Lecture 6

Classical Control Overview IV

Dr. Radhakant Padhi

Asst. Professor
Dept. of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Science - Bangalore
LeadLag Compensator Design

Dr. Radhakant Padhi

Asst. Professor
Dept. of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Science - Bangalore
 Motivation
z The PID controller involves
three components:
Proportional feedback U ( s)
Integral feedback
Derivative feedback
E ( s)
z Problem in PID design:
Requirement of pure Question: Can the difficulties
integrators and pure of the PID design be avoided,
differentiators, which are without compromising much on
difficult to realize
the basic design philosophy?
Pure integrator pole may travel
to the right half plane because Answer: YES! Through Lead-
of realization inaccuracies.
Lag compensator design.
ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 3
Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore
Ideal Integral Compensation for
Improving SS Error: PI Controller

Point A: Desired pole location

(already satisfactory transient
response). No need to change its
location. However, need to K (s + a)
= K +
Ka
= K +
KI
(PI)
improve the steady-state error. s s s

ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 4

Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore
 Lag Compensator
(for Improving Steady State Error)
K z1 z2 "
K v0 =
p1 p2 "

K v1 =
( K z1 z2 ")( z c )
( p1 p2 ")( p c )
zc
= K v0 > K v0
pc
(provided z c > p c )
Note: like PI controller
Pole-zero pair should be close to each other
K v1  K v0 , provided ( z c / pc )  1. Hence put the pair close to origin.
ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 5
Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore
Lag Compensator
(for Improving Steady State Error)

Root locus before compensation Root locus after compensation

No appreciable change in Root locus & closed loop pole location:
No difference in transient response, but improvement in SS error!
ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 6
Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore
 Lead Compensator
(for Improving Transient Response)
z Objective:
To improve transient performance, avoiding the pure PD
realization
z Advantages;
Avoids realization difficulties (e.g. avoids requirement of
additional power supplies in electrical circuits)
Reduces noise amplification due to differentiation
z Drawback:
Addition of a pure zero in PD controller tends to reduce the
number of branches of Root Locus that travel to RH plane,
whereas Led compensators are not capable of doing that.

ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 7

Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore
Geometry of Lead Compensator

(Root locus of original system

does not pass through it)

2 1 3 4 + 5 = (2k + 1)1800
where ( 2 1 ) = c : Angular contribution of compensator

ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 8

Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore
 Many Possibilities of Lead
Compensators

Different selections results in:

Different gain values to reach the desired point
Different static error constants (that leads to different SS errors);
hence different closed loop response in strict sense!

ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 9

Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore
Lead-Lag Compensator Design
Design Steps: Ref: N. S. Nise:
z First, evaluate the performance of the Control Systems Engineering,
uncompensated system. 4th Ed., Wiley, 2004
z If necessary, design a lead
compensator to improve the transient
response.
z Next, design a lag compensator to
improve the steady state error.
z Simulate the system to be sure that all
requirements have been met.
z Redesign the compensators (i.e. retune
the compensator gains), if the simulation
performance in not satisfactory.

ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 10

Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore
Frequency Response Analysis

Dr. Radhakant Padhi

Asst. Professor
Dept. of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Science - Bangalore
Concept of Frequency Response

M 0 ( )0 ( ) = ( M i ( )i ( ) )( M ( ) ( ) )
  
 
 

SS output sinusoid Frequency Response Input sinusoid

= M i ( ) M ( ) [i ( ) + ( )]

M 0 ( )
M ( ) =
M i ( )
( ) = 0 ( ) i ( )

ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 12

Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore
 Concept of Frequency Response

r (t ) = A cos t + B sin t = A2 + B 2 cos t tan 1 ( B / A)

= M i cos (t i ) , where M i = A2 + B 2 , i = tan 1 ( B / A)

After appropriate analysis:

css (t ) = M i M G cos (t + i + G ) where
M 0 0 = ( M i i ) ( M G G ) M G = G ( j ) , G = G ( j )

ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 13

Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore
What is frequency response?
z Magnitude and phase C ( s)
T ( s) = , s = j ,
relationship between R(s)
sinusoidal input and the
C ( j )
steady state output of a T ( j ) = = M
linear system is termed as R( j )
frequency response. M =| T ( j ) | , = T ( j )
z Commonly used frequency
response analysis:
Bode plot
Nyquist plot
Nichols chart

ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 14

Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore
 Bode Plot Analysis

Dr. Radhakant Padhi

Asst. Professor
Dept. of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Science - Bangalore
 Bode Plot Analysis
z Bode plot consists of two simultaneous graphs:
Magnitude in dB (20 log |G(j)|) vs. frequency (in log)
Phase (in degrees) vs. frequency (in log)
z Steps:
K ( s + z1 )( s + z2 )" ( s + zk )
G ( s) = m
s ( s + p1 )( s + p2 )" ( s + pn )
Then
20log K + 20log | ( s + z1 ) |+ " + 20log| ( s + zk ) |
20 log | G ( j ) | =
20log | s m
| 20 log | ( s + p1 ) | " 20 log| ( s + pn s j
) |

