Scaling up aid for trade: how

to support poor countries to

trade their way out of poverty

15 November 2005

Trade can be an engine for growth that lifts millions of people out of poverty, but
many developing countries face constraints that prevent them from participating in the
global trading system. Even if trade rules are radically reformed and a pro-
development round is achieved at the WTO Ministerial in Hong Kong in December
2005, current behind the borders problems mean that poor countries will continue to
lose out on the potential benefits of global trade.
Aid to address these constraints was a key promise of the Uruguay and Doha Rounds,
but donor efforts to date have been wholly inadequate. More money to help countries
strengthen their ability to trade is urgently needed. Oxfam believes this assistance must
be recipient-driven, additional to existing development aid, free of economic
conditions, adequate, predictable and complementary to rather than a substitute for
better and fairer trade rules.
However, the current World Bank/IMF proposal will not meet these criteria, and
instead could be used to coerce countries to liberalize their trade regimes. Therefore
Oxfam believes the proposal for an enhanced Integrated Framework needs
considerable reform if it is to deliver real aid for trade.

What is aid for trade?

Much broader than simple technical assistance or training of trade negotiators, aid for
trade describes several categories of trade-related assistance to developing countries.
Its objectives include enhancing worker skills, modernizing customs systems, building
roads and ports, and improving agricultural productivity and export diversification.
Aid for trade should also help countries to meet the adjustment costs of implementing
trade agreements, together with preference losses and more expensive food imports.
Essentially, its aim is to help countries to adapt to the global trading environment.

Box 1: Types of aid for trade

Capacity to supply: Assistance to help producers overcome supply-side barriers and benefit
from trade opportunities by improving physical infrastructure (roads, harbors, airports, etc.);
providing reliable inputs (water, electricity, seeds, fertilizers); and improving agricultural
productivity and access to credit.
Capacity to trade: Assistance to reduce non-tariff barriers to trade by modernizing customs
and tax systems and improving standards and certifying bodies.
Capacity to formulate trade policy: Support for developing country governments to
determine appropriate trade policies.
Capacity to participate in trade negotiations: Supporting trade negotiators to actively
participate in international negotiations.
Capacity to implement trade agreements: Helping countries to translate international rules
into national laws and institutions.
Adjustment costs: Assistance to implement new trade rules, and compensation for the
negative impacts of trade liberalization.

Oxfam believes that to genuinely assist poor countries, aid for trade monies must not
only be additional to development aid and meet standards of aid effectiveness, such as
those outlined in the Cotonou Agreement or the OECD DAC Paris Declaration on Aid
Effectiveness, but they should also complement a pro-poor round of trade negotiations
that puts development at the heart of the talks.

Aid for trade is needed to

ease supply-side constraints
While trade has been a key driver of growth in many parts of the world, the
composition of Africas exports has remained largely unchanged. This has reduced the
continents share of world trade from 6 per cent in 1980 to less than 2 per cent in 2002.1
Much of this lost opportunity is due to supply-side constraints. For example, Mali is a
competitive producer of cotton but faces many obstacles to improving productivity.
Rich country subsidies remain a major barrier, but Malis exporters are also hindered
by high transport costs due to the countrys poor infrastructure and its landlocked
location. In addition, its farmers need better technical assistance and access to credit.2
Aid for trade is key to assisting poor countries to overcome such constraints and take
advantage of the opportunities provided through global trade.

Box 2: Aid for trade and poverty reduction3

In Ghana, many small farmers rely on pineapple exports for their livelihoods. Ghana holds 10
per cent of the EU market for pineapples, but it could be more competitive. Farmers in Ghana
are faced with many supply-side constraints: poor access to credit and inputs, high handling
costs at ports and airports, and strict standards in export markets on pesticide levels in fresh
fruit.
Through funding from USAID and the World Bank, development agencies have provided
technical assistance to teach pineapple farmers how to produce their crops organically and
how to gain organic certification. After just one year, farmers were able to turn their fruit into
juice and earn an average of $300 apiece, a 36 per cent increase over their previous years
income.

