Guidelines for preparation of report:

1. If project prepared in soft copy, use, Font type: Times new roman and Font size: 12 pt.

2. Hand written projects are also allowed.

3. Use A4 size papers.

4. Use stick file for holding the stappled report and submit.

Report should have the following:

1. Introduction: Write importance of the work.

2. Methodology: Write procedure used for implementation of the project.

3. Results and Discussion: Analysis the results.

4. Conclusion: Highlight the important points the work.

 Title of the project

ENERGY BAND GAP BETWEEN SEMI CONDUCTING DIODES

submitted

for

partial fulfillment of requirements for I year B.Tech programe

by

Name of the student:-

ID No.1600

Department of Physics
K L University
2016-17
 Department of Physics
K L University

Certificate

I.............................................................................. ID NO , branch ,

lab section.................hereby submit a report on project titled BAND GAP

BETWEEN SEMI CONDUCTING DIODES as a part of fulfilling the

requirements of I/IV B.Tech 1ST semester examination of academic year 2016

- 2017.

Signature of Student Signature of

faculty

(Guided the project)

Date: Signature of Head of the Department

 Index

ENERGY BAND GAP BETWEEN THE

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES

Name of the content Page No.

1) Introduction

energy level

energy bands

bands for conductors,semiconductors,insulators with EX:diagrams

semiconductors

a)intrinsic extrinsic b)elementary compound

diodes

a) how to prepare

b) how to connect in circuit

*forward *reverse basis

Types *p-n junction *zenar diodes

temperature coefficient of resistance

+ for metals and - For semiconductors why? Explain about it?

2) METHODOLOGY

3) Results and discussion

4) Conclusion
 Energy level: An energy level is the measurement of discrete energy a
subatomic particle, such as an electron, can absorb. When light or other energy
strikes an atom, it can transfer some of that energy to its particles, raising their
energy level.

Energy band gap: the difference in energy between the valence band and the

conduction band of a solid material (such as an insulator or semiconductor)

Energy band gaps has classified as conductors ,semiconductors,insulator

 The difference in energy in a substance between electron
orbitals in which the electrons are not free to move (the valence band)
and orbitals in which they are relatively free and will carry a current
(the conduction band). In semiconductors, some electrons are sustained
in the conduction band by thermal energy. Energy released when an
electron in the conduction band falls into a hole in the valence band is
called energy band gap.
Band theory in solids:
In isolated atoms the electrons are arranged in energy levels .

In solids the outer electron energy levels become smeared out to form
bands .

The highest occupied band is called the VALENCE band.

Insulator Energy Bands. Most solid substances are insulators, and in

terms of the band theory of solidsthis implies that there is a large
forbidden gap between the energies of the valence electrons and the
energy at which the electrons can move freely through the material (the
conduction band).
Energy band gaps in:
1) Conductors

2) Insulators

3) Semi conductors

1) Conductors(metals)
There is an overlap between the valence and conduction band
hence electrons are free to move about. For conduction of
electrical energy there must be electrons in the conduction
band. Electrons are free to move in this band.

Examples:metals(copper,lead)

In metals, electrons near the Fermi energy see empty states a

very small energy jump away, and can thus be promoted into
conducting states above Ef very easily (temp or electric field)
High conductivity Atomistically: weak metallic bonding of
electrons

Electrical conductivity in metals is > 105 (.m)

The materilas in which conduction and valence bands overlap as shown

in figure are called conductors.

The overlapping indicates a large number of electrons available for

conduction.
Hence the application of a small amount of voltage results a large
amount of current.
 2)Insulators

A wide energy gap means that a large amount of energy is

required, to free the electrons, by moving them from the
valence band into the condition band ;

Since at room temperature, the valence electrons of an

insulator do not have enough energy to jump in to the
condition, therefore insulator do not have an ability to
conduct current. Thus insulators have very high resistively
(or extremely low conductivity) at room temperatures.

However if the temperature is raised, some of the

valence electrons may acquire energy and jump in to the
conduction band. It causes the resistively of insulators to
decrease.

Therefore an insulator have negative tem o-efficient of

resistance
 3) Semiconductors :
The materials, in which the conduction and valence bands
are separeated by a small energy gap (1eV) as shown in figure
are called semiconductors.

Silicon and germanium are the commonly used

semiconductors.

A small energy gap means that a small amount of energy is

required to free the elctrons by moving them from the valence
band in to the conduction band.

The semiconductors behave4 like insulators at 0K, because

no electrons are available in the conduction band.

If the temperature is further increased, more valence elctrons

will acquire energy to jump into the conduction band.

Thus like insulators, semiconductors also have negative

temperature co-efficient of resistance.

It means that conductivity of semiconductors increases with

the increases tempertature.

INTRINSIC SEMI CONDUCTORS :-

An intrinsic semiconductor material is chemically very pure and

possesses poor conductivity. It has equal numbers of negative carriers
(electrons) and positive carriers (holes). A silicon crystal is different from
an insulator because at any temperature above absolute zero
temperature, there is a finite probability that an electron in the lattice will
be knocked loose from its position, leaving behind an electron deficiency
called a "hole".
 EXTRINSIC SEMI CONDUCTORS:

Where as an extrinsic semiconductor is an improved intrinsic

semiconductor with a small amount of impurities added by a process,
known as doping, which alters the electrical properties of the
semiconductor and improves its conductivity. Introducing impurities into
the semiconductor materials (doping process) can control their
conductivity.