G ( j ) = ( ( s + z1 ) + " + ( s + zk ) ) ( s m + ( s + p1 ) + " + ( s + pk ) )
s j

ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 16

Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore
Bode Diagrams: Advantages
z All algebra is through addition and
subtraction, and that too mostly
through straight line asymptotic
approximations
z Low frequency response contains
sufficient information about the
physical characteristics of most of
the practical systems.
z Experimental determination of a
transfer function is possible
through Bode plot analysis.
ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 17
Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore
Bode Diagrams
z In Bode diagrams, frequency ratios are
expressed in terms of:
Octave: it is a frequency band from 1 to 21.
Decade: it is a frequency band from 1 to
101, where 1 is any frequency value.
z The basic factors which occur frequently
in an arbitrary transfer function are:
Gain K
( j )
1
Integral and derivatives:
( ) , T = 1a
1
First order factors: 1 + j T
( )
1
Quadratic Factors: 1 + 2 ( j n ) + ( j n )
2

ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 18

Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore
 Bode Diagrams
z For Constant Gain K, log-magnitude curve is a
horizontal straight line at the magnitude of
(20 log K) dB and phase angle is 0 deg.
z Varying the gain K, raises or lowers the log-
magnitude curve of the transfer function by the
corresponding constant amount, but has no
effect on the phase curve
z Logarithmic representation of the frequency-
response curve of factor ( j ( / a ) + 1) can be
approximated by two straight-line asymptotes
z Frequency at which the two asymptotes meet is
called the corner frequency or break frequency.

ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 19

Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore
Example 1: G ( s) = s + a, G ( j ) = j + a
z At low frequencies, << a, G ( j ) a
z Magnitude/Phase response:
20 log M = 20 log a, G ( j ) = 00
z At high frequencies, >> a, G ( j ) j
z Magnitude/Phase response:

20 log M = 20 log , G ( j ) = 900

z Corner frequency: G ( j ) = j + a = a j + 1
=a a
c
ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 20
Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore
Bode Plot for (s +a)

ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 21

Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore
Bode diagrams of some standard
first order terms
Ref: N. S. Nise,
Control Systems
Engineering, 4th Ed.
Wiley, 2004.

Bode plots for:

a. G(s) = s
b. G(s) = 1/s
c. G(s) = (s + a)
d. G(s) = 1/(s + a)

ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 22

Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore
 K ( s + 3)
G (s) =
Example 2: s ( s + 1)( s + 2)

ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 23

Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore
 K ( s + 3)
G (s) =
Example 2: s ( s + 1)( s + 2)

ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 24

Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore
 First Order Terms: Comparison of
Actual and Asymptotic Behavior

Magnitude comparison Phase comparison

Ref: N. S. Nise, Control Systems Engineering, 4th Ed. Wiley, 2004.

ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 25

Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore
Bode plot for second order
systems

z System with conjugate zeros when 0 < < 1

G ( s ) = s 2 + 2n s + n2
z System with conjugate poles when 0 < < 1
1
G (s) =
s 2 + 2n s + n2
z For complex conjugate poles and zeros, the
slope changes by 40dB/decade

ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 26

Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore
z For low frequencies (<<n),

z Log magnitude becomes

0dB (20log 1= 0), hence low frequency asymptote is a straight horizontal line
z For high frequencies (>>n), the log magnitude becomes

z High frequency asymptote is a straight line with slope of -40dB/decade

z The phase angle of the quadratic factor is

ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 27

Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore
Scaled Response for

Magnitude Plot Phase Plot

ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 28

Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore
Scaled Response for

Magnitude Plot Phase Plot

ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 29

Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore
 ( s + 3)
G ( s) =
Example 3: ( s + 2)( s 2 + 2 s + 25)

z Second order system is normalized

s
+ 1
G (s) =
3 3
50 s s 2 2
+ 1 + s + 1
2 25 25

z Bode magnitude plot starts from 20logK =

24.44dB and continues until the next
corner frequency at 2 rad/s
ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 30
Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore
Magnitude Plot

ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 31

Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore
Phase plot

ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 32

Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore
 Nyquist Plot Analysis

Dr. Radhakant Padhi

Asst. Professor
Dept. of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Science - Bangalore
Presenting frequency response
characteristics (Polar plots)
Frequency response of transfer
functions can be represented by
Polar plots, also called Nyquist
plots, as shown in the figure.

M =| G ( j ) |
= G ( j )

ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 34

Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore
General nature of Nyquist curves
Ref: K. Ogata: Modern
Control Engineering, 3rd Ed.,
Prentice Hall, 1999.

ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 35

Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore
Nyquist plots for several
standard transfer functions

Ref: K. Ogata: Modern

Control Engineering, 3rd Ed.,
Prentice Hall, 1999.

ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 36

Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore
Nyquist stability criterion
Special case: (G(s)H(s) has neither poles nor zeros on the j axis)
If a contour, that encircles the entire right half plane is mapped through
G(s)H(s). Then number of closed loop poles, Z, in right half of s-plane equals the
number of open loop poles P, that are in right half of s-plane minus the number
of counter-clockwise revolutions N around -1 of the mapping , i.e. Z = P - N.

a. contour does not enclose

closed-loop poles

b. contour does enclose

closed loop poles

ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 37

Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore
Example 1
Open loop poles in the right half of s-
plane are 2,4, i.e, P = 2
Number of encirclements of (-1), N = 2
Z = P-N = 0, hence the system is
stable.

ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 38

Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore
Example 2:
K
G ( s) =
s ( s + 3)( s + 5)
There are no open loop poles in the right half of s-plane, i.e, P = 0.
Number of encirclements N = 0.
Z = P - N = 0, hence the system is stable.
Value of K which determines the stability is 120.5. It implies if K < 120.5
then system is stable.
if K > 120.5, critical point is encircled and N = -1. In that case Z = P - N
= 1, and hence the system is unstable

ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 39

Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore
 Robustness Concepts

Dr. Radhakant Padhi

Asst. Professor
Dept. of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Science - Bangalore
Definitions
The closed loop poles can be determined through characteristic equation
1 + G ( s ) H ( s ) = 0, s = j
G ( s ) H ( s ) = 1 + j 0 = 11800
Phase cross over frequency (pc)
Frequency at which the phase angle of the transfer function becomes -180o
G ( j ) H ( j ) = 1800
Gain cross over frequency (gc)
Frequency at which the magnitude of the open loop transfer function, is unity, i.e.
IG(j)H(j)| =1.
These frequencies play an important role in determining the stability margins of
the system.

ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 41

Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore
 Gain and Phase Margins through
Nyquist Plots

= 1800

1
Kg =
| G ( j ) |

System is said to be
Stable, if GM and M both are positive, i.e. pc > gc
Marginally stable, if GM and M both are zero i.e. pc= gc
Unstable, if GM and M both are negative i.e. pc< gc

ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 42

Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore
 Gain and Phase Margins through
Bode Plots

z For a stable minimum-phase system, GM/PM indicates how

much gain/phase can be increased before the system
becomes unstable.
z For an unstable system, GM/PM is indicative of how much
gain/phase must be decreased to make the system stable.
ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 43
Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore
Frequency Response Characteristics
z Consider a closed loop transfer function of second order system
n2
G(s) = 2
s + 2n s + n2
z The closed loop frequency response

z The frequency at which the M reaches its peak value is called

resonant frequency (P)
P = n 1 2
2

z At P, the slope of the magnitude curve is zero.

ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 44

Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore
 Frequency Response Characteristics
z The maximum value of magnitude is
known as the resonant peak (Mp)
1
MP =
2 1 2
z Bandwidth (BW) is the frequency at
which the magnitude response
curve is 3dB down from its value at
zero frequency .

BW = n (1

2 2
) + 4 4

 
4 2
+2

Ts ( 4 / ) / n
f ( )

ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 45

Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore
References
(Classical Control Systems)
z N. S. Nise: Control Systems Engineering, 4th Ed.,
Wiley, 2004.
z K. Ogata: Modern Control Engineering, 3rd Ed.,
Prentice Hall, 1999.
z J. J. Distefano III et al.: Feedback and Control
Systems, 2nd Ed., Mc Graw Hill, 1990 (Schaums
Outline Series).
z B. N. Pamadi: Performance, Stability, Dynamics and
Control of Airplanes, AIAA Education Series, 1998.
z R. C. Nelson: Flight Stability and Automatic Control,
AIAA Education Series, 1998.
z E. Kreyszig: Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 8th
Ed., Wiley, 2004.
ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 46
Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore
 Some Points to Remember

Dr. Radhakant Padhi

Asst. Professor
Dept. of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Science - Bangalore
Some Points to Remember
z Block diagrams are not circuit diagrams!
z Stability and robustness are necessary of any
good control design. After that, one must look
for performance (fast response, optimality etc.)
z High controller gains:
Good benefits Robust stability, Good tracking
Bad effects Control saturation, Noise amplification
z Inter-coupling of variables, nonlinearities,
control and state saturation limits, time delays,
quantization errors etc. are always present:
Classical SISO approach may not be
adequate; Advanced techniques are needed.
ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 48
Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore
ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 49
Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore
ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN 50
Dr. Radhakant Padhi, AE Dept., IISc-Bangalore