2 Scaling up aid for trade, Oxfam Briefing Note, November 2005

help countries adjust
As the Zedillo Commission4 highlights, despite expected overall gains, not everyone
will win from global trade reforms. Therefore, any gains should be used to offset some
of the losses. And, to ensure rich countries meet their obligations to help poor
countries, any trade agreement must be complemented by a concerted effort to
enhance [developing countries] ability to exploit more trade opportunities.5
Preference erosion the trade losses resulting from liberalization in other countries
is a serious concern for many poor countries. Many African nations currently benefit
from trade preference schemes such as the US African Growth and Opportunity Act
and the EU Everything But Arms agreement. However, tariff reduction, a central aim
of the round, will undermine the benefits of these preferences, lessening the
competitive advantage currently granted to poor country recipients.
Additionally, after liberalization, net food-importing developing countries (NFIDCs)
are likely to find it more difficult to afford necessary food imports, because world
prices will rise as rich country agriculture subsidies are reduced. These additional costs
threaten food security and add to existing balance of payments difficulties.
Liberalization may also entail significant losses of government revenue: many
developing countries rely on import tariffs, not taxes, for their income. Countries
already struggling to stay afloat will lose precious resources by having to lower tariffs.
And fiscal reforms will not make up the shortfall studies6 indicate that even in the
best circumstances, fiscal reforms produce only $0.30 for every $1 previously earned
from tariffs.
Joining the WTO and complying with subsequent agreements has required significant
and costly reforms. Countries already struggling under the burden of debt and the
fiscal as well as human costs of disease, starvation, and illiteracy, simply cannot meet
these expenses on their own. Therefore, additional aid is needed to help countries meet
these adjustment costs.

Aid for trade is needed now

to meet the MDGs

If poor countries are to overcome poverty and achieve the Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs) by 2015, fairer trade, more and better aid, and debt relief are urgently
needed.
The UN Millennium Project and the Commission for Africa both stress that the MDGs
are still achievable, but only if sufficient aid for trade, as well as development aid and
pro-development trade rules, are delivered to developing countries, especially LDCs in
Africa. The World Bank and the UN estimate the cost of achieving the MDGs by 2015
at $50bn$70bn extra per year now and increasing to $135bn in 2015, when the
absorptive capacity of developing countries is expected to improve.7 Present aid flows
of around $80bn a year are thus completely insufficient.
In spite of commitments by rich countries to address these issues, progress so far has
been unsatisfactory. The $16bn of new money committed at the 2005 G8 summit was
welcomed, but clearly nowhere near the $50bn needed initially to attain the MDGs.

Scaling up aid for trade, Oxfam Briefing Note, November 2005 3

...because rich countries promised it
Promises of aid for trade for poor countries have been plentiful. In the Uruguay
Round, WTO members agreed that LDCs would receive aid for trade.8 The Marrakech
Agreement included specific measures for addressing the possible negative effects of
trade reforms on LDCs and NFIDCs and technical barriers to trade, and for
recognizing the special needs of LDCs.
Compensation for preference erosion, higher food import costs, and implementation
adjustments was promised in previous rounds and it is critical to achieving a pro-
poor development round. LDCs were promised substantially increased technical
assistance, appropriate mechanisms to ensure that the implementation of the
Uruguay Round on agriculture does not adversely affect the availability of food, and
the financial and technical assistance necessary to enable least-developed countries to
respond adequately to any new measures.9
However, delivery on these promises was negligible. So, when the Doha Round was
dubbed the development round by rich countries, to reflect the commitments of all
members to integrate poor countries into the multilateral trading system, poor
countries thought their needs were finally going to be prioritized.
Members agreed that the new round would not only address the development
dimension of trade, but would put developing country concerns special and
differential treatment, assistance for trade facilitation, challenges faced by net food
importing developing countries, and losses from preference erosion at the heart of
the talks.
The G8 leaders at Gleneagles in June 2005 once again made strong promises. They
committed themselves to offering additional aid to developing countries to build the
physical human and institutional capacity to trade, including trade facilitation
measures and committed to granting additional support for trade capacity building to
assist LDCs, particularly in Africa, to take advantage of the new opportunities to
trade. Yet the recent World Bank/IMF proposal to address the calls of the G8 risks
failing to deliver on these promises.