Doping process produces two groups of semiconductors: the negative

charge conductor (n-type) and the positive charge conductor (p-type).
Semiconductors are available as either elements or compounds. Silicon
and Germanium are the most common elemental semiconductors.
Compound Semiconductors include InSb, InAs, GaP, GaSb, GaAs, SiC,
GaN. Si and Ge both have a crystalline structure called the diamond
lattice

DIODES:-

A diode is an electrical device allowing current to move through it in one

direction with far greater ease than in the other. The most common kind
of diode in modern circuit design is the semiconductor diode, although
other diode technologies exist.

How to prepare diode:-

1. Step 1: Aquiring copper. I used some copper wire 6 inches (14CM), use any
fair size (22AWG or larger) copper wire with all insulation striped off. ...
2. Step 2: Making copper oxide. You will need alot of heat ;) ...
3. Step 3: Making the diode. ...
4. Step 4: TEST!
How to connect in circuit:-

Forward and reverse bias can be illustrated with two very

simple circuits that connect a lamp to a battery with diodes. In the circuit on the
left, the diode is forward biased, so current flows through the circuit and the lamp
lights up.

a)Forward bias:-
When the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the p-type material

and the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the n-type material,

such a connection is called forward bias.

Reverse bias:- When the positive terminal of the battery is connected to n-type

material and the negative terminal of the battery is connected to p-type

material, such a connection is called reverse bias.

P-n junction diode:-

P-N junction diode is the most fundamental and the simplest electronics device.

When one side of an intrinsic semiconductor is doped with acceptor i.e, one side is

made p-type by doping with n-type material, a p-n junction diode is formed. This is

a two terminal device

Zenar diodes:-

A Zener diode allows current to flow from its anode to its cathode like a normal

semiconductor diode, but it also permits current to flow in the reverse direction when

its "Zener voltage" is reached. Zener diodes have a highly doped p-n junction.
 It is a form of semiconductor diode in which at a critical reverse

voltage a large reverse current can flow.

temperature coefficient of resistance:-

The resistance-change factor per degree Celsius of temperature change is called

the temperature coefficient of resistance. This factor is represented by the Greek

lower-case letter alpha (). A positive coefficient for a material means that

its resistanceincreases with an increase in temperature.

Positive for metals:-

In metals resistance increases with temperature:

as temperature increases resistivity decreases for metals.

In metals the number of carriers (free electrons) remains constant, and independent of temperature.
But mean free path of each electron decreses with temperature, because atoms forming the lattice
vibrate more strongly.

- Higher temperature means more energy is transferred to the positive ions in the metal lattice.
- Hence the ions vibrate more.
- Hence the electrons flowing through the metal are more likely to collide with the ions and transfer
some of its kinetic energy to the ion causing them to vibrate even more, and raising the temperature
even more.
- Hence resistance against the electron flow increases with temperature.

Negative for semiconductors:-

For Semiconductors, when temperature increases, more electrons jump to conduction band from
valance band. Hence resistance decreases.Metals already have plenty of electrons in
conduction band. When temperature increases, the electrons in conduction band of metal vibrate
and collide each other during their journey. Hence the the resistance of metal increases with
increase of temperature
METHODOLGY

Experiment Name : Energy band gap in SemiConductor Diode

Aim :A) To determine the resistivity of Ge by Four probe method

B) To study the Variation of the resistivity of Ge with

temperature

C) To determine the energy band gap

Apparatus : Four Probe arrangement ,Power supply unit ,oven,

Formula : logIs=const+5.036E(10^3/T)

E=(slope/5.036)ev

where V = Potential Difference between and probes 2 and 3

I= current passed through the resistor

S=S1=S2 =S3= probe spacing

G(W/s)=Correction Factor
Procedure:

1) Resistivity of Ge Crystal :

a) Ensure that Ge crystal is placed on the base plate of the four probe arrangement

and the four probes in the middle of the Ge crystal

b) Connect the outer pair of the probes to the constant current power supply and the

inner pair of probes to the voltage terminals

c) Place the four probe arrangement in the oven and place the thermometer in the

oven through the hole provided

d) Switch on the supply of the four probe setup and put the digital panel meter in the

current measuring mode with the selector swtich .Adjust the currenet to

2mA.Now put the digital panel meter in the voltage measuring mode and note

down the voltage

e) Change the current in the steps give in the obeservation table and note down the

corresponding voltages

2) Variation of Resistivity and Energy Band gap

a) Adjust the current of 5mA and keep it constant through out the experiment

b) At the room temperature note down the voltage

c) Connect the oven power supply .select the rate of heating as low

d) Switch on the power to the oven and when the temperature reaches 40C ,record

the voltage

e) Record the voltage corresponding to each temperature as shown in the observation

table

f) Switch of the supply to the oven.

Observation :
 Resistivity of Ge Crystal :

Room temperature (RT)=

Probe spacing S=0.2 cm , Correction factor for the given Crystal

G7(w/s)=5.89

Tabular form:-

SNO Temperature Temperature(T) 10^3/T Saturation Saturation logIs logIs

(t) (t+273)k current Current Is (tem) (tem)

Is(temp) (temp)
 Tablular form of :-

SNO Temp Temperature(T) 10^3/T Saturation Saturation logIs logIs

current
(t) (t+273)k Is(temp) Current (temp (temp
Is(temp) ) )
 Tabular form:-

SNO Temperatu Temperature(T) 10^3/T Saturation Saturation logIs logIs

re (t+273)k Current Current Is (temp) (temp)

(temp)
(t) Is(temp)

Result:- The energy band gap between ..,

,crystal is found to be ev,
.ev,.ev.
Conclusion:-Therefore during this experiment we can
measure the energy band gap between the
semiconducting diodes of any given material