icity of chemical "mixtures" can be either (1)
mented in the Sudbury area (Keller et al. synergistic (Le., the presence of one enhances
1992). Thus, detrimental effects on biota may the toxicity of the other), (2) additive (Le., the
be observed and measured long after the stress presence of one adds to but does not have an
(Le., sulfate deposition) has been reduced or effect on the toxicity of the other), or (3) an-
even eliminated. This presents a challenge to tagonistic (Le., the presence of one decreases
scientists who must try to predict the effect of the toxicity of the other, e.g., selenium/mer-
the stress (see step 10 in Fig. 24.2) without cury, calcium/aluminum). When making pol-
knowing its future level in the ecosystem. icy decisions for a catchment, one must be
aware of these potential interactions and, as
Interadions between Stresses discussed previously, conduct "integrated" sci-
entific research.
The interaction between stresses is another
problem that became apparent during the in- External Fadors
tegrated studies carried out in Sudbury. One
example is forest denudation (resulting from Although scientists can study, model, and pre-
both logging activities and acid metal depo- dict to a certain extent the effects of these
sition), which led to increased soil erosion, multiple stresses on the ecosystem, factors ex-
higher surface reflective temperatures, and en- ternal to the principal stressors often can im-
hanced frost action (see Chapter 18). A second pinge on the situation and complicate the
example is the interaction between sulfate issue. A few examples follow.
(and H+ ion) deposition and trace metals. Be-
cause of smelting activities, copper and nickel ClimatelWeather Change
concentrations in soil, water, and biota are
elevated ill the immediate vicinity of Sudbury. As discussed above, wetlands, soils, and even
Thus, biota there must contend not only with the littoral zone of lakes are able to store
high metal levels but also with low pH. It has strong acid in the form of reduced sulfur com-
pounds. Catchment mass balances have shown curred in Ontario since the mid-1970s, NO x
that the storage of sulfate andlor the oxidation emissions and N0 3 deposition have not de-
of stored reduced sulfur usually occurs during creased (Dillon et al. 1988). In the past, this
dry seasons (Dillon and LaZerte 1992) or in dry has not been thought to be a problem because
years when the water table becomes lowered. At terrestrial ecosystems are often limited by ni-
the beginning of the next wet season, or in a wet trogen, and thus, they have been a sink for
year, the stored suHate is then released back into nitrogen inputs (Driscoll and van Dreason
the outflowing waters. Given that you cannot 1993). However, declining vegetational de-
predict the weather, it is difficult to imagine mands coupled with increased deposition of
managing a catchment if you are unable to pre- nitrogen from the atmosphere may result in
dict when these pulses of add might occur. saturation of the terrestrial ecosystem.
However, long-term monitoring studies might Consequently, in Europe and in parts of the
provide insight into climatic trends and thus northeastern United States, there has been ev-
allow for modeling efforts. idence of surface water addification resulting
from elevated N0 3 (Henriksen and Brakke
Decrease in Atmospheric Ozone 1988; Driscoll and van Dreason 1993). This
means that even if large-scale reductions in
The recent attention given by the sdentific and sulfur dioxide emissions were implemented,
non-sdentific communities to the decrease in recovery of lakes from addic deposition may
the ozone layer also has consequences with re- be delayed due to offsetting increases in N0 3
spect to biota in the Sudbury region. It is well concentration.
documented that ultraviolet (UV) radiation can
have detrimental effects on biota and that UV Other Stresses
levels that lakes and other ecosystems are expe-
riendng are increasing as a result of a decrease in Kelly Lake in Sudbury, like several other lakes
ozone levels in the upper atmosphere. It is the in the region that have calcareous deposits in
dissolved organic matter (usually measured as their catchments, at present is not adversely
dissolved organic carbon [DOC]) in lakes that affected by addification, even though it lies at
absorbs strongly in the UV range. Unfortunately, the center of the high sulfate deposition zone.
addification results in the reduction of DOC lev- However, it is the redpient of sewage from the
els in streams and lake water (Dillon et al. 1987), dty of Sudbury and, thus, suffers from all the
and the soft water, low alkalinity, addic lakes problems typical of munidpallakes-it is eu-
typical of the Sudbury region generally have low trophic, bacterial counts often exceed guide-
DOC concentrations. Thus, they are particularly lines established for human health protection,
vulnerable to a decrease in the ozone layer. and macrophytes proliferate along its shore-
line. It is important for those who are involved
Nitrate Release from Catchments in management dedsions for communities,
such as Sudbury, that are affected by mining
After sulfate, deposition of nitrogen compounds activities, not to overlook lakes such as Kelly
is the next most important class of anthropo- in their eagerness to remediate only those
genic adds entering aquatic systems in Canada lakes that have problems due to smelting ac-
(RMCC 1990). However, emission of NO x and tivities. However, there may be indirect links
deposition of related compounds should not between add rain and eutrophication. Caraco
be directly influenced significantly by miningl et al. (1993) suggested that anthropogenically
smelting activities but perhaps indirectly be- induced increases in sulfate concentrations in
cause most mining industries make massive lakes can cause an increase in the magnitude
uses of energy, which is often derived from the of phosphorus released from the sediments, as
combustion of fossil fuels. Thus, although well as an increase in the availability of that
emissions of sulfur dioxide and declines in the phosphorus to biota. Thus, two seemingly in-
atmospheric deposition of S04 may have oc- dependent stressors may, in fact, behave in an
inter-active way, again demonstrating it is ap- Other factors, external to the principal
parent that the need for integrated research stressors (high sulfate and metal deposition)
and management policies is essential to overall can affect the Sudbury region and complicate
catchment management. matters even further. These include climate or
weather changes, decreasing ozone levels in
the atmosphere, nitrate release from the ter-
Summary restrial portion of the catchment, and phos-
phorus inputs from sewage.
The management of catchments that have been In conclusion, we emphasize that only when
damaged by anthropogenic activities or that sdentific research activities are integrated with
may be potentially stressed in the future is a responsive and responsible management pol-
complex problem requiring (1) an informed ides can overall catchment management be
public, (2) the cooperation of many individuals, successful.
government agencies, and non-government or-
ganizations, (3) the coordination of all scientific
endeavors, and (4) the consideration of both References
scientific and socioeconomic factors. Conse- Baumann, A. 1984. Extreme heavy metal concen-
quently, in this chapter, we have described and trations in sediments of the Oker-a river drain-
emphasized the need for an integrated whole- ing an old mining and smelting area in the Harz
ecosystem approach to catchment management Mountains, Germany, pp. 579-591. In J. Nriagu
(see Fig. 24.1). (ed.). Environmental Impact of Smelters. Ad-
vances in Environmental Science Series. John
Although the management in the Sudbury
Wiley and Sons, New York.
area generally has set an example of how the Bayley, S.E., D.H. Vitt, R.W. Newbury, K.G. Beaty,
integrated approach to catchment manage- R. Behr, and C. Miller. 1987. Experimental acidi-
ment should work, serious challenges have fication of a Sphagnum-dominated peatland: first
been faced by those attempting to set policies year results. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 44: 194-204.
for the region. The reasons for these difficulties Beamish, R.J. 1974. Loss of fish populations from
arise from the fact that pollution transcends unexploited remote lakes in Ontario, Canada as a
political, geographic, social, and temp@ral boun- consequence of atmospheric fallout of acid. Wa-
daries. Secondary and tertiary pollution (see ter Res. 8:85-95.
Fig. 24.3) and multiple stresses such as inter- Beamish, R.J., and H.H. Harvey. 1972. Acidification
of the La Cloche Mountain lakes, Ontario and
actions between sulfate and trace metals and
resulting fish mortalities. J. Fish. Res. Board Can.
forest denudation leading to increased soil 29: 1131-1143.
erosion, higher surface reflective tempera- Campbell, P.C.G., and P.M. Stokes. 1985. Acidifica-
tures' and enhanced frost action have compli- tion and toxicity of metals to aquatic biota. Can.
cated scientific findings. Sulfur storage in the J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 42:2034-2049.
terrestrial and wetland portions of catchments Caraco, N.E, J.J. Cole, and G.E. Likens. 1993. Sul-
and its potential release long after sulfate de- fate control of phosphorus availability in lakes: a
position has been reduced also presents a test and re-evaluation of Hasler and Einsele's
challenge to scientists who must try to predict model. Hydrobiology 253:275-280.
the effect of the sulfate without knowing its Cusimano, R.E, D.E Brakke, and G.A. Chapman.
future concentration in the ecosystem. Also, 1986. Effects of pH on the toxicities of cadmium,
copper and zinc to steelhead trout (Salmo gairdneri).
the element of time confuses the issue, not
Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 43:1497-1503.
only for the scientist, who must determine Devito, K.J., and P.J. Dillon. 1993. The influence of
both long-term (chronic) and short-term (acute) hydrologic conditions and peat oxidation on the
effects of the stress on the ecosystem but also phosphorus and nitrogen dynamics of a conifer
for the manager, who must weigh the advan- swamp. Water Resource Res. 29:2675-2685.
tages/disadvantages of short-term versus long- Dillon, P.J., D.S. Jeffries, and W.A. Scheider. 1982.
term remedial actions. The use of calibrated lakes and watersheds for
estimating atmospheric deposition near a large soft, acidic water. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 50:
point source. Water Air Soil Pollut. 18:241-258. 1348-1355.
Dillon, P.J., D.S. Jeffries, W. Snyder, R. Reid, Hutchinson, N.J., and J.B. Sprague. 1986. Toxicity
N.D. Yan, D. Evans, J. Moss, and W.A. Schei- of trace metal mixtures to American flagfish (Jor-
der. 1978. Acidic precipitation in south-central danella floridae) in soft, acidic water and impli-
Ontario: recent observations. J. Fish. Res. Board cations for cultural acidification. Can. J. Fish.
Can. 35: 809-815. Aquat. Sci. 43:647-655.
Dillon, P.J., and B.D. LaZerte. 1992. Response of Hutchinson, T.C. 1982. The ecological consequences
Plastic Lake catchment, Ontario, to reduced sul- of acid discharges from industrial smelters, pp. 105-
phur deposition. Environ. Pollut. 77:211-217. 122. In EM. D'Itri (ed.). Acid Precipitation: Effects
Dillon, P.J., M. Lusis, R.A. Reid, and D. Yap. 1988. on Ecological Systems. Ann Arbor Science.
Ten-year trends in sulphate, nitrate and hydro- Jeffries, D.S., w,A. Scheider, and W.R. Snyder. 1984.
gen deposition in central Ontario. Atmos. Envi- Geochemical interactions of watersheds with pre-
ron. 22:901-905. cipitation in areas affected by smelter emissions
Dillon, P.J., R.A. Reid, and E. de Grosbois. 1987. near Sudbury, Ontario, pp. 195-241. In J. Nriagu
The rate of acidification of aquatic ecosystems in (ed.). Environmental Impacts of Smelters. Ad-
Ontario, Canada. Nature 329:45-48. vances in Environmental Science Series. John Wi-
Dillon, P.J., N.D. Yan, W.A. Scheider, and N. Con- ley and Sons, New York.
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acterization, extent and responses to base and Chemical responses of acidic lakes in the Sud-
nutrient additions. Arch. Hydrobio!. Beih. 13: bury, Ontario area to reduced smelter emissions,
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Driscoll, C.T., and R. van Dreason. 1993. Seasonal Mayer, R., and B. Ulrich. 1980. Input to soil, espe-
and long-term temporal patterns in the chemis- cially the influence of vegetation in intercepting
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67:319-344. T.C. Hutchinson and M. Havas (eds.). Effects of
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University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario. Lake, before and after treatment with CaC0 3 Can.
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In M.V. Kozlov, E. Haukioja,and V. Yarmishko ron. Sci. Techno!. 24:1278-1285.
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Techno!. 18:176-186. Waterfront (RCFTW). 1992. Regeneration: Tor-
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25
Planning for the Environmentally
Friendly City
Tin-Chee Wu and William E. Lautenbach
The growth of dties is a trend that has major and recreation; education fadlities and ser-
impacts on both the global and local environ- vices; and recreational facilities and services.
ment. In the 35 years since 1950, the number of Urban planning is the integrating process
people living in dties almost tripled, increasing by which these services and phYSical devel-
by 1.25 billion. In the more developed regions, opment are coordinated in cities. Some con-
the urban population nearly doubled, from 447 ceptual frameworks for ecosystem planning
million to 838 million. In the less-developed of environmentally friendly cities are high-
regions, it quadrupled, growing from 286 mil- lighted in this chapter. Many challenges and
lion to 1.14 billion (World Commission on Envi- problems are unique to a mining city
ronment and Development 1987). (Fig. 25.1) in a north temperate climate, but
Girardet (1992) described these growing dt- instead of focusing only on planning needs
ies as parasites-they are energy drajns whose for a city such as Sudbury, we discuss mu-
survival depends on cheap food and energy nicipal planning principles that have wide
produced elsewhere. Cities are also thirsty en- application.
tities and produce large quantities of wastes.
To qualify as environmentally friendly, cities
must be able to break away from these trends, Ecosystem Planning
yet also must be able to sustain themselves.
To be sustainable, all human settlements must Ecosystem planning considers the natural envi-
first meet the physical needs of its residents- ronment more than just a medium on which
needs that include air, water, food, shelter, en- urban development takes place. It sees humans
ergy, and raw and finished materials. Human living in the biosphere as a home rather than
settlements must also provide a healthy physical the planet being the house of humans. The
environment to support a healthy population. word home evokes a much richer concept than
To meet these physical needs, a modern dty does the word house-it involves a group of
provides clean water and waste disposal services; people who live together and jointly take care
physical space and opportunities for employ- of and relate to their home; and it can be used
ment and shelter; transportation and commu- to refer to a house, a home town, a country, or
nications facilities and services; local energy the planet all at the same time (Allen et al.
distribution systems; community space for sodal 1993 ).
interaction; healthy physical environments that To achieve the harmony of humans at home,
include public and private open space for leisure ecosystem planning has to begin with careful
325
326 Wu and Lautenbach
Figure 25.1. Aerial view of

downtown Sudbury with a
portion of Ramsey Lake in the
lower right corner.
consideration of the constraints as well as the 5. incorporates the concepts of carrying capac-
opportunities offered by the biosphere. The built ity, resilience, and sustainability-.suggest-
environment is then designed to fit into the ing that there are limits to human activity
home. Some useful operating principles for eco- 6. uses a broad definition of environments-
system planning are provided in the preface to natural, physical, economic, social, and
the Royal Commission Report for the Future of cultural
the Toronto Waterfront (RCFTW 1992): 7. encompasses both urban and rural activities
8. is based on natural geographic units
1. includes the whole system, not just parts of it such as watersheds rather than on polit-
2. focuses on the inter-relationships among ical boundaries
elements 9. embraces all levels of activity-local, re-
3. understands that humans are part of na- gional, national, and international
ture, not separate from it 10. emphasizes the importance of species
4. recognizes the dynamic nature of the eco- other than humans and of generations
system other than the present
II. is based on an ethic in which progress is The philosophy behind 100-year plans is the
measured by the quality, well-being, in- creation of an overall vision for the long-tenn
tegrity, and dignity it accords natural, future, yet allowing detail planning and im-
social, and economic systems plementation to evolve in the future by adapta-
tion to changes in circumstances over decades.
Long-Term Planning Techniques for Physically