because poor countries demand it

Poor countries argue that, without additional trade-related support, they will not be
able to benefit from new trade rules, even with special and differential treatment.
All four LDC trade ministers declarations10 recall the commitments made inter alia at
Marrakech, Singapore, Geneva, and Brussels by the international community in
assisting LDCs, and call upon all WTO members to provide aid for trade as an
additional, substantial, and predictable financial mechanism to strengthen supply-side
and infrastructure capacity, diversification of trade in LDCs, and address adjustment
challenges and costs.11
But despite the insistence by LDCs on the need for special consideration and additional
aid, their proposals are fiercely contested. Rich countries question the need for specific
solutions to preference erosion, implementation, and other development interests
highlighted by LDCs during the Doha Round.12 And while the July 2004 Framework
Agreement attempted to address these issues, it states merely that the development
issues should be taken into consideration. Hardly forceful or resolute but unless
these claims are taken seriously, many LDCs see little value to the round.13

4 Scaling up aid for trade, Oxfam Briefing Note, November 2005

Of the 80 proposals put forward by developing countries on special and differential
treatment in the Doha Round, more than half requested assistance to address
adjustment costs, capacity building needs, and the impacts of preference erosion and
liberalization on NFIDCs.14 Yet promises by the developed members have amounted to
little more than best endeavor language, as rich countries continue to block progress
by raising new objections.

Where aid for trade stands

Currently, some aid for trade is being delivered via a variety of bilateral and
multilateral donors. Combined bilateral and multilateral aid flows have increased in
recent years, from $2bn in 2001 and 2002 to $2.7bn in 2003.15 This accounts for around 4
per cent of all development aid, yet funds have been insufficient and painstakingly
slow to arrive.
While there are no firm estimates on how much it might cost to overcome the obstacles
to trade detailed above, $2bn annually, spread across more than 100 developing and
least-developed countries, is clearly not enough.
There are also problems with the way in which such aid is delivered. The process lacks
ownership by recipient countries, lacks a strong focus on poverty reduction, and fails
to properly engage civil society and the private sector. Critics argue that such aid is:
Biased reflecting mainly donor country interests;
Tied requiring that certain percentages of aid providers, goods, and services are
from the donor country;
Ineffective often taking a one-size-fits-all approach and marginalizing large
segments of poor populations, such as rural communities and women;16
Poorly targeted a vast majority of expenditures go into the facilitation of
negotiations on infrastructure, energy, and trade which is needed, but which
often overshadows needs more strongly linked to poverty reduction.

Box 3: Shortfalls of the Integrated Framework

The Integrated Framework (IF) was set up to assist developing countries to identify barriers to trade and to
mainstream trade capacity building needs into the countrys development strategy. Launched in 1996, and
jointly handled by the WTO, UNCTAD, UNDP, ITC, World Bank, and IMF, (although in reality dominated by
the World Bank), the IF has to date delivered very little.
In nearly a decade of operation, donors have scraped together just over $19.3m to fund diagnostic trade
integration studies (DTIS), which have cost an average of $300,000$400,000 per country. Only $8m has
actually been disbursed to fund small trade capacity-building projects (which are capped at $1m per
country).
Despite the IFs claim to be recipient-driven, transparent, and encompassing of civil society concerns, it has
no explicit mandate for ensuring that these principles are carried through. Co-ordination has been
dominated by the World Bank, an agency with a chequered history of persuading countries to liberalize
inappropriately, rather than nurturing a multi-donor and multi-stakeholder approach.
For example, IF teams do not require representation from the client country. While stakeholder input is
welcome, there is no specific requirement for civil society or private sector consultation. The diagnostic
phase of the DTIS conducted in Ethiopia did not include an active participatory process of all stakeholders
[and] the ownership of the DTIS among the private and civil society [was] limited.17
In addition, efforts to disclose the findings of diagnostic studies to the general public are limited, and there
is nothing to prevent the findings conflicting with a countrys existing poverty reduction goals.