Planning an Environmentally
Tonn (1986) proposed the concept and coined Friendly City
the tenn 500-year planning to describe the goals,
Many planning techniques are available to plan
practice, and methodology of carrying out the for the environmentally friendly city. None of
design, development, and implementation of these techniques are new, although some have
plans, programs, and laws to eliminate or sub- been used more often than others in the past.
stantially mitigate very long-term environ- When used in combination, however, these
mental problems-problems such as climate techniques represent excellent starting points in
change, species extinction, soil erosion, sal- achieving the desired goal.
ination and conversion of agricultural land,
deforestation, groundwater contamination, nu- Design with Nature
clear waste, and chlorofluorocarbon pollution.
These problems often take centuries either to The design with nature principles and meth-
develop or to show their full effects and take ods pioneered by McHarg (1971) still remains
centuries to solve. The goals of SOO-year plan- a powerful tool in physical design. It is both a
ning are therefore designed to safeguard the philosophy and a technique. As a philosophy,
physical/natural system for future generations it begins with an examination of values-both
and to protect present and future populations natural values and historical, cultural, and so-
from health and safety risks caused by misuse cial values are considered. As a technique, it is
of the environment as well as from environ- a planning process that begins with an inven-
mental catastrophes that would restrict the fu- tory of the individual components of the bio-
ture of the human species. As such; SOO-year physical subsystem-factors such as bedrock
planning does not center on setting long-term geology, surficial geology, hydrology, physio-
goals for humankind nor to predict the future graphic features, soil drainage, vegetation, and
states of human society but to maximize the wildlife habitats. Physical constraints to devel-
ways in which human socioeconomic evolu- opment are mapped individually and then put
tion can occur (Tonn 1986). together as a set of map overlays. The resulting
Unlike SOO-year planning, which would be composite map helps indicate where con-
more appropriate for planning at the national straints are most severe, less severe, or light.
or international scale due to the nature and Development, whether in the form of a linear
scope of the environmental problems that it corridor such as a new road, a transmission
addresses, lOO-year planning is adaptable to line, or a trail or non-linear structures such as
buildings, may then be located in areas where
local planning. In fact, the three lOO-year
physical constraints are least severe. Alterna-
plans existing in Canada today are all plans
tives can also be evaluated with the same tech-
prepared at the local or regional scale (Mori-
nique, and choices can be made based on
yama and Teshima 1979, 1988, 1991). The
identifiable environmental factors.
latest is the Ramsey Lake Community Im-
provement Plan prepared for the City of Sud-
bury and the Region of Sudbury, Ontario Mixed Land Uses
(Moriyama and Teshima 1991; Regional Mu- Land use policies adopted in North America in
nicipality of Sudbury 1992) (Box 25.1). the past few decades have been based on the
Box 25.1. Ramsey Lake Community Improvement Plan

Ramsey Lake is an 870-h urban lake located icent setting and made accessible, a place of
within the municipal boundaries of the City of enjoyment, discovery and recreation for all
Sudbury and within walking distance to down- the people."
town Sudbury (see Plate 18 following page 182). It is on the basis of this long-term vision that
It is also the main source of drinking water for specific policies, programs, and projects are
the city. During periods of peak demand, proposed in the Ramsey Lake Plan. Policies
Ramsey Lake supplies up to 60% of the total proposed include the preservation of the water
quantity of drinking water for the city. The lake quality of Ramsey Lake; the conservation of
is surrounded by established residential neigh- green space around the lake; the retention of
borhoods and several activity centers and insti- these green spaces in public ownership over
tutions-a university, three hospitals, a science the long term and the acquisition of key open
center (see Fig. 8.12), two major city parks, and space properties by the public; and the protec-
a 970-ha open space conservation area. The lake tion of natural and environmentally sensitive
is also an important recreational area supporting areas such as wetlands, marshes, wildlife corri-
swimming, sailing, rowing, power boating, and dors, and fish spawning areas. Programs pro-
fishing. Several areas also support more passive posed include the development of the Ramsey
activities such as walking and wildlife viewing, Lake Interpretive and Recreational Trail
and the entire lake is valued as a scenic resource. around the lake and further development of
The Region and the City of Sudbury jointly the public park and conservation area proper-
prepared and adopted a Ramsey Lake Com- ties for recreational uses. For the implementa-
munity Improvement Plan in 1992. The plan tion of these policies and programs, the plan
examines this vital resource of the city and proposes the creation of a Ramsey Lake Trust
begins with a 100-year vision of the lake and to serve as the watchdog and guardian for the
its watershed. It views Ramsey Lake and its lake and to ensure long-term stewardship of
watershed as a hydrogeological and ecological the lake. Many of these programs and projects
region that is shared by all people of the city. can be planned, budgeted, and carried out in
The plan identifies the highest "nd best use of 5-year time blocks, even though the comple-
the lake as "the green and natural heart of the tion of all the development projects for the
City, a public domain where resources of City- Ramsey Lake area will probably take 20 years
wide importance can be gathered in a magnif- or longer to be accomplished.
premise of segregating incompatible land uses. buildings and carry out operations that have
Historically, segregation of land uses was needed no higher environmental impacts than office
to protect the health of residents by separating work.
polluting industries from residences. Although Furthermore, segregation of land uses has
this premise is still valid today for certain types environmental costs. It requires daily trans-
of industries, it is not a necessity in most cases. portation of workers between their homes and
This is due not only to the decline of many their workplaces. Means of transportation,
smokestack industries and the rise of service whether in the form of public transit or,private
industries in the North American economy automobiles, are needed. It requires the con-
but also because many of the traditional in- struction of more roads and vehicles, the use
dustries have modernized and become much of more energy for operating these vehicles,
less polluting than their predecessors. More- and the generation of more pollution from
over, many of the emerging high-technology such operations. However, mixing of land uses
industries operate in industrial buildings that could reduce some of these transportation
are physically indistinguishable from office needs and their associated environmental
Box 25.2. Neo-Traditional Neighborhood

Originally promoted by the husband and wife 2. houses are set to narrow (15.5-m right of
architectural team of Duany and Plater-Zyberk way) streets, planned on a modified grid
as neo-traditional development, this urban pattern
design concept has since evolved to become 3. extensive street parking and rear lanes
known as "New Urbanism." A primary objec- for car access
tive of this design concept is to design urban 4. a range and mix of housing in close
space for people, not cars. This is in direct proximity
contradiction with the (usually unstated) ur- 5. space above rear lane double garages for
ban design objective of the postwar period in living or working
North America, which is to design urban space 6. strong regulation of the built form to
for the convenience of the automobile. ensure a human scale (but without regu-
Although the first community designed and lation of architectural style)
built according to this principle was the resort 7. a central core featuring main street shop-
community of Seaside, Florida, many other ping and the highest densities for hous-
communities have been designed or built in ing and employment uses
many other locations in both the United States 8. higher net densities and mixed uses
and Canada. In Canada, the latest examples 9. a dedicated transit line built into a
can be found in the town of Markham, On- 4.5-km central corridor linking the
tario. For example, the Markham plan includes neighborhoods
the following features on a 625-ha site that will 10. linked open space at the edge of the
accommodate 16,000 jobs and 10,000 housing neighborhoods that contain schools,
units (Duany and Plater-Zyberk 1992; Gabor parks, and remnant woodlots
1994; Wood-Brunet 1994): 11. interesting building features, civic sites,
or architectural follies used to terminate
1. seven neighborhoods positioned no more the views down streets
than a 5-minute walk (400 m) from the
central core
costs. Similar benefits would also be realized Green Space, Greenways, and
by mixing residential and commercial land Urban Forestry
uses and thus reducing the number and
length of shopping trips. Recently, there has Greenways are natural or landscaped linear
been a small but growing number of new open spaces for pedestrian or bicycle passage
communities that are being designed and or for linking parks, nature reserves, cultural
built according to what is generally known as features, or historical sites with each other and
new urbanism or neo-traditional principles with populated areas (Brown 1993). These lin-
that are being championed by Duany and ear corridors may include elaborate trail sys-
Platter-Zyberk (1992) (Box 25.2). tems that permit walking, hiking, biking, riding,
Land use patterns take a long time to estab- and skiing or simply a stretch of open space
lish or change. Any resulting positive or nega- left in its natural state. Although recreation is
tive environmental impacts will also remain a common use for greenways, they often serve
for a long time. Planning therefore has to take the more important ecological function of pro-
a proactive role in influencing positive tecting wildlife migration corridors and habi-
changes in the land use pattern at the earliest tats. For these reasons, they are referred to by
opportunity-the community design stage Wisconsin landscape architect Phil Lewis as
(Fowler 1991). "E-ways"-for environment, ecology, educa-
tion, and exercise (Grove 1990). The Junction generated energy resources, strategies such as
Creek Waterway Park that traverses the city of substituting imported non-renewable energy
Sudbury is one example of such a linear open with locally produced renewable energy; im-
space system in an urban environment (Re- proving the energy efficiency of its building
gional Municipality of Sudbury 1991). stock through appropriate community design,
Whether viewed as an extension of or a better construction, and retrofitting of older
component of greenways, urban forestry is an buildings; and reducing the community'S reli-
effective means to bring the natural environ- ance on the automobile are all components of
ment into the daily urban life and the con- this import substitution strategy. Over time,
sciousness of the urban population. The this strategy will create a less energy-demand-
educational value of urban forestry is as im- ing urban settlement.
portant as its "practical" values such as provid-
ing shade and modifying the microclimate; Transit-Friendly Communities
absorbing carbon dioxide and improving air
quality; or beautifying the urban landscape. Employment and commuting go hand in hand
The regreening of Sudbury is an excellent ex- in North American cities. According to a 1992
ample of a community effort in large-scale Statistics Canada survey, an estimated 9.1 mil-
urban forestry (see Chapter 8). lion urban Canadians commuted to work each
weekday, whereas only 770,000 or 8% of the
Bioclimatic Design and Winter Cities employed population were non-commuters.
Among commuters who used a single mode of
Bioclimatic design relates the biological re- transportation exclusively-the automobile,
quirements of human comfort with the cli- public transit, bicycling and walking repre-
mate of the natural environment. From an sented 69%, 3%, 2%, and 4%, respectively.
energy efficiency perspective as well as a qual- Including those who used multiple modes of
ity of life perspective, planning, designing, transportation, the automobile carried 87% of
building, and retrofitting cities located in all commuters while public transit carried only
colder climatic zones according to the design 10%. The highest percentages of public transit
principles developed under the umbrella con- users were found in Toronto, MontreaL and
cept of "winter cities" is an application of bio- Ottawa-Hull-at 20%, 18%, and 16%, respec-
climatic design (e.g., Manty and Pressman tively (Marshall 1994). It is worth noting that
[1988] represents one of many publications on both Toronto and Montreal are served by rapid
winter cities, and Matus [1988] illustrates transit systems.
solar design techniques). Although this will be Mixed land uses connected by a properly
a slow process-as cities have to develop and designed road system in a community with
redevelop over time-the benefits will also be sufficiently high residential densities are all
long-lasting for any cold climate community preconditions that support the provision of
that is developed according to energy effi- transit services. There is a direct relationship
ciency and winter quality of life criteria. between development density and the use of
transit. Compact urban areas are more sup-
Community Energy Efficiency portive of transit than low-density areas typ-
ical of suburban developments. Generally,
Importing fuel to meet the energy needs of a viable bus service requires a residential den-
community is a constant drain on the eco- sity of at least 10 dwelling units per hectare.
nomic wealth that could have been retained Rapid transit generally requires considerably
within the community. In economic develop- higher densities-30-80+ dwelling units per
ment, the strategy of import substitution is hectare and larger catchment areas. Even at
one that attempts to use local resources to these densities, however, transit services will
substitute for imported resources. Although continue to require public subsidies (Irwin
no community can rely entirely on locally 1992).
The planning tools highlighted so far in- State of the Environment Monitoring
variably focus on design-either at the com- and Reporting
munity design or site/building design level.
Once designed and constructed, environ- Reporting on the state of the environment is
mental impacts of the built environment will not new. In fact, by the time Canada produced
be long-lasting, remedies will be costly, and its first state of the environment report in
changes will be slow. It is therefore crucial 1986, 16 of the 24 member countries of the
that environmentally friendly designs be Organization for Economic Co-operation and
adopted whenever new urban development Development had produced a state of the en-
occurs (Fowler 1991). vironment report (Bird and Rapport 1986).
The second Canadian report on the environ-
ment was produced in 1991 (Environment Can-
Evaluation Tools ada 1991).
Supplementing these planning tools are also In recent years, municipalities have also
analytic tools that may be used to evaluate adopted this tool-for example, the Edmonton
human settlements' interaction with and Board of Health produced a report for the City
human actions on the natural environment. A of Edmonton in 1989, and the Ottawa-Carle-
few examples are highlighted. ton Health Department produced a report for
the Region of Ottawa-Carleton in 1992. In
Environmental Impact Assessment Seattle, a coalition of local organizations and
citizens has prepared a report on 20 indicators
Environmental impact assessment has been of sustainable community for the Seattle area.
used for more than two decades as a tech- Twenty more indicators are in the process of
nique to evaluate the environmental im- being researched (Sustainable Seattle 1993).
pacts of a proposed project before the project The Sudbury and District Health Unit is also in
is carried out. For example, in the Province the process of preparing a report to cover the
of Ontario, environmental impact assess- Region of Sudbury.
ment was legislated in 1975 with the passing At the local level, a state of the environment
of the Environmental Assessment Act. In ad- report can be used (1) as the starting point for
dition to the project as proposed, environ- the creation of a library of baseline data for
mental impact assessment also assesses the future environmental monitoring and envi-
alternatives to the project and the alterna- ronmental research in the community; (2) to
tives in carrying out the chosen project alter- identify the trends; (3) to identify actions re-
native. Finally, the process also proposes quired; (4) as the background information for
actions that will mitigate the effects of the evaluating the accomplishments and deficien-
identified environmental impacts. cies of existing policies and programs; (5) as
Although environmental impact assessment the starting point for the initiation of new
can be an effective tool for identifying and policies and programs to fill identified gaps;
evaluating impacts before a project is under- and (6) as a tool for public education.
taken, it is still difficult to identify the cumula-
tive impacts of multiple projects on the same True Cost Accounting for Resource Uses
natural system. This shortcoming may be some-
what overcome if environmental assessment is There are two main approaches to environ-
applied to policies or plans that precede pro- mental protection: (1) the legal/regulatory ap-
jects. Even so, such assessments are bound to proach in which legally enforceable standards
be general in nature. are enforced by the regulatory agencies
To identify the cumulative impacts of multi- through the court system; and (2) the eco-
ple projects on the same natural system, new nomic approach in which economic incentives
technical evaluation tools and legal/regulatory or disincentives are used to bring forth compli-
frameworks must be developed. ance. There are advantages and disadvantages
Box 25.3. Green Housing spond to administratively or legally imposed

conservation measures. To change this, service
Modeled after its successful Energy Star Pro- providers must account for the true economic
gram, the City of Austin, Texas, offers a Green costs of their services and charge their custom-
Builder Program to assist builders to produce ers at cost. Eventually, they must also include
and market environmentally friendly homes in the basic costs the environmental costs-
and to educate buyers to make informed the so-called externalities.
choices. As part of the program, the city pub- Given the proper market signal, consumers,
lishes the Eco-Home Guide that covers four be they individual households or high-volume
main areas in which the built environment has private or public corporate users, will adjust
an impact on natural resources and environ- their consumption accordingly over time. In
mental quality-water, energy, building materi- practice, this user pay principle based on true
als, and solid waste. Each of these four topics is cost accounting can be a powerful tool to meet
examined from a life-cycle viewpoint (i.e., the both the fairness objective as well as the con-
product or system listed as an Eco-Option in the servation objective. For example, in a munici-
guide has been evaluated from an environmen- pal setting, the use of individual meters for
tal standpoint through the stages of its existence water use and the adoption of a pricing struc-
from its source to its recycling or disposal). Each ture that more closely reflects the true costs of
Eco-Option has a rating value assigned so that municipal sewer and water services have been
each component of a home and the home itself successful in achieving conservation objectives
can be rated by either a builder or a buyer. This (Brooks et al. 1990).
A variation of this principle is the life-cycle
is believed to be the first program of its kind in
the United States and has been awarded by the costing technique, which takes into account
the total energy and material resources used in
United Nations International Council for Local
manufacturing, distributing, operating, main-
Environmental Initiatives Government Honours
taining, and disposing/recycling of a manufac-
Programme.
tured product. For example, this technique
may be applied to evaluate the different build-
ing materials, designs, and building techniques
used in constructing buildings (Box 25.3). This
in both of these approaches, but often, a com- evaluation technique may be applied to either
bination of these approaches is used to deal public goods or private goods.
with an environmental problem (e.g., the case
of sulfur dioxide emissions reduction by the
two Sudbury mining companies over the past
decade) (see Chapters 4 and 21).
Conclusions
Currently, many public goods are delivered Kenneth Boulding (1973) likened the long
to the users at below their real costs of produc- process of transition in the relationship be-
tion. Examples include the provision of mu- tween humans and their environment as the
nicipal drinking water, the collection and transition from the "cowboy economy" of the
disposal of sewage and solid wastes, the con- past to the "spaceman economy" of the future.
struction and maintenance of roads to serve The bulk of this book describes the legacies of
primarily private automobiles, and the provi- earlier cowboys and tells the story of how the
sion of volume discounts for high-volume descendants of those cowboys attempt to re-
users of energy such as electricity and natural store the damaged environment of the Sud-
gas. By not paying the true economic costs of bury Basin.
production, the consumers of these services This chapter highlights some broad ap-
and resources lack the market signal for con- proaches and technical tools that should be
servation. In fact, these hidden subsidies often used to build and retrofit an urban environ-
act as disincentives for the consumers to re- ment to become a healthy component of that
future. Yet, strategies are only as effective as Environment Canada. 1991. The State of Canada's
their users are willing to use them. Beyond Environment. Government of Canada, Ottawa,
these interim technical solutions and more so- Canada.
phisticated technical tools yet to be created, an Fowler, E.P. 1991. Land use in the ecologically sen-
environmental ethic must evolve to become sible city. Alternatives 18( 1):26-35.
the guiding principle for all human actions, Gabor, P. 1994. Duany designs for people, not cars.
induding urban and regional planning. Leo- Onto Plan. J. 9(3):3-6.
pold (1966) saw an ethic in the following way: Girardet, H. 1992. The Gaia Atlas of Cities. Double-
day, Toronto.
An ethic, ecologically, is a limitation on freedom of Grove, N. 1990. Greenways: paths to the future.
action in the struggle for existence. An ethic, philo- Nat. Geog. 177(6):77-98.
sophically, is a differentiation between social and anti- Irwin, N.A. 1992. Transit and Land Use: Experi-
social conduct. These are two definitions of one thing. ences in Ontario. Ont. Plan. J. 7(4):12-15.
The thing has its origin in the tendency of interdepen- Leopold, A. 1966. A Sand County Almanac. Ballant-
dent individuals or groups to evolve modes of co-op- ine Books, Inc., New York.
eration. The ecologists call these symbioses. Manty, J., and N. Pressman (eds.). 1988. Cities De-
Leopold further argued that a land ethic is signed for Winter. Building Book Limited, Helsinki.
"an evolutionary possibility and an ecologi- Marshall, K. 1994. Getting there. Perspectives
cal necessity." (Summer 1994): 17-22.
As the Sudbury experience attests, environ- Matus, V. 1988. Design for Northern Climates: Cold-
Climate Planning and Environmental Design. Van
mental damages take a long time and great
Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
efforts to undo. Will an urban world environ-
McHarg, I.1. 1971. Design With Nature. Doubleday
mental ethic evolve soon enough so that fur- & Company, Garden City, NY.
ther damages will not be inflicted on our Moriyama and Teshima Architects. 1979. The Mee-
environment? In the final analysis, that is the wasin Valley Project. Toronto.
great challenge facing all inhabitants of space- Moriyama and Teshima Planners Limited. 1988.
ship earth for decades to come. Ontario's Niagara Parks: Planning the Second
Century. Niagara Parks Commission, Ontario.
Moriyama and Teshima Planners Limited. 1991. The
References Ramsey Lake and Watershed Community Improve-
Allen, T.F.H., B.1. Bandurski, and A.W. King. 1993. ment Plan: A 100 Year Vision. Toronto, Canada.
The Ecosystem Approach: Theory and Ecosystem Regional Municipality of Sudbury. 1991. Junction
Integrity. Unpublished report to the Great Lakes Creek Waterway Park Community Improvement
Science Advisory Board. International Joint Com- Plan. Sudbury, Ontario.
mission. Regional Municipality of Sudbury. 1992. Ramsey
Bird, P.M., and D.J. Rapport. 1986. State of the Lake Community Improvement Plan. Sudbury,
Environment Report for Canada. Environment Ontario.
Canada, Ottawa. Royal Commission on the Future of the Toronto
Boulding, E.K. 1973. The economics of the coming Waterfront (RCFTW). 1992. Regeneration:
spaceship earth, pp. 121-132. In H.E. Daly (ed.). Toronto's Waterfront and the Sustainable City
Towards a Steady-State Economy. Freeman, San (Final Report). Toronto, Canada.
Francisco. Sustainable Seattle. 1993. The Sustainable Seattle
Brooks, D.B., R. Peters, and P. Robillard. 1990. Pric- 1993: Indicators of Sustainable Community. Se-
ing: a neglected tool for managing water de- attle, WA.
mand. Alternatives 17(3):40-48. Tonn, B.E. 1986. 500-year planning: a speculative
Brown, D.T. 1993. Reclaiming deserted corridors: provocation. J. Am. Plan. Assoc. (Spring 1986):
rights of way as common property resources. Al- 185-193.
ternatives 19( 3 ):24-28. Wood-Brunet, E. 1994. The new urbanism in Mark-
City of Austin. (no date). Eco-Home Guide. Austin, TX. ham. Ont. Plan. J. 9(3):7-8.
Duany, A., and E. Plater-Zyberk. 1992. The second World Commission on Environment and Develop-
coming of the American small town. Plan Can- ment. 1987. Our Common Future. Oxford Uni-
ada (May 1992):6-13. versity Press, Oxford.
26
From Restoration to
Sustainable Ecosystems 1
John M. Gunn, Nels Comoy, William E. Lautenbach, David A.B. Pearson,
Marty J. Pum, Joseph D. Shorthouse, and Mark E. Wiseman
Vast areas of the world have been laid waste million ha of arable land (30-40% of the na-
by destructive human activities: poor agricul- tional total) has been lost in the past 50 years
tural practices, industrial pollution, warfare, by soil erosion, urbanization, transportation,
etc. (WCED 1987; Smil 1993; Edwards 1994). and industrial pollution (Smil 1993).
It has been estimated that at present there are There is no consensus on what the ultimate
approximately 2000 million ha of degraded carrying capacity of the earth will prove to be,
land (approximately the combined size of Can- but there is no doubt that accelerated growth
ada and the United States) and that this num- cannot be sustained on a shrinking resource
ber increases by 5-7 million ha each year base (Gore 1992; Houghton 1994; Woodwell
(Wali 1992). Mining and smelting have con- 1994). Losing vast areas of productive land
tributed heavily to these losses, beiQg respon- is intolerable under such a strain on global
sible for more than 20 million ha of some of resources.
the most severely damaged areas (Moore and Changing values in society create a new eth-
Luoma 1990). These losses of productive lands ical environment in which companies must
and waters and the interferences with the operate (Potter 1988; Dunlap and Scarce 1991).
health of natural systems on which they de- Society is now less willing to tolerate egotisti-
pend are continuing to occur at the same time cal companies that suggest that what is good
that the need for ecological services (Le., food, for the company is good for society because it
water, fibers, natural medicines, microbial generates wealth through jobs and useful pro-
decomposition of waste products, etc.) acceler- ducts. Other values (essential ecological ser-
ates because of increasing individual demands vices, recreational activities, animal rights,
for resources and a world human population protection of biodiversity, etc.) in land use
that doubles approximately every 40 years choices have now begun to take precedence
(Ehrlich and Ehrlich 1991). For example, in over the idea of "production at lowest possible
China, a country expected to contain 1.25 bil- cost." These values have become so significant
lion people by year 2000, approximately 40 that some industrial developments are stopped
IThis paper was prepared by the synthesis group that consisted of representatives of government resource
management and environmental agencies, the mining industry, municipal government staff, and the
university. The group reviewed all previous chapters from the Sudbury case history before preparing this
discussion paper.
335
336 Gunn et al.
by them. For example the construction of the vast areas of derelict lands is the legacy of
Windy Craggy mine in British Columbia was mining in most countries (Moore and Luoma
recently stopped because of environmental 1990; Young 1992). However, in the same way
concerns, even though more than $40 million that people cannot isolate themselves from the
had been spent by the company developing natural world that provides the elements of
the site. life, so too a mining industry or mining town
cannot separate itself from the lives of its
workers or the life of the planet. For example,
Sudbury Case History stack emissions from Sudbury smelters make
substantial contributions to the long-range
The extensive destruction of land and water transport of contaminants, but the Sudbury
by industrial emissions from Sudbury repre- area also receives pollution from other areas.
sents one of the best-known environmental In a global context, it will do little good if the
impacts in North America. These damages Sudbury area is cleaned up at great expense,
were not intentional; in fact, it can be ar- but the rest of the world does not act in a
gued that over the years "best technologies" similar manner.
were used to prevent their occurrence. But, It is important for the reader to remember
unfortunately, severe damages did occur. A that with the Sudbury case history we are
landscape that once supported a rich variety discussing restorative change at a very early
of natural resources-forests, fish, wildlife, stage. As any recent visitor will attest, the
etc.-was reduced to a barren wasteland in a Sudbury region is still badly damaged-only
few decades of mining and smelting. approximately 30% of the barren land has
There is no particular magic or uniqueness in received remedial treatment (Fig. 26.1); nat-
the solutions to environmental damages in Sud- ural recovery under emission controls is just
bury. The same solutions apply everywhere: beginning; and there is considerable un-
(I) reduce the contamination and (2) repair the certainty about the effectiveness of the
damage. Progress on these so easily stated but remedial treatments or adequacy of the leg-
difficult to implement solutions has been the islated control orders. It will be many de-
subject of this book. In this final chapter, we ask cades, perhaps centuries (Croker and Major
ourselves what we have learned from the Sud- 1955), before these ecosystems can be
bury experience that will maintain and encour- healed (toxic metals return to background
age further restoration efforts in this area and levels, stable podzolic soil structure re-estab-
whether there are some lessons of general ap- lished, insect epidemics under natural
plication that others might take from Sudbury controls, diversity of biological communities
when working toward "sustainable ecosystems" re-established, etc.). However, the direc-
elsewhere. tion of environmental change is positive,
and this will be our cautious focus for the
remainder of this chapter.
Irony of the
Term Sustainable Ingredients for Progress
It may seem ironic to use a case history of a Timing was essential to the environmental im-
hard-rock mining area to discuss ecosystem provements that occurred in Sudbury. The
"sustainability." High quality ore deposits are a recognition that change was needed was to a
nonrenewable resource that can be rapidly de- large degree simply part of a broad societal
pleted with current technologies. Mining has change in attitude that began in the late 1960s
traditionally been a transient industry involv- and early 1970s and rose rapidly through the
ing short-term use of land without regard to 1980s. The enormous investments in time and
other future uses of that land. The presence of money needed to initiate environmental
26. From Restoration to Sustainable Ecosystems 337
FIGURE 26.1. Changes in the

extent of industrial barrens in
17.5
-- ....... - - ... Natural
the Sudbury area as a result of 15
natural recolonization by plants <J>
,,
....... Recovery
after emission reductions in the

Q)
(ij
u Industrially Damaged
,
early 1970s, and through re-
vegetation efforts of munidpal
Q)
I
10
Barrens '.
and industrial land reclamation "0 Municipal
(I)
programs. In neither the nat- "0

C Industrial
ural recovery areas nor the ftI
(I)
0.-.
:J
treated areas is restoration o
.c 5
"complete"; the shrinkage in f-
the barren area simply implies

that a plant cover has been re-
established.
1970 1973 1976 1979 1982 1985 1988 1991

Year
cleanup in Sudbury would not have happened public to design and implement restora-
earlier. tion projects. Again, timing was import-
Once initiated, what factors shaped or en- ant. People and groups were ready to
couraged the particular directions that the work together and synergistic benefits
Sudbury restoration efforts took? from cooperation were soon obvious.
5. A minimal treatment approach for dam-
1. Government pollution control legislation
aged lands proved effective, demon-
was the essential stimulus for industrial strating that substantial gains could be
cleanup, but regulations were applied with made by assisting and working with na-
"patience," giving the industries .sufficient ture-assisting the healing process-
time and freedom to develop optimal strat- rather than striving for an overly designed
egies for pollution control. and manipulated landscape (earlier en-
2. The abatement programs occurred during gineered solutions). This cost-effective
a prosperous time for the mining industry ecological approach emphasized the use
(e.g., more than a billion dollars have been and re-establishment of mainly native
spent in Sudbury on emissions control species.
and land and water treatments in the past 6. Restoration projects did not wait for per-
30 years), and government agencies were fect solutions but focused on achievable
able to support expensive programs for goals by remaining flexible and making
environmental monitoring, land reclama- use of a variety of funding and staffing
tion, research, etc. A great many other opportunities. Projects were supported
industries and countries would not have and enriched through expert opinion and
had these financial resources. accumulated practical experience.
3. Economic benefits for the companies were 7. Efforts were made to involve the public in
obtained through the technology develop- the restoration programs through direct
ments designed to meet environmental participation and education. Volunteers are
protection requirements (e.g., energy effi- now recognized as essential to the contin-
ciency, worker productivity, marketable uation of the program. An informed and
products from former waste). involved public is also needed to direct
4. Effective partnerships developed between political actions through their elected
industry, government, academia, and the representatives.
338 Gunn et al.
FIGURE 26.2. Environmental ac-

tivist jumps off smokestack at
Gavin power plant near Galli-
polis, Ohio in October 1984 to
protest add-causing emissions.
(Photo by Greenpeace.)
problem around which people rallied and de-