Scaling up aid for trade, Oxfam Briefing Note, November 2005 5

Whats on the table
In response to requests made by the G7 Finance Ministers in February 2005, and again
by the G8 leaders in June 2005, the joint staffs of the World Bank and the IMF prepared
a proposal on how to scale up aid for trade.18
The enhanced IF proposes increased funds of around $200m$400m for a larger group
of developing countries, over a period of five years. However, in the words of the
Zambian trade minister, this amount, spread over five years and 40 countries
averaging $1m$2m per country per year can hardly be called a significant
enhancement.19 It is not only insufficient to carry out the mandate of the IF it will
barely begin to help countries to overcome their constraints to trade.
The enhanced IF would retain the same narrow mandate assisting with project
preparation as its predecessor, signalling that there has been no attempt to address
poor countries concerns about the process. For instance, the proposal does not expand
assistance to large-scale capacity-building projects identified in the diagnostic studies,
as has been requested by LDCs. Reforms will not reduce the dominant role of the
World Bank, to allow developing countries to drive the process themselves. Nor does
the proposal guarantee that projects will ever receive funding, even if they are
included in a countrys development strategy. This is left up to the goodwill of donors
at a later date.
Furthermore, the World Bank and IMF opposed creating a large new facility to address
adjustment costs, suggesting instead that the Funds Trade Integration Mechanism
(TIM) designed to assist countries with balance of payment difficulties would do
the trick. Yet the TIM does not assist with some crucial adjustment costs of trade
reform, such as employment and competitiveness, and countries must already be
engaged in an IMF program to receive this assistance. Such help is subject to multiple
conditions, may only be offered under concessional terms, and may not even be
guaranteed.
Providing this meagre assistance in the shape of loans, and not grants, presents
another series of challenges for already indebted developing countries. Such countries,
struggling with scarce resources and high levels of debt service, should not be forced to
divert aid resources from humanitarian development needs for needs related to trade.
Even more worrying, however, is that the proposal explicitly emphasizes the need for
developing countries to embrace liberalization and be prepared to lower and bind
their NAMA20 tariffs. This suggests that countries may be coerced into liberalizing
their markets outside of the WTO negotiations, in order to receive trade-related
assistance. Putting pressure on developing countries to conform to economic policy
prescriptions in sensitive areas, such as liberalization and privatization, should not be a
function of any type of assistance.
And because this assistance is not guaranteed developed countries will have an easy
means of reneging on their commitments by deferring their responsibilities to the IFIs
the poor countries could also be coerced into making more concessions in the trade
round, for nothing in return.
To prevent this worst-case scenario, it is imperative that the concerns of poor countries
are addressed within the talks and that aid for trade is not used as an instrument to
coerce developing countries into a trade agreement that does not address their
development needs.

6 Scaling up aid for trade, Oxfam Briefing Note, November 2005

Summary and recommendations
Whether or not trade helps to lift millions of people out of poverty depends on the ability of
developing countries to actively participate in the multilateral trading system and to
effectively pursue their national development agendas. A major challenge is the
inadequacy of trade-related assistance and capacity building for developing countries.
Many poor countries will be unable to take advantage of trade opportunities even with
fairer trade rules. Therefore, aid for trade is urgently needed for developing countries,
especially the poorest, so that they can benefit from trade to promote economic growth and
reduce poverty.
Oxfam supports aid for trade, but this aid must be recipient-driven, additional, adequate, predictable,
free of economic conditions and complementary to and not serving as a substitute
for better and fairer trade rules.
Increase aid for trade: Currently proposed funding levels, even combined with past levels,
are insufficient to effectively assist poor countries. The World Bank/IMF proposal for an
enhanced Integrated Framework envisions spending between $200m and $400m over five
years. Far greater sums are needed to genuinely address