Public Pressure manded government action. Public interest in
and Legislation environmental issues tends to vary with sodal
and economic conditions in the country (Dun-
Public pressure was the incentive that forced lap and Scarce 1991), but public pressure on
governments to demand reductions in atmo- governments will, no doubt, continue to
spheric emissions from industries such as the force change. Indeed, Sudbury industries
Sudbury smelters. The early advances in envi- will probably be faced with more stringent
ronmental control were largely driven by the regulations in the future, for although they
concerns of local residents about poor air qual- have achieved nearly 90% reductions in
ity. However, by the 1980s widespread con- sulfur dioxide, they remain as very large
cern about "add rain" created an enormous emissions sources (Table 26.1), and the
lobbying effort for environmental improve- worldwide problem of acidification has not
ments (Fig. 26.2). Add rain was probably the gone away (Jeffries and Lam 1993; Galloway
first regionaL if not global, environmental et al. 1994).
TABLE 26.1. Current and Historical (Highest Year) Sulfur Emissions from Inco and
Falconbridge Smelters in Comparison with Current (19905) Levels for the 25 Largest
Emitters of Sulfur in Europe. a Estimated Emissions from Noril'sk in Eastern Russia
Are Also Includedb
Emission
Name of plant Type Location (kilotonnes sulfur)
Noril'sk (late 1980s) Smelter Russia 1,150,000
Inco (1960) Smelter Canada 1,000,000
1. Marista Power station Bulgaria 350,000
2. Puentes Garcia Rodriguez Power station Spain 271,000
3. Janschwalde Power station Germany 215,000
4. Montsegorsk Smelter Russia 212,000
5. Nikel Smelter Russia 211,000
Falconhridge (1968) Smelter Canada 190,000
6. Reftinsk Power station Russia 184,000
7. Teruel Power station Spain 183,000
8. Turceni Power station Romania 183,000
9. Elbistan Power station Turkey 180,000
10. Belchatow Power station Poland 171,000
11. Afsin -Elbistan Power station Turkey 145,000
12. Soma Power station Turkey 143,000
13. Prunerov Power station Czech Republic 137,000
Inco (1994)' Smelter Canada 133,000
14. Drax Power station United Kingdom 132,000
15. Zaporzhe Power station Ukraine 129,000
16. Yatagan Power station Turkey 127,000
17. Boxberg Power station Germany 126,000
18. Moldavia Power station Moldavia 122,000
19. Kemerkoy Power station Turkey 118,000
20. Lukomyl Power station Belarus 116,000
21. N ovocherkassk Power station Russia 116,000
22. Yenikoy power station Turkey 113,000
23. Ryazan Power station Russia 110,000
24. Hagenwerder Power station Germany 110,000
25. Turow Power station Poland 103,000
Falconhridge (1993) Smelter Canada 29,000
aFrom report by M. Barrett and R. Protheroc, summarized by Agren (1994).

bEhrensvard (1993).
'Maximum allowable emissions for 1994.
Public pressure also acts directly on polluting employment. They simply went where the
companies. A negative public image not only jobs were. However, now employees are often
damages social and economic confidence in that very concerned about the quality of their envi-
company and industry, it runs the risk of induc- ronment, and if given a choice would not raise
ing boycotts by consumers and investors (e.g., a family in a "dirty" town or work for a "dirty"
European attitudes toward North American har- company. Under these socioeconomic pres-
vest of "old growth" forests or fur bearers). Pub- sures, it is therefore important for each mining
lic attitudes and the reality of past-destructive company to not only actively participate in
activities also affects the ability of a company to pollution prevention and restoration efforts
attract and maintain high-quality staff. In the but also to be perceived to be making progress
past, environmental concerns appeared to be in these areas, both as a company and as part of
less of an issue when workers sought places of a larger industry.
340 Gunn eta!.
nickel has remained largely unaffected. The

Economic Benefits and Costs socioeconomic impacts on the community from
There are now many economic incentives for such displacement of workers has at times been
pollution control. In this case study, the con- very severe. An aggressive community-based
taminants that were responsible for environ- economic diversification and job creation pro-
mental damage (Le., copper, nickel, sulfur) are gram and considerable federal and provincial
actually the products (or had the potential to government support have cushioned many of
be, in the case of sulfur) that the companies the adverse effects of workforce reductions.
market. Preventing their loss is of obvious eco- However, many of the changes, both environ-
nomic benefit (see input management discus- mental and economic, have been very positive
sion by Odum [1989]). Once forced to invest for the region (expanding tourism, government
in abatement programs and to conduct strate- jobs, new industries, etc.). No adequate socio-
gic planning (Le., beginning when the ore is economic study has been done to access the net
still in the ground, rather than trying to deal effect of these changes. Such studies are needed
with a pollutant that is already in the smoke- (Costanza 1991).
stack), considerable economic efficiencies, par- Although there were opportunities to gain
ticularly in energy consumption, were achieved. economic benefits and improve the workplace
These were of direct benefit to the companies. environment within the industrial complex,
The reduced fossil fuel use also lowers emissions solving the problem of a severely damaged
of greenhouse gases, another global environ- external landscape is a different matter. Heal-
mental problem. Interestingly, this energy effi- ing damaged ecosystems will no doubt prove
ciency gain was the same one that followed to be a very expensive process, perhaps far
from technology development conducted in the more expensive than the costs of construction
1970s by Japanese car companies to meet strin- of facilities that caused the damage (Cairns
gent u.s. automobile emission standards (Nishi- 1993). Mining companies in North America
mura 1989). Not only did the Japanese meet the and elsewhere are now forced through legisla-
pollution standards, but they achieved energy tion to be financially responsible for environ-
efficiency in the new engines that greatly in- mental problems created by their operations
creased consumer demand for their product. and required to return mining and processing
The technological developments that were sites to a "rehabilitated state" before leaving an
needed to meet the reduced sulfur dioxide area. This responsibility greatly increases the
limits were part of an overall modernization cost of doing business (approaching true cost-
program that was necessary even without the accounting for the cost of extracting re-
environmental legislation. The legislation may sources) and requires the development and
have speeded up the process, but improvements application of much new science and technol-
in the smelters and in the overall efficiency of ogy. However, one of the many societal bene-
the industrial operations had to occur if the local fits from this new legislation is that restoration
mining companies were to remain competitive work will generate many jobs. These jobs may
and survive in the world market place. In fact, compensate for some of the jobs lost during
the companies in this case did not use standard modernization of industries (Renner 1992).
pollution control technologies (e.g., scrubbers)
to meet their emission abatement requirements.
They achieved these requirements by reorganiz-
ing their entire operation as part of the larger
Role of Partnership
modernization program. in Restoration
Unfortunately, a frequent consequence of
modernization of industries is the loss of jobs. If one had to choose a single reason for the
In the past 20 years, the number of workers at achievements in Sudbury honored at the UN
the mines and mills of Sudbury has been re- conference in Brazil, it would be the coopera-
duced by more than 50%, while production of tion and partnerships that developed to assist
restoration in this area. Partnerships did not systems function. Restoration projects repre-
develop through the policies of government sent unique and important opportunities to
agencies or industries. They occurred because conduct research that will contribute in both
government scientists, resource managers, un- basic and applied areas of ecology (Watson and
iversity professors, municipal planners and Richardson 1972; Bradshaw 1983, 1993; Jor-
staff, and a variety of industry personnel took dan et al. 1987). Such opportunities should
the initiative and decided to collaborate and not be missed. Authors in this volume have
begin the restoration efforts. The enormity of described some of the many research needs
the problem and the multidisciplinary nature and questions that still exist in the Sudbury
of any potential solution demanded coopera- area. Several of these are very broad needs
tion. The authority of government regulations (e.g., rates and processes of biological recov-
still existed to drive the process, but time and ery, chemistry and biology of degraded soils,
expertise were not wasted on assigning blame. socioeconomics of restoration), similar to some
It is difficult to assess why some partner- of the high-priority research items identified
ships succeed while others fail. Certainly, in by the Ecological Society of America in sup-
our experience with cooperative projects, suc- port of its global sustainable biosphere initia-
cess is largely dependent on the quality and tive (Lubchenco et al. 1991).
commitment of individual people involved. A There is a great need for more science in the
few dedicated individuals can make a great field of restoration ecology. Far too little study
deal of positive difference even when faced has been conducted, and many industrially
with severe environmental damages. Other damaged areas could benefit from the pub-
guiding principles of successful partnerships lished results of rigorous research programs in
were that they this field (Bradshaw 1993). Our experience
indicates that it is easy to underestimate the
1. begin with and continually enhance un- need for proper scientific methods in this area
derstanding of each of the partners' needs of research.
2. consider that each discipline/stakeholder Industrially damaged ecosystems such as Sud-
has something positive to contribute bury are the important "natural laboratories"
3. require frequent and effective communi- where restoration ecology research must be
cation conducted. An essential aspect of the design of
4. function under the belief that cooperation any research work in this area is the need for
can achieve more quickly and can attain controls and reference sites. Change in treated
larger goals than would result from the areas can only be realistically assessed against
sum of individual efforts the standard of results from more pristine
5. remain flexible enough to seize opportu- sites. In the same sense, some sites within the
nities (sources of funding, participation damaged area of Sudbury should be left un-
of volunteers, etc.) treated, both to illustrate to the public how far
6. measure even small progress we have come but also, for purely scientific
7. celebrate success (awards, certificates, me- reasons, to study natural recovery. A damaged
dia attention) area "reserve" may also serve as a reminder
about what is "just over the next hill," so that
the buffer strips of trees along the highways
Role and Opportunities will not prove to be a facade but simply a
beginning.
for Science- A frustrating problem with ecological stud-
Restoration Ecology ies is that scientific understanding usually re-
quires considerable time to develop. However,
This book began with a quote by A.D. Brad- resource managers and administrators of
shaw that restoration research was the "acid large-scale restoration programs frequently
test" of our understanding of how natural eco- cannot wait for perfect answers, and projects
342 Gunn et al.
must often move ahead with the "best available tive requirements and to include environmen-
infonnation." Here, an experienced research sci- tal protection elements not considered by leg-
entist can make a substantial contribution by islators (e.g., some recent initiatives by Shell
giving time and expert opinion to assist in resto- Oil of Canada).
ration efforts, but time and funding must also be Certainly, public relations and economic pres-
provided to at least measure change as a func- sures are important incentives for the devel-
tion of the applied restoration treatment. If we opment of corporate environmental policies.
wish to improve treatment procedures, it is im- However, one should not dismiss the idea that a
portant that we carefully monitor environmental corporate "environmental ethic" (Le., "that it is
and ecological changes, and rigorously attempt to the right thing to do") is also emerging. The
detennine what caused these changes to occur. personal commitment of individual executives
Norton (1992) considered the participation (Aitken 1991; see Foreword to Section E) and
of traditionally cautious and conservative re- business practices such as the use of western
search scientists in providing "expert opinion" environmental standards by companies setting
as an essential part of a new paradigm in eco- up plants in developing countries without strong
system management. Another aspect of this environmental regulations suggest that motives
change, which we think deserves to be infor change are not all profit-oriented. A cynic
cluded in the use of the term paradigm, is the could easily dismiss these signals, but it is indis-
increasing involvement of industry in support- putable that such a change in attitude is needed
ing environmental research. Industry must to deal with the enonnous environmental prob-
take a larger and more active direct role in lems we face.
science development in the field of restoration
ecology, especially now in North America, when
government support for research is dwindling Steps toward
under difficult financial constraints.
Sustainable Ecosystems
From "Environmental We do not want to be labeled as naive "enthusi-
asts" who do not recognize the enonnous global
Policies" to challenges we face (Hardin 1993), but this case
"Environmental Ethics" history does provide many points for optimism
and several suggestions for moving toward the
The assumption of responsibility by industry goal of sustainable ecosystems. We got into this
for environmental damages, the increased mess by adopting attitudes and actions that sug-
participation of industry in science develop- gested that humans were not part of the global
ment and in large-scale restoration programs, ecosystem, that resources were limitless, and
the open exchange of infonnation by industry that when ecosystems were damaged or soiled,
with government regulators and the public, we could simply move on. Now we know that
and the importance of public presentation of these ideas were wrong. Humans are a part of
environmental assessment findings before de- nature, an increasingly large part (40% of net
velopment of new sites (e.g., Thayer Lindsley primary productivity of the land is in human
Mine proposal by Falconbridge Limited in enterprises [Ehrlich and Ehrlich 1991]), limits
1993) are some of the evidence that profound are rapidly being reached, and the "nomads"
changes are occurring in how business is con- have nowhere else to go.
ducted by many companies. It is conceivable Environmental improvements can occur ra-
that in the future many industries will actively pidly if people rethink and plan for the long-
participate in policy and even legislative devel- term future (NRC 1992). Hundreds of pieces
opments for environmental protection. In fact, of environmental legislation have been estab-
some companies have already made commit- lished within the past 25 years, and there are
ments to achieve standards that exceed legisla- many dramatic cases of environmental im-
provement (e.g., Lake Erie, Thames River, Sin- References

gapore, Sudbury). Environmental consciousness
in is now well established in a great many Agren, C. 1994. The worst hundred sources. Acid
people, including some important politicians News 3:1-3.
and corporate executives. There are also encour- Aitken, w.R.O. 1991. Industry's response, pp. 283-
284. In C. Mungall and D.J. McLaren (eds.). Planet
aging signs that cooperation rather than
under Stress. Oxford University Press, Toronto.
confrontation is gaining momentum on the
Bradshaw, A.D. 1983. The restoration of ecosys-
environmental front. However, time to be- tems. J. Applied Ecol. 20-1-17.
gin restoration and recovery of damaged Bradshaw, A.D. 1993. Restoration ecology as a sci-
ecosystems cannot be wasted. ence. Restoration Ecol. 1:71-73.
This book about Sudbury was originally de- Bratton, S.P. 1992. Alternate models of ecosystem res-
signed to contribute knowledge to the global toration, pp. 170-189. In R. Costanza, B.G. Norton,
goal of being able to protect, restore (Bratton and B.D. Haskell (eds.). Ecosystem Health. Island
1992), and maintain healthy sustainable eco- Press, Washington, DC.
systems (WCED 1987; Turner 1988). How- Cairns, J., Jr. 1993. The Zen of ecological restora-
ever, as Sudbury residents, we have probably tion: eight steps on the path towards enlighten-
learned the most from this exercise. It is now ment. Ann. Earth 9:13-15.
clear that although substantial gains have Costanza, R. (ed.). 1991. Ecological Economics: The
Science and Management of Sustainability. Co-
been made, we still have a difficult job ahead
lumbia Univ. Press, New York.
of us for solving our own local environmental
Crocker, R.L., and J. Major. 1955. Soil development
problems. In addition, we realize that few in relation to vegetation and surface area at Gla-
countries will ever have the same financial cier Bay, Alaska. J. Eco!. 43:427-448.
resources to conduct such a large-scale resto- Dunlap, R.E., and R. Scarce. 1991. The polls: envi-
ration program. However, this fact should not ronmental problems and protection. Public Opin-
discourage others from beginning restoration ion Q. 55:651-672.
work. Our land reclamation program began Edwards, M. 1994. Pollution in the fonner USSR:
very modestly with very little money and lethal legacy. Nat. Geog. 186:70-98.
mainly with the assistance of volunteers, dem- Ehrensvard, A. 1993. A profitable polluter. Acid
0nstrating that great progress cart be made News 5:20.
from humble beginnings. Ehrlich, R.R., and A.H. Ehrlich. 1991. Healing the
Finally, although people should not be dis- Planet. Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., New
York.
couraged by the challenge of restoration, the
Galloway, J.N., H. Levy n, and P.S. Kasibhada. 1994.
principal lesson from our work is that prevent-
Year 2020: Consequences of population growth
ing such damage from occurring in the first and development on deposition of oxidized nitro-
place is surely the more sensible course of gen. Ambio 23:120-123.
action. Gore, A. 1992. Earth in the Balance. Houghton
Clever people know how to solve problems. Mifflin, Boston.
Wise people know how to avoid them. Hardin, G. 1993. Living within Limits: Ecology, Eco-
Albert Einstein nomics and Populations Taboos. Oxford Univer-
sity Press, New York.
Houghton. R.A. 1994. The worldwide extent of land-
use change. Bioscience 44:305-313.
Acknowledgments. We thank Michael Conlon
Jeffries, D.S., and D.C.L. Lam. 1993. Assessment of
for his assistance to the working group and for
the effect of acidic deposition on Canadian lakes:
preparation of graphics. Harry Struik provided determination of critical loads for sulphate depo-
data through interpretation of aerial photogra- sition. Wat. Sci. Tech. 28:183-187.
phy for the estimation of extent of natural Jordan, W.R., M.E. Gilpin, and J.A. Aber (eds.). 1987.
recovery in Figure 26.1. David Balsillie, Bill Restoration Ecology: A Synthetic Approach to
Keller, Ed Snucins, and Frank Wilson re- Ecological Research. Cambridge University Press,
viewed earlier drafts of the manuscript. Cambridge.
344 Gunn et al.
Lubchenco, J., and 15 other coauthors. 1991. The Renner, M.G. 1992. Saving the earth; creating jobs.
sustainable biosphere initiative: an ecological re- World Watch 5(1):10-17.
search agenda. Ecology 72(2):371-412. SmiI, V. 1993. China's Environmental Crisis. East
Moore, J.N., and S.M Luoma 1990. Hazardous waste Gate Book, M.E. Sharpe, Armonk, NY.
from large-scale metal extraction. Envir. Sd. Tech-
Turner, R.K. (ed.). 1988. Sustainable Environmen-
nol. 24:1278-1289.
tal Management. Principles and Practices. West-
National Research Council (NRC). 1992. Restora-
view, Boulder, CO.
tion of Aquatic Ecosystems. National Academy
Press, Washington, DC. Wall, M.K. 1992. Ecosystem Rehabilitation. SPB Aca-
Nishimura, H. (ed.). 1989. How to Conquer Air demic Publishing, The Hague, The Netherlands.
Pollution-a Japanese Experience. Elsevier, Watson, W.Y., and D.H.S. Richardson. 1972. Appre-
Amsterdam. dating the potential of a devastated land. Forest
Norton, B.G. 1992. A new paradigm for environ- Chron.48:313-315.
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B.G. Norton, and B.D. Haskell (eds.). Ecosystem Restoration Ecol. 2:1-3.
Health. Island Press, Washington, DC. World Commission on Environment and Develop-
Odum, E.P. 1989. Input management of production ment (WCED). 1987. Our Common Future. Ox-
systems. Sdence 243:177-182. ford University Press, Oxford.
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East Lansing. W.W. Norton Ltd., New York.
Index
Entries occurring in figures are followed by an f; those occurring in tables, by a t.
Abatement programs, 337 Air quality improvement, 51-65, 275-285

emissions control, 275-285 abatement at Falconbridge, 63-65
at Falconbridge, 54f, 63-65 abatement at Inco, 282-284
at Inco, 282-284 decline in emissions, 56-57
see also Air quality improvement future projections, 59-60
Abies balsamea (balsam fir), 17 governmental regulations, 52-55
Aeer rub rum, see Red maple integrated management, 287-288
Aeersaeeharum (sugar maple), 17, 115f lichens as indicators, 89, 90; see also Lichens
Acid-generating wastes particulate fallout, 58
acid rock drainage, 292-293 recognition of problem, 51-52
integrated management approach, 289, 290f, 291 recovery after, 47-49
tailings revegetation at Copper Cliff, 123-132 of aquatic communities and lake water quality, 67-78;
Acidification of plant communities, 93-102;
geological factors contributing to effects of, 14 regional and international transport of pollutants, 54-56
GIS studies, 305-306 terrestrial effects, 57-59
interacting factors in ecological damage, 25, 319 see also Emission control technologies
lakes Aix sponsa (Wood Duck), 2061, 207, 208t, 209t, 2101, 214
paleolimnology studies, 38-40, 4lf Alders (Alnus crispa; Alnus rugosa), 226
urban, 258, 259, 260f Algae
nitrogen compounds and, 320 filamentous green, 74f, 75
remote sensing surveys, 301-303, 304f lake liming effects, 200
Acid mine drainage, rehabilitation of, see Wetlands, lichen symbiont, 81
engineered recovery after emissions abatement, 72-73
Acid rain, 320 soil,221-223;
control program, 56 Algal mats, 70
geological factors contributing to effects of, 14 Alkaline lakes, 43
historical perspective, 29 Alnus crispa, 226
interactions between stressors, 319 Alnus rugosa (alders), 226
Actinomycetes, 226 Alsike dover (Trifolium hybridum), 113t, 174, 179, 180,
Aerobic reactions 226
wetlands processes, 13 6-13 7 Aluminum
see also Redox processes interactions between stressors, 319
Agricultural crops, 51,58-59 lake water
Agrostis gigantea, see Redtop paleolimnology, 37-38, 39f, 40, 4lf
Agrostis sea bra, see Tickle grass sources of, 40
Agrostis stolonifera, 25lt urban lakes, 261
345
346 Index
Aluminum (cont.) lake liming effects, 201

soil soil, 223, 224-225
leaching of, 70 wetlands processes, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140
liming effects, 173 Balsam fir (Abies balsamea), 17
mobilization by acid rain, 319 Balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera) lichens, 83-87
podzolization and, 10 Balsam willow (Salix pyrifolia), 96, 175
toxicity to plants, 25, 26, 27f Bass (Micropterus dolomieui), 201, 268
American Black Duck (Anas rubripes), 206f, 207, 208t, Bedrock, 5, 10
209t, 21Of, 21 If, 213f, 214 geological influences on geochemistry, 13-14
American elm (Ulmus americana), 27 urban planning considerations, 327
Ammonia Benthic invertebrates, 67
soil nitrogen cycling, 226--228 acidification effects, 69f
wetlands processes, 136 liming effects, 200, 201
Ammonia removal, 296 recovery of, 74-75
Amphibians, 67 urban lakes, 265
Anabaena, 223t, 225 Bessemer matte, 279-280
Anaerobic processes Betula alieghaniensis (yellow birch), 17
sediments, see Anoxic-oxic conditions Betula papyri[era (paper birch, white birch), 228; see also
wetlands, 136, 137, White birch; Birch coppice woodlands
Anaphalis margaritacea (pearly everlasting), 100, 174, 175 Betula pumila (bog birch), 97
Anas platyrhynchos (Mallard), 129, 206f, 207, 208t, 209t Bicaroonate generation, wetlands processes, 136
21Of,214-215 Bioavailability of metals in soil, 220
Anas rubripes (American Black Duck), 206f, 207, 208t, Biodiversity
209t, 210f, 21 If, 213f, 214 arctic tundra, 238, 24lt
Anoxic-oxic conditions aurora trout restoration, 145-152
and iron and manganese oxyhydroxide solubility, 186 birch coppice woodlands, 241-244
lake sediments Canadian species at risk, 146t
iron oxyhydroxides and, 186-188 land reclamation and, 178
and trace element behavior, 184 loss of, 143, 144-145
tailings revegetation barrier effect, 131-132
municipal regreening project and, 112
wetlands, 136--137, 138, 140 soil microorganisms, 221-224
see also Redox processes Birch coppice woodlands, 233-244
Antimony, 183
comparison with high arctic tundra, 239, 241
Aquatic biota
definition, 233
acidification effects, 69f
insect effects, 237-239, 240f
lake liming effects, 197-202
long-term lack of change in, 240-244
natural recovery after emissions reduction, 71-75
microclimate effects, 234-236
paleolimnology, see Paleolimnology
site characteristics, 234-235
urban lakes, 264, 265f
see also Lake sediments Vaccinium angusti[olium, 235t, 248, 249
Aquatic ecosystems Birch transition community, 27, 28f, 30
rehabilitation of, 295 Birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus), 100, 174, 175f, 180,
see also Catchment management; Lakes; Lake sediments 226,227f
Arcteonais lomondi, 75 municipal regreening project, 113t
Arsenic, 183 tailings revegetation project, 127, 128
geological influences on geochemistry, 14 Black Duck (Anas rubripes), 206f, 207, 208t, 209t, 210f,
lake sediments, 184, 185f, 187-188 21lf, 213f, 214
ore composition, 9 Black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), 113t, ll5, 116f, 127,
soil, 220t, 223 180,226
Aurora trout (Salvelinusfontinalis), 143-152, 195, 197, Black spruce (Picea mariana), 17, ll5f
318 Blueberry
description of, 145 relict shrub species, 27
evolution/speciation, 145, 147-149 see also Lowbush blueberry; Vaccinium species
rehabilitation of native lakes, 149-151 Bog birch (Betula pumila), 97
taxonomic classification, 147, 148 Bosminia longirostris, 69f
Aythya collaris (Ring-necked Duck), 206f, 207, 208t, Bowland Lake, 196, 198f, 199f, 200, 201
209t, 21Of, 21 If, 214 Bracken (Pteridium aquilinum), 27
Brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis), 67, 75f, 76; see also
Bacidia chlorococca, 86 Aurora trout
Bacteria Bryophytes, birch transition forest, 235t
Index 347
Bucephala clangula (Common Goldeneye), 206f, 207, Chlorella, 223t

208t, 209t, 21O. 211t. 212-213, 213f Chlorella saccharophiIa, 222, 223t
Buffering capacity, lakes, 12-13, 33, 37,43, 67--68 Chlorophytes, 222, 223t
Burbot (Lota Iota), 69f, 75 Chlorosardna, 223t
Burrowing mayfly (Hexagenia), 265 Chydorus sphaericus, 76
Cisco (Coregonus artedii), 76, 77f
Cadmium, 183, 190 City planning, see Urban planning
Caenis, 74 Cladina mitis, 88
Calcium Cladina rangiferina (reindeer/caribou lichen), 82f, 83, 84,
acid rain and, 70 86t, 88, 307-308
interactions between stressors, 319 Cladotanytarsus, 75
lake water Clay
buffering by, 12-13 aluminum release from, 26
and lake recovery, 76 ion exchange mechanisms, 13
reductions in, 68 Clearwater Lake, 36-38, 4lf, 184, 186, 190, 258f,
soil 265
mobilization by acid rain, 319 Climate, 10-11, 70,75, 319-320
podzolization and, 10 Cobalt, 183
see also Liming bedrock chemical patterns, 14
Calcium carbonate, wetlands processes, 140 ore composition, 9, 277f
Calcium hydroxide, see Liming; Soil treatment soil, 25, 220t
Calcium oxide, see Liming; Soil treatment Cold climate urban design, 330
Calcium sulfate, 278, 283 Collembola, 224
Calmagrostis canadensis, 235t Colonization
Canada bluegrass (Poa compressa), 94, 175, 179 municipal regreening project, 112-113
municipal regreening project, 113t plant community recovery, 93-102
tailings revegetation project, 127 see also Plant community dynamics
Candelaria concolor. 86t Colonization theory, lake liming results and, 201
Candelariella vitellina, 86t Common Goldeneye (Bucephala clangula), 206f, 207,
Carbonate minerals, lake buffering, 13 208t, 209t, 21O. 21lf, 212-213, 213f
Carbon dioxide, water treatment with, 289 Common Loon (Gavia immer), 206f, 207, 208t, 209t,
Carbon dioxide fixation, soil microbes and, 224-225 210-212, 2l0f, 295
Carex, 95, 96 Common Merganser (Mergus merganser), 206f, 207, 208t,
Carex aenea, 95, 175 209t, 21Of, 211-212, 21lf, 213f
Carex aquatilis, 94f Common shiner, 69f
Carex retrorsa, 94f, 96 Community energy efficiency, 330
Carex scoparia, 96 Community involvement, see Public participation
Caribou lichen (Cladina rangiferina), 82f. 83, 84, 86t, Community transportation, 330-331
88 Companion crops, 125
Catastomus commersoni (white sucker), 69f, 75, 145 Comptonia peregrina (sweet fern), 27, 179, 180,226, 235t,
Catchment management, 313-321 25lt
environmental protection model. 315-316 Copper
integrated approach, 313-315 atmospheric deposition of, 25, 317-318
Sudbury region issues, 316-321 Bessemer matte, 279-280
externalfactors, 319-320 catchment management issues, 318-319
interaction between stresses, 319, 320-321 geobotanical prospecting. 84
secondary and tertiary pollution, 317-318 geological influences on geochemistry, 13
time scale, 318-319 lake sediments, 189
Catchment planning, 293 ore composition, 9, 276, 277f
Cation pump, soil, 175 plant micronutrients, 250
Cattails (Typha latifolia), 97, 131f. 139, 140, 25lt, soil, 25, 26, 27f, 223
295 toxicity to plants, 25, 26, 27f
Cetraria, 84 urban lakes, 260f, 261
Cetraria dliaris, 82f. 86t wetlands removal of. 138
Chalcopyrite, 9 see also Metal contaminants
Chaoborus (phantom midge), 37, 77 Copper Cliff, 57
Chaoborus americanus, 37 abatement efforts, 278-281, 282f, 283f. 284f
Chemical composition, Sudbury ore, 276, 277f recycled water use at, 288
Chernobyl, 83 revegetation of tailings area, 123-132
Chlamydomonas addophiIa, 222 Coppice woodland, see Birch coppice woodlands
348 Index
Coregonus artedii (cisco), 76, 77f sustainability, 342-343

Cornus canadensis, 235t Ecosystems
Cost accounting for resource use, 331-332 catchments as, 313-315; see also Catchment management
Costs, municipal land restoration, 116-117 tailings revegetation effects, 127, 128, 295
Cottus cognatus (slimy sculpin), 70 in urban planning, 325-329
Crayfish (Oronectes virilis), 70 see also specific types of systems
Creeping red fescue (Festuca rubra), 113t, 127 Ectomycorrhizae, 224, 228, 229
Crustaceans, 69t 70 Elliot Lake, 140, 307f
opportunistic invasion, 76 Emission control technologies, 63-65, 275-285
species richness, 73 Falconbridge Ltd. program, 63-65
Cultural eutrophication, urban lakes, 260t 261 improvements in Sudbury region, 287-288
Cyanobacteria, soil, 221-223 Inco Ltd. program, 276-285
Cyclotella ocellata, 39f Copper Cliff smelting process changes, 278-279, 280f,
Cyclotella steligera, 37, 39f 28If, 282f, 283t 284f
global comparisons, 285
Daisy Lake, 306-307 recent control technologies and strategies, 279-281
Danthonia spicata (poverty grass), 10 1 recycling, 284
Daphnia galeata mendotae (water flea), 69t 201 sulfur emission reduction, 276-278
Daphnia magna, 139 proactive approach, 275
Daphnia pUlex, 74 public awareness and legislation, 275-276
Dero nivea, 75 see also Air quality improvement
Deschampsia caespitosa, see Tufted hairgrass Empetrum hermaphroditum, 252, 253
Deschampsiaflexuosa, 235t, 25lt Energy efficiency, community, 330
Desmidium, 73 Engineered wetlands, see Wetlands, engineered
Desmococcus, 223t Environmental chemistry, see Geochemistry
Desulfovibrio, 136 Environmental impact assessment
Diatoms paleolimnology, 33-34
acidification effects, 69f progressive rehabilitation, 293
soil, 222 urban planning, 331
see also Paleolimnology Environmental monitoring, see Monitoring
Diervilla lonicera, 235t, 251t Environmental protection models, catchment manage-
Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) ment, 315-316
remote sensing surveys, 301-303, 304f Ephemerella, 74
UV absorption, 320 Epilobium angustifolium (fireweed), 100
Wanapitei/ Algoma study, 308-309 Epischura lacrustis, 69t 74
Diversity, see Biodiversity Equisetum arvense (field horsetail), 94t 97
Dolomitic limestone, 175 Equisetum sylvaticum (wood horsetail), 97, 251t
Drainage, tailings revegetation project, 125-126 Erosion, 27t 94-95
Ducks, see Waterfowl population trends interacting factors in, 24-25, 319
Dust emissions, tailings, 123-124, 125 tailings, 123-124, 125, 126
Dwarf birch (Betula pumila) , 97 Ethic, environmental, 333, 335, 342
Eubosmina, 74
Ecological ethic, 333, 335, 342 Euglena, 223t
Ecological values, 170 Eunotia exigua, 37, 39f
Economic activity, see History of human activity European larch, 115f
Economic analysis Eutrophication, 260f, 261, 320-321
benefits and costs, 340 Evernia mesomorpha, 82t 86, 86t
municipal land restoration, 116-119, 120f E-ways, 329
urban planning, 331-332 Exotic species, 144,262,264
Economic benefits, 273, 337
Ecosystem management Falconbridge
economic costs and benefits, 340 sulfur dioxide abatement system, 54t 63-65
ethics/social values, 342 wetlands rehabilitation, 138-140, 295
integrated land management approach, 294-295; see Falco peregrinus anatum, see Peregrine Falcons
also Integrated management Fall rye (Secale cereale), 125, 126
partnerships, role ot 340-341 Fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas), 69f, 70, 319
public pressure and policy, 338-339 Fertilizer application, see Soil treatment
science, role of, 341-342 Festuca rubra (red fescue), 113t, 127
Sudbury case history, 336 Field horsetail (Equisetum arvense), 94t 97
Sudbury program elements, 335-337 Filamentous green algae, 74f, 75
Index 349
Fire, 18, 24, 25, 27t Geography and geology, 5-14

Fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium), 100 climate, 10-11
Fish,75 geological effects on environmental chemistry, 12-14
acidification effects, 691, 70 glaciation, 5, 9-10
catchment management issues, 318 lakes, 11-12, 12f
Falconbridge tailings settling pond, 295 ore, 9
interactions between stressors, 319 soils, 11
interactions with zooplankton, 77f Sudbury Basin, 5-9
lake liming effects, 200, 201 vegetation, 11, 17
loss of sport fish species, 67 Geology,4t
mercury levels in, 210 GIS thematic layers, 305f
paleolimnology, 33 Sudbury Basin, 5-9
recovery after emissions abatement, 75 urban planning considerations, 327
restoration project, see Aurora trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) see also Geography and geology
urban lakes GIS, see Geographic information systems
changes in, 268 Gleysols, 10
exotic species, 262 Gloeocapsa,223t
observed versus expected average, 264f Gloeocystis, 223t
species richness, 264 Glyceria canadensis (rattlesnake grass), 97f
waterfowl requirements, 207, 208t, 2131, 215 Goals of restoration, 105-107
wetlands species, 139 catchment management, 313, 315
Five hundred year planning, 327 municipal regreening project, 112
Flash furnace product, 279-280, 280f, 281 Gold, 9
Flash furnace smelting, 52 Government regulation, 4t, 342
Forests air quality improvement, 51, 52-54
denudation, 319 closure and rehabilitation standards, 203
history of human activity, 17-18, 19,21,22-23 emission control, 275-276, 281-282, 284
urban, 329-330 Grassing, 178
see also Birch coppice woodlands; Tree planting municipal regreening project, 112-113, 113t, 114f
Foxtail barley (Hordeumjubatum), 94 tailings revegetation project, 125, 126-127
Frankia, 226 Green housing, 332
Frost action, 25, 26, 27f Green space/greenways, 329-330
and birch coppice woodland, 235, 237f, 241 t, 243-244 Ground-level ozone, 58-59
tailings freeze-thaw cycles, 123-124, 125 Groundwater, see also Water quality
Frustulia rhomboides, 37 iron and manganese oxyhydroxides in, 186
Frustulia rhomboides v. saxonica, 39f wetlands and, 140
Funding of restoration projects, 337 Gypsum, 278, 283
Fungi
carbon dioxide fixation, 224 Hair moss (Polytrichumcommune), 27, 235t, 25lt
hyphae, 221 Hannah Lake, 40, 196, 197, 198f, 199f, 200, 200f, 201,
lichen symbiont, 81, 83 258f
mycorrhizae, 179,224,228-229 Hantzchia,223t
see also Soil biota Hexagenia (mayfly), 69f, 74, 265
Furnace matte, 63 High arctic tundra, 238, 24lt
History of human activity, 4t, 17-30
Garden crops, 58-59 damage to ecosystem, 22-30
Gastropus, 73 acid rain, 29
Gavia immer (Common Loon), 206f, 207, 208t, 209t, factors in, 24-27
210-212, 21Of, 295 plant communities, 27-30
Geobotanical prospecting, 96 logging, 17-18
Geochemistry mining, 18-19
catchment mass balance, 320 roast yards, 19-22
geological influence on, 12-14 History of Sudbury region, 3, 4t
lake waters, 67-68, 70 Holopediumgibberum, 74
paleolimnology, see Paleolimnology Hooded Merganser (Lophodytes cucuUatus), 206f, 207,
tailings revegetation barrier effect, 131-132 208t, 209t, 21Of, 211, 213-214, 213f
see also pH; Redox processes; specific elements and ecosystems Hordeumjubatum (foxtail barley), 94
Geographic information systems, 303, 305-307 Horsetail, 94f, 97
goals of monitoring, 299 Housing, green, 332
integration with remote sensing, 307-309 Human values, 170
350 Index
Humic adds, 136-137 wetlands processes, 136, 137, 139-140

HyaZeUa azteca, 74, 265 Iron oxides, phosphate fixation, 127
Hydrogen sulfide generation, 186, 187-188 Iron/titanium ratios, 88
Hydrology
urban lakes, 262-263 Jack pine (Pinus banksiana), 179, 180, 226
see also Watershed logging of, 17
munidpal regreening project, 113t, 115, 115f, 116f,
Inco Ltd., 4t 117f
Copper Cliff revegetation project, 123-132 tailings revegetation project, 127, 128, 129, 130f
emission control program, 276-285 Japanese larch, 115f
Superstack, 53f, 54 Juncus brevicaudatus, 96, 97f
Index of atmospheric purity (lAP), 83, 87 Juniperus virginiana (red cedar), 178
Indicator spedes
diatoms, see Paleolimnology Kelly Lake, 177f, 191, 258f, 261, 320
lichens, see Lichens Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), 113t, 127
urban lakes, 264 Keratella cochZearis, 73
Industry Keratella taurocephaZa, 73
role of, 342
see also Partnerships Laccaria Zaccaria, 228
Insects Lactarius rufus, 229
aquatic, 33, 200, see also Aquatic biota Lakes, 11-12, 12f
defoliation by aurora trout restoration, 149-151
birch coppice woodlands, 236-238, 240-24lf, 242-243 geological influences on geochemistry, 12-13
Vacdnium angustifolium, 249 GIS studies, 305-306
lake liming effects, 200 liming
Integrated management experiments, 196-197
add rock drainage, 292-293 GIS studies, 306-307
aerial treatment program, 293-294 recovery of aquatic biota, 197-202
air and water quality improvement, 287-288 natural recovery of, see Lake water quality
catchments, 313-321 improvement
future challenges, 295, 296 paleolimnology, see Paleolimnology
industrial lands, 289-291 remote sensing surveys, 301-303, 304f
progressive rehabilitation, 293-296 urban, 257-268; see also Urban lakes
self-sustaining ecosystem development, 294-295 water chemistry, 68, 70-71
water management and treatment, 288--289 waterfowl, see Waterfowl population trends
Invertebrates, 70 water quality improvements, see Lake water quality
aquatic improvement
lake liming effects, 200, 201 Lake sediments, 183-191
urban lakes, 265 chemical element profiles, 183-186
zooplankton interaction, 77f geological influences on geochemistry, 14
see aZso Benthic invertebrates iron oxyhydroxides, 186-188
soil, 224; see also Soil biota management implications, 191
waterfowl requirements, 207, 208t, 212 metal deposition, 70
Ion activity product (lAP), 188-189 ore grade, 191
Ion exchange mechanisms sorption on iron oxide surfaces, 189-190, 191
clay, 13 sulfide precipitation, 188-189
lichens, 82-83 transfonnations within, 186
wetlands, 135-136 transport processes, 186
Iridium, 9,191,261 urban lakes, 261, 265
Iron, 51 see also Paleolimnology
lake sediments, 184, 186-188, 189-190 Lake Timiskaming, 12
ore composition, 276, 277f Lake trout (SaZvelinus namaycush), 67, 69f, 75, 76, 77f,
particulate fallout, 58 196,200,201,202,268
pH effects Lake Wanapitei. 207, 208f
on metal sorption, 189-190 Lake water quality improvement, 67-78
on solubility, 288 biological recovery, 71-75
process technology, 278, 279 complications, 75-76
soil expectations of, 75
mobilization by acid rain, 319 lake chemistry, 68-71
podzolization and, 10 reversibility of damage, 67-68
Index 351
Land reclamation Lowbush blueberry (Vaccinium angusti!olium), 247-254

integrated management and progressive rehabilitation, biology of, 248-250
287-297 birch transition forest, 235t, 248
minimal treatment approach, 337 metal accumulation, 247-248
see also Regreening process; Revegetation levels in fruit, 252-253
Landsat satellites, 300-303, 304f levels in plant species, 25lt
Land use planning, 327-329 mechanisms of tolerance, 247-248
Larix laricina (tamarack), 113t, 115f, 116f Sudbury site, 250-253, 25lt
Laundrie Lake, 74, 74f Lower Swansea Valley project, 110
Leaching Lumbering, 2f, 7
acid precipitation and, 319 Lupine (Lupinus lepidus), 100
from slag piles, 296 Lyngbya, 223t
watershed soils, 68
Lead, 183 Magnesium
bedrock chemical patterns, 14 acid rain and, 71
lake sediments, sorption on oxide surfaces, 190 lake water
ore composition, 9 buffering by, 12-13
soil, 220t, 223 reductions in, 68
Lecanora, 84, 86, 87 mobilization by acid rain, 319
Lecidea, 87 podzolization and, 10
Legislation,4t, 51,275-276,281-282,284,293, 337, see also Liming
342-343 Mallard (An as platyrhynchos) , 129, 206f, 207, 208t, 2091,
Legumes 21Of,214-215
forest species, 179-180; see also Black locust Mammals, see Wildlife
nitrogen fixation, 226 Management approaches, see Integrated management
tailings revegetation project, 125 Management objectives, see Goals of restoration
see also specific legumes Manganese
Lepraria aeruginosa, 86 lake sediments, 184, 189-190
Leptodiaptomus minutus, 69f soil
Lichens, 24, 57, 81-90 leaching from, 70
as biomonitor, 82-83 mobilization by acid rain, 319
distribution changes over time, 83-87 wetlands processes, 136, 137-138
epiphytic versus rock- and soil-inhabiting, 87-88 Maple transition community, 27, 28f, 30; see also Red
metal particulates in, 88-89 maple
species observed on balsam poplar, 86t Mapping, see Geographic information systems; Remote
Sudbury studies, 83-87 sensing
Life-cycle costing of resource use, 331-332 Matteuccia struthiopteris (ostrich fern), 25lt
Limestone, 12 Mayfly (Hexagenia), 69f, 74, 265
Liming McFarlane Lake, 184, 185f
lakes, 195-203 Meadow willow (Salix gracilis), 94f, 96
recovery of aquatic biota, 195-203 Mercury, 210,319
and trace element concentrations, 191 Mergus merganser (Common Merganser), 206f, 207, 208t,
trout restoration, 149-151 209t, 21Of, 211-212, 211, 213f
soil Metal contaminants
and algae and cyanobacteria, 222-223 accumulation in vegetation, 58
birch coppice woodlands, 242-244 atmospheric release, tonnage, 51, 58-59
and nitrogen fixation, 225 interacting factors in ecological damage, 25, 319
and plant community dynamics, see Plant interactions between stressors, 319
community dynamics lakes
see also Soil treatment levels of, 70-71
waste water treatment, 288-289 urban, 258, 259, 260f, 261, 266f
wetlands processes, 137, 140 lake sediments
Little Whitepine Lake, 149, 197, 199f chemical processes controlling, 183, 184, 185,
Logging, 17-18,24, 27f 186-190
Lohi Lake, 196, 197, 199f, 200, 201 depth distributions, 187f, 187
Loons, see Waterfowl population trends ore grade, 191
Lophodytes cucullatus (Hooded Merganser), 206f, 207, paleolimnology, 37-38, 39f, 40, 41
208t, 209t, 210f, 211, 213-214, 213f sorption on oxide surfaces, 190
Lota Iota (burbot), 69f, 75 urban lakes, 265
Lotus comiculatus, see Birdsfoot trefoil in lowbush blueberry, 247-253
352 Index
particulate Natural recovery

fallout, 51, 58 of lakes, 67-78
in lichens, 88-89 trends in, 47-49
plant tissue concentrations, 25lt vascular plant communities, 93-102
soil, 220t, 220-221 Navicula, 223t
accumulation in, 58 Navicula mediocris, 39f
amelioration effects on plant nutrients, 175 Nelson Lake, 196, 197, 199f, 200, 200f
liming effects, 173 Neo-traditional development, 329
mycorrhizial associations and, 228 Nepahwin Lake, 258f
plant uptake in revegetated sites, 180-181 Neutralization reactions
water management and treatment, 288 lake buffering capacity, 12-13, 33, 37,43, 67-68
Metallothioneins, 247 wetlands processes, 136
Metal recycling, 284 Nickel, 183
Metal tolerance, vegetation, 93, 95 atmospheric deposition of, 25, 317-318
Metazoans, soil, 224 Bessemer matte, 279-280
Methanogenesis, 137 geobotanical prospecting, 84
Microbial activity history of production, 19, 21
lake sediments, 186 lake water
see also Bacteria; Fungi; Soil biota paleolimnology, 37-38, 39f, 40, 4lf
Microbial polysaccharides, 220 sources of, 40
Microclimate urban lakes, 261
arctic tundra, 239, 241 ore composition, 9, 276, 277f
birch coppice woodlands, 235-236, 244 reduction in emissions, 56-57
Micropterus (bass), 268 soil
Micropterus dolomieu (smallmouth bass), 67, 201 and nitrogen cycling, 227
Middle Lake, 4lf, 196, 197, 199f, 200, 200f, 258f toxicity to plants, 25, 26, 27f
Mine drainage, rehabilitation of, see Wetlands, soil microbe tolerance, 223, 224
engineered solubility, pH effects, 288
Mine Environment Neutral Drainage (MEND), 138, Superstack distribution of, 317-318
140 wetlands processes, 139
Mining, history of activity, 18-19 see also Metal contaminants
Mixed land use planning, 327-329 Nickel smelters and refineries, worldwide location of, 18f
Models/modeling Nitrate
catchment management, 315-316 catchment release of, 320
remote sensing and GIS studies, 307-308 fertilizer, see Soil treatment
urban planning, see Urban planning , Nitrobader, 226-227
Monitoring, 297 Nitrogen
catchment management, 314-316 land reclamation and, 179-180
Inco emissions, 281-282 toxic metal amelioration and, 175
municipal regreening project, 116 urban lake eutrophication, 260f, 261
paleolimnology, see Paleolimnology Nitrogen cycle, soil processes, 226-228
progressive rehabilitation, 293 Nitrogen fixation
remote sensing and GIS, 299-310; see also Geographic soil microbes, 225-226
information systems; Remote sensing tailings revegetation project, 125
urban planning considerations, 331 see also Birdsfoot trefoil
Monoculture, forest, see Birch coppice woodlands Nitrosomonas, 226-227
Moose Lake facility, 289 Noril'sk, 7f, 8f, 18, 60, 339t
Mosses, 27, 88, 93,174,175,221,224 Norway spruce, 115f
birch coppice woodlands, 242 Nostoc, 225, 225f
birch transition forest, 235t Nostoc muscorum, 223t
wetland construction, 136 Nurse crops, 178
Multispectral scanner, Landsat, 300-301 Nutrient limitation
Municipal land restoration, see Regreening process land reclamation and, 179-180
Musculum securis, 75 toxic metal amelioration and, 175
Mycorrhizae, 224
and metal tolerance, 228-229, 247 Oedogonium, 73
and phosphorus nutrition, 179 Oocystis, 223t
Myricaaspleniiolia, (same as Comptonia peregrina) (sweet Opossum shrimp (Mysis relicta), 70, 201
fern),2511 Ores
Mysis relida (opossum shrimp), 70, 201 composition, 9, 276, 277f
Index 353
pyrrhotite, 9, 52, 63, 140,292 North American monitoring, 162-163

Ore grade lake sediments, 191 partnership, 158
Organic matter recovery program in North America, 156
DOC, see Dissolved organic carbon release process
lake sediments, 185 procedure and follow-up, 160-162
soil,220 urban, Sudbury, 158-160
wetlands, ion exchange mechanisms, 135-136 wilderness, 162, 163f
Oriabitids, 224 species description, 155-156
Oronectes virilis (crayfish), 70 Sudbury project, 156-158
Orthocyclops modestus, 76 pH
Oryzopsis asperifolia (rice grass), 101 acid mine drainage, 13 5
Oscillatoria, 223t GIS studies, 306
Osmerus mordax (rainbow smelt), 262 interactions between stressors, 319
Osmium, 9 lakes
Osmunda claytoniana (sensitive fern), 25lt generation of alkalinity, 189
Osprey (Pandion haliaetus), 295 paleolimnology studies, 38-40, 4lf
Ovales, 95, 96 temporal and spatial patterns of, 40-43
Oxidation, see Redox processes urban, 258, 259, 260f, 266f
Oxides and waterfowl, see Waterfowl population trends
lake sediments, pH effects on metal sorption, 189-190 lake sediments
metal particulates in lichens, 88-89 depth distributions, 187
Oxygen iron and manganese oxyhydroxide solubility, 186
lake sediments, 184, 186-188 and metal sorption on oxide surfaces, 189-190
tailings revegetation barrier effect, 131-132 and solubility of trace elements, 184
wetlands aerobic processes, 136-137 and metal solubility, 173, 186-190,288
see also Anaerobic processes; Anoxic-oxic conditions and metal toxicity, 289,319
Oxygen flash furnace smelting, 52 and roast bed revegetation, 95
Oxyhydrides, lake sediments, 186-190 soil,221
Ozone levels, 58-59, 320 and nitrogen cycling, 226-227
and nitrogen fixation, 225
Paleolimnology wetlands processes, 137, 138
changes in lake water chemistry since preindustrial see also Acidification
times, 38-40 Phantom midge (Chaoborus), 37, 76
Clearwater Lake, 36-38 Phleumpratense (timothy), 113t, 127
diatom calibration, 36 Phosphates
environmental assessment, 33-34 fertilizer, see Soil treatment
field and laboratory methods, 34-36 iron oxide fixation of, 127
pH, temporal and spatial patterns, 40-43 Phosphorus
Palladium release from sediments, 320-321
lake sediments soil, liming and, 173
ore grade, 191 urban lake eutrophication, 260t, 261
urban lakes, 261 Phosphorus limitation
ore composition, 9, 277f land reclamation and, 179
Pandion haliaetus (osprey), 295 toxic metal amelioration and, 175
Paper birch (Betula papyrifera) , 228; see also White birch Phytochelatins, 247
Parmelia eonspersa, 24 Phytoplankton, 67
Parmelia physodes, 24 acidification effects, 69f
Parmelia saxatilis, 24 lake liming effects, 200, 201
Parmelia sulcata, 82f, 86, 86t recovery after emissions abatement, 71, 75
Particulate fallout, 58 Pieeaglauea (white spruce), 17, 20t, 115f, 116
Partnerships, 337 Piceamariana (black spruce), 17, 115f
peregrine falcon restoration, 158 Pimephales promelas (fathead minnow), 69f, 70, 319
role of, 340-341 Pinus banksiana, see Jack pine
Pearl y everlasting (Anaphalis margaritaeea), 100, 174, 175 Pinus resinosa, see Red pine
Penicillium waksmanii, 224 Pinus strobus (white pine), 17, 20f, 24,57,59, 113t, 115,
Pentlandite, 9 115f, 116, 179
Perea flaveseens (yellow perch), 69f, 75, 76, 77f, 207 Pisidium, 75
Peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus anatum), 155-165, 295 Planning, 271-273
benefits of partnership, 163-165 Plant communities
hacking period, 160 recovery of, 93-102
354 Index
Planr communities (cont.) Progressive rehabilitation, 293-296; see also Integrated

Sudbury area, 27-28, 30 management
Plant community dynamics Prospecting, geobotanical, 84, 96
ecological damage, descriptions of, 27-30 Protozoa, soil, 224
limestone detoxification, 173 Pteridium aquilinum (bracken), 27
native species, 178 Public opinion
nutrient cycling, 179-180 early government responses, 51
pH and base effect of limed soil, 174-175 political action, 337, 338-339
species changes after liming, 175-178 Public participation, 337
succession, acceleration of, 178-179 municipal land restoration, 109-111, 119-120
toxic metals, 180-181 and success of restoration, 107
trigger factor effect, 173 Public policy, 342
Plant residues Public pressure, 338-339
soil microbes and, 224-225 Public relations, 342
tailings revegetation project and, 131 Pyrrhotite, 9, 52, 63, 139, 292
Plant roots, 220
Plants Quercus borealis (same as Quercus rubra) (red oak), 27, 30,
metallophytes, 84 98, 113t, lIS, 116f, 239, 25lt
nutrition, toxic metal amelioration and, 175
restoration projects, see Revegetation Rainbow smelt (Osmerus mordax), 262
urban lake introductions, 262 RAIN project, 71
waterfowl requirements, 208t Ramsey Lake, 4lf, 267f, 316
wetland construction, 136 Ramsey Lake Community Improvement Plan, 327, 328
see also Vegetation Rattlesnake grass (Glyceria canadensis), 97f
Plant species Recycling, metals, 284
birch transition forest, 235t Recycling, water, 288-289
Copper Cliff tailings area, 295 Red cedar (Juniperus virginiana), 178
Plasmids, 220, 223 Red elderberry (Sambucus pubens), 27
Platinum Red fescue (Festuca rubra), 113t, 127
lake sediments, 191, 261 Red maple (Acer rubrum), 27, 109, 224, 233, 235t
ore composition, 9, 277f copper and nickel levels in tissues, 2511
Poa compressa, see Canada bluegrass regressive dieback, 93, 98, 99f
in transition communities, 30
Poa pratensis (Kentucky bluegrass), 113t, 127
Red oak community, 30
Podzolization, 10
Red oak (Quercus borealis or Quercus rubra), 27, 30, 98,
Podzols, 10, 221
113t, lIS, 116f, 238, 25lt
Pohlia, 224
Redox processes
Pohlia cruda, 242
bacterial-catalyzed sulfate reduction, 136
Pohlia nutans, 27, 88, 93,2351, 242
lake sediments, iron oxyhydroxides and, 186-188
Political action, 337, 338-339
plant micronutrients, 250
Polyarthra, 73 pyrrhotite tailings, 292
Polygonum dlinode, 2511 wetlands, 136, 139-140
Polysaccharides, microbial, 220 Red pine (Pinus resinosa), 113t, 115f, 116f, 179, 25lt
Polytrichum commune (hair moss), 27, 235t, 2511 tailings revegetation project, 127, 128, 129, 130f
Populus balsamifera (balsam poplar), 175 vegetation zone, 17
Populus tremuloides, see Trembling aspen Red Pine Lake, 295
Porpidia, 87 Redtop (Agrostisgigantea), 94,95,175
Potassium fertilizer, see Soil treatment municipal regreening project, 113t
Poverty grass (Danthonia spicata), 10 1 tailings revegetation project, 127
Prairie willow (Salix humilis), 94f, 96, 235t, 2511 Regreening process
Precious metals benefits of, 118-119, 120f
ore composition, 9, 277f costs of, 116-117
urbanlakesedimen~,261 future initiatives, 117-118
Precipitation, acid, see Acid rain lessons of, 120-121
Precipitation/solubility restoration process, 112-117
lake sediments grassing, 112-113
iron oxyhydroxides and, 186-188 monitoring, 116
sulfides, 188-189 results, 116--11 7
liming and, 173 tree planting, 113-116
Private sector role, 342 scientific basis, 111-112
Index 355
Regressive dieback, 27, 28f, 93 Salix humilis (prairie willow), 94f, 96, 235t, 251t
Regulation, see Government regulation Salix lucida (shining willow), 96
Reindeer/caribou licben (Cladina rangiferina), 24, 82f, 83, Salix pyrifolia (balsam willow), 96, 175
84, 86t, 88, 307-308 Salvelinus fontinalis (aurora trout), 143-152, 195, 197,
Remote sensing, 6f 318
counts and measures, 307-308 Salvelinus fontinalis (brook trout), 67, 75f, 77
DOC measurement study, 308-309, 310f Salvelinus namaycush (lake trout), 67, 69f, 74, 75, 76f, 77,
future applications, 309-310 196,200,201,202,268
goals of monitoring, 299 Sambucus pubens (red elderberry), 27
integration with GIS, 307-309 Saturation indices, lake water, 188-189
lake water quality study, 301-303, 304f Science
Sudbury area plant communities, 27 regreening proj ect, 111-112
vegetation surveys, 301, 302f research topics in restoration ecology, 169-172
Reporting, environmental, 331 role of, 341-342
Research topics in restoration ecology, 169-172 Scirpus cyperinus (wool sedge), 95, 96, 97f
Respiration, soil, 225f Scierodermajlavidum, 228, 229
Restoration ecology, 341-342 Secale cereale (fall rye), 125, 126
goals of, 105-107 Sedges, 95-96
prevention versus, 342-343 Sediments
research topics, 169-172 catchment management problems, 317
Revegetation lake, see Lake sediments; Paleolimnology
aerial treatment program, 293-294 Seeding
birch coppice woodlands, 233-244 plant recolonization, 99, 101
municipal land restoration, see Regreening process Vaccinium angustifolium, 249
see also Lowbush blueberry; Plant community see also Regreening process; Revegetation
dynamics Selenium
Revegetation of tailings area interactions between stressors, 319
current program, 126-127 lake sediments, 183, 184, 185f
ecosystem development, 128 ore composition, 9, 277f
environmental concerns, 128-130, 13lf Self-sustaining ecosystem development, 294-296
history of problem, 124 Sewage, 261, 320
physical processes, 123-124 Shining willow (Salix lucida), 96
soil development, 127-128 Shoreline alterations, urban lakes, 260f, 261-262
technique, 124-126 Sida crystallin a, 76
tree planting, 128, 129, 130f Silver, 9, 277f
water quality effects, 131-132 Silver Lake, 184, 258f, 261
Rhizobium, 226, 227 Silver maple, 115f
Rhizocarpon, 87 Simocephalus serrulatus, 76
Rhizoplane, 220 Skistodiaptomus oregonensis, 74
Rhizosphere, 220 Slag
Rhodium, 9 environmental impacts of, 296
Rice grass (Oryzopsis asperifolia), 101 land management, 289, 290f, 291
Ring-necked Duck (Aythya collaris), 206f, 207, 208t, Smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieui), 67
209t, 210f, 21lf, 214 Smelter emissions, see Air quality improvement
Roast yards, 19-22, 25, 26, 27 Societal values, 118-119, 333, 335, 342
Robinia pseudoacacia (black locust), 113t, 115t, 116f, 127, Soil
180,226 birch coppice woodlands, 234, 236
Root growth, toxic metals and, 26 glacial deposition, 10
Root zone, 220 interacting factors ecological damage, 24-26
Rubus chamaemorus, 252 interactions between stressors, 319
Rumex acetosella (sorrel), 93, 95f, 96, 125 metal accumulation in, 58
Rushes, 96, 97f metal leaching from, 68, 71
Ruthenium, 9 roast bed emissions and, 21
sulfur dioxide effects, 57-58
Salinity, urban lakes, 263 tailings revegetation project, 127-128
Salix (willow), 100, 127, 173, 175f types of, 11
Salix bebbiana, 235t Soil amelioration, see Soil treatment
Salix commutata, 100 Soil biota
Salix discolor, 235t algae and cyanobacteria, 221-223
Salix gracilis (meadow willow), 94f, 96 bacteria, 223
356 Index
Soil biota (cont.) interacting factors, 25, 26, 27f

carbon dioxide fixation and litter decomposition, 224- lake acidification, 259
225 legislated reduction targets, 56
fauna, 224 quantification, Sudbury area, 54f, 55f, 56, 69f
fungi,224 see also Air quality improvement
habitat, 219-220 Sulfuricacid,52
mycorrhizae, 228-229 Sulfuric acid production, Inco facility, 278, 279
nitrogen cycling, 226-228 Sulfur trioxide, 58
nitrogen fixation, 225-226, 227f Superstack, 53, 54, 317, 318
Sudbury soils, 221 Surface complexation theory, 189-190
toxic metals and acid conditions, 220-221 Surface stabilization
Soil erosion, 319 aerial soil treatment program, 293-294
Soil treatment, 93 tailings revegetation project, 125-126, 127f
birch coppice woodlands, 242-243 Surveys, see Geographic information systems; Monitor-
catchment management issues, 318 ing; Remote sensing
integrated management and progressive rehabilitation, Sustainability, 287, 336, 342-343; see also Integrated
293-294 management
municipalregreening project, 1I2-113, 113t Swan Lake, 73
and plant community dynamics, 173-181 Swansea Valley project, 110
tailings revegetation project, 125, 126, 127-128 Sweet fern (Comptonia peregrina), 27, 179, 180,226,
Solidago canadensis, 25 It 235t,25It
Solidago graminifolia, 94f Synergisms, 319
Sorrel (Rumex acetosella), 93, 95f, 96, 125
Species diversity, see Biodiversity Tabellaria quadriseptata, 37, 39f
Species richness, water acidity and, 71, 73, 74f Tailings
Spectral bandwidths, Landsat, 300t land management, 289, 290f, 29If, 292
Spirogyra, 73 rehabilitation of, see Wetlands, engineered
Springtails, 224 revegetation project at Copper Cliff, 123-132
Stereocaulon, 24, 82f, 87,89, 89f, 235t urban lake infilling, 263, 263f
Stichococcus subtilis, 223t Tamarack (Larix laricina), 1I3t, 1I5t, 1I6f
Stizostedion vitreum (walleye), 67,295 Tellurium, ore composition, 9, 277f
Stylaria lacrustis, 75 Temperature, 10-11
Sudbury Basin geology, 5-9 arctic tundra, 239, 241
Sugar maple (Acer saccharum), 17, 115f birch coppice woodlands, 235-236
Sulfate-reducing bacteria, wetlands, 136, 137 Thematic mapper radiance measurements, 300, 304f
Sulfates, sulfides, and sulfur chemistry , Thuja occidentalis (white cedar), 17, 20f, 115f
atmospheric deposition, see Air quality improvement; Tickle grass (Agrostis scabra), 235t, 244
Emission control technologies colonization by, 93, 95f, 96, 97f
catchment management issues, 319 plant community dynamics, 173, 175, 175f
interactions between stressors, 25, 26, 27f, 319 Timothy (Phleum pratense), 113t, 127
lake sediments, 186,319 Titanium/iron ratios, 88
arsenic precipitation, 187-188 Topography, III, 305f
chemical processes controlling, 184, 185f Toxicity
and phosphorus release, 320-321 aluminum, 25, 26, 27f
saturation indices, 188--189 pH and, 289,319
metal particulates in lichens, 88--89 tolerant species, 93, 95,247-248
ore composition, 9, 276, 277f Toxic metals, see Metal contaminants
and phosphorus release from sediments, 320-321 Tree planting
pyrrhotite, 9, 52, 63, 140, 292 municipal regreening project, 113-116, 113t, 1I4f
soil, metal binding enhancement, 27 tailings revegetation project, 128, 129, 130f
storage and release, 70 Trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides), 173, 175, 175f,
Superstack distribution of, 317-318 176, 177f, 179, 235t
tailings, 123 copper and nickel levels in tissues, 251 t
wetlands processes, 136, 137, 139, 140 insect defoliation, 238
see also specific ecosystems and remediation projects recolonization after logging, 18
Sulfur dioxide emissions tailings revegetation project, 127
comparison of, 339t Trifolium hybridum (Alsike clover), 1I3t, 174, 179, 180,
control technology, 275-285 226
history of land use, 19-22 Triggerfactor, 173, 176
improvements in Sudbury region, 287-288 Tropocyclops extensus, 73
Index 357
Tufted hairgrass (Deschampsia caespitosa), 27, 174, 251 t survey of damage to, 23-24
colonization by, 93, 94, 95f, 97,98 toxic soil and, 25, 26
metal-tolerant strains, 180 see also Lowbush blueberry; Plant community dynamics
Tundra, arctic, 239, 241 Vegetation zone, 17
TYPha latifolia (cattails), 97f, 13lf, 139, 140, 25lt, 295 Vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae, 179, 224, 228, 229
Viburnum cassinoides (witherod), 27
Ulmus americana (American elm), 27 Volcano recolonization, 100-101
Ultraviolet radiation, 320
Umbilicaria, 83 Walleye (Stizostedion vitreum), 67, 295
Umbilicaria mulhenbergia, 82f Wanapitei Lake, 12, 42f
Uranium, 13, 14, 84 Wanapitei study, 207, 208f, 308-309
Uranium tailings, 140 Waste rock management, 289, 290f, 291, 292-293
Urban forestry, 329-330 Waste water treatment
Urban lakes, 257-268 at Copper Cliff, 288-289
acidification, 259, 260f surface run-off, 293
altered hydrology, 262-263 Water
eutrophication, 260f, 261 acid rock drainage, 292-293
exotic species, 262 nitrogen compounds and, 320
integrators of ecosystem health and function, 263-266, Water chemistry, lakes, 68, 70
267f Water flea (Daphniaoaleata mendotae), 69f, 201
biological time lag, 265-266 Waterfowl, 67
miscellaneous stressors, 263 Palconbridge tailings settling pond, 295
metal contaminants, 2591, 2601, 261 tailings revegetation project and, 127, 128, 13lf
shoreline and watershed alterations, 260f, 261-262 Waterfowl Acidification Response Modeling System
stress factors, 258-263 (WARMS), 215
watershed structure, 257, 258f Waterfowl population trends, 205-215
Urban planning density and distribution of species, 209t, 210-215
ecosystem planning in, 325-327 BlackDuck, 210f, 21lf, 213f, 214
evaluation tools, 331-333 Common Goldeneye, 210f, 21lf, 212-213
long-term, 327-331 Common Loon, 210-212
biodimatic design, 330 Common Merganser, 210f, 211-212, 21lf, 213f
community energy efficiency, 330 Hooded Merganser, 21Of, 21lf, 213-214, 213f
design with nature, 327 Mallard, 210f, 214-215
green space, 329-330 Ring-necked Duck, 21Of, 21lf, 214
mixed land use, 327-329 Wvod Duck, 210f, 214
transit-friendly communities, 330-331 habitat requirements, 208t, 208f
Urban restoration, see Regreening process species of breeding popUlations, 206, 207
Usnea hirta, 82f, 86 wetlands distribution and quality, 209f
Water management and treatment, improvements in
Vaccinium anoustifolium, see Lowbush blueberry Sudbury region, 288-289, 293
Vaccinium myrtilloides 24,247 Water quality
Vaccinium myrtillus, 252 improvements in
Vaccinium vitis-idaea, 252 municipal regreening project and, 118
Vegetation revegetation of tailings and, 131-132
arctic tundra, 239, 241 Sudbury region, 287-288
atmospheric fallout damage, 59 see also Lake water quality improvement
birch coppice woodlands paleolimnology, see Paleolimnology
dormantseedbank,244 remote sensing surveys, 301-303, 304f
see also Birch coppice woodlands Watershed
birch transition forest, 235t alterations of, and urban lakes, 260, 261-262
Copper Cliff tailings area, 295 catchment management issues, 318-319
forestry resources, nineteenth century, 17-18 GIS studies, 305f, 306-307
GIS thematic layers, 305f Inco management plan, 293
oxygen barrier effect, 131-;132 revegetation, aerial treatment program, 293-294
postglacial changes, 10 Wanapitei/Aigoma study, 308-309
recovery of vascular plants, 93-102 Wavy hairgrass, 100
regressive dieback, 27, 28f Weather
remote sensing surveys, 301, 302f climate of Sudbury area, 10-11,70,75, 319-320
restoration projects, see Revegetation tailings freeze-dry process, 123-124, 125
sulfur dioxide fumigation effects, 57-58 Weathering, and lake recovery, 67-68
358 Index
Wetlands, engineered, 135-140, 295 Wind erosion, tailings, 123-124, 125

benefits and mechanisms, 135-136 Winds, prevailing, 5, 10
natural versus constructed, 135-138 Winter cities, 330
Whirligig Lake, 145, 149, ISO, 151, 197, 198f, 199f Witherod (Viburnum cassinoides), 27
White ash, ll5f Wood Duck (Aix sponsa) , 206f, 207, 208t, 2091, 21Of,
White birch (Betula papyri[era), 109, 173, 175, 175f, 214
177f, 228, 235t, 248 Wood horsetail (Equisetum sylvaticum) , 97, 251 t
copper and nickel levels in tissues, 25It Woodlands, birch coppice, see Birch coppice woodlands
phosphorus cycle, 179 Wool sedge (Scirpus cyperinus), 95, 96, 97f
recolonization of barrens, 97f, 98, 99f
recolonization after logging, 18 Yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis), 17
sulfur dioxide effects, 57 Yellow perch (Perea f!avescens), 69f, 76, 77f, 207
tailings revegetation project, 127
in transition communities, 27, 28f, 30 Zinc, 183
see also Birch coppice woodlands bedrock chemical patterns, 14
White cedar (Thuja occidentalis), 17, 20f, 115f geological influences on geochemistry, 13-14
White pine (Pinus strobus), 17, 20f, 24, 57, 60, 113t, ll5, lake sediments
ll5f, ll6f, 179 depth distributions, 187f
Whitepine Lake, 74, 74f, 145, 151 sorption on oxide surfaces, 190, 19lf
White spruce (Piceaglauca), 17, 20f, !l5f, ll6f urban lakes, 261
White sucker (Catastomus commersoni), 69f, 75, 145 mobilization by acid rain, 319
Wildlife ore composition, 9
birch coppice woodland, 241 soil,223
greenway functions, 329 solubility, pH effects, 288
tailings revegetation project and, 127, 128 wetlands removal of, 138
see also Fish Zooplankton, 67
Wildlife habitat acidification effects, 69f
Copper Cliff tailings area, 295 fish and invertebrate predation, 77f
urban planning considerations, 327 lake liming effects, 197-200
Wildlife restoration recovery after emissions abatement, 71, 73, 75
aurora trout, 143-152 urban lakes, 264f
Peregrine Falcon program, 155-165 see also Aquatic biota
Willow (Salix), 100, 127, 173, 175f Zygogonium, 73

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SPRINGER SERIES ON

Restoration and Recovery

With 221 illustrations, 18 in full color

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

1. Sulphur dioxide--Environmental aspects. 2. Smelting-

Printed on acid-free paper.

1995 Springer-Verlag New York Inc.

ISBN -13: 978-1-4612-7568-8

The acid test of our understanding is not whether we can

1. Geological and Geographic Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2. Early History of Human Activities in the Sudbury Area and

3. Reading the Records Stored in the Lake Sediments:

SECTION B. Trends in Natural Recovery after

4. Declining Industrial Emissions, Improving Air Quality, and

5. Lake Water Quality Improvements and Recovering

6. Lichens: Sensitive Indicators of Improving Air Quality . . 81

SECTION C. Goals of Restoration

SECTION D. Research Topics in Restoration Ecology

19. Potential Role of Lowbush Blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium) in

SECTION E. Planning for the Future

A color insert follows page 182

Giuseppe Bagatto, Department of Biology, Laurentian University, Sudbury,

John M. Gunn, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Biology Department,

Joseph D. Shorthouse, Department of Biology, Laurentian University, Sudbury,

E. Keith Winterhalder, Department of Biology, Laurentian University, Sudbury,

Tin-Chee Wu, Regional Municipality of Sudbury, Sudbury, Ontario P3E 5W5,

Sudbury, Ontario, is one of at least five "Sudburys" in the

TABLE A.I. Chronology of Important Events Influencing the

Box 1.1. Noril'sk: The Treasure of Siberia

"" lO 10 ,,. '50 .

Nickel and copper are the main products from

FIGURE 1.5. Frequency distributions shown as a rose diagram

FIGURE 1.6. Principal lake patterns derived from a

... ... . .......... . ............. .

"'" .2<1 . '"

FIGURE 2.4. Annual nickel production from Sud- 250

such as poplars and birches had begun to colo-

- Barren area .' ~."" 4630'

Victoria Mine '

FIGURE 2.9. Simplified repre-

Iloss of N & pl----------.~ '--__L_A_N_D_--'

Box 2.2. The Term Add Rain

and "Red Oak" communities, respectively, are References

~ SENSITIVE SOILS OPRESENT PROBLEM AREAS

FIGURE 3.3. Light micrograph of microfossils of two diatom spedes.

Box 3.1. records are available to indicate whether the

'" , SedIment Oiges l Ion

FIGURE 3.5. Relative percentage abundance of com-

pH Aluminum (Pg/L) Nickel (Pg/L) S-

FIGURE 3.8. Spatial and temporal distribution of inferred pH for 22 lakes.

In the background of the picture on the previous page the scene

pollution problems, but seeing evidence of recovery also provides

but the evidence presented does provide encouragement and

FIGURE 4.2. Falconbridge smelter (circa 1955). As

these requirements, production at the smelters

The commissioning of the Superstack and the

tists were rapidly accumulating evidence that

FIGURE 4.7. Frequency of potentially injurious sulfur 100

concentration of sulfur dioxide at ground-level moni- E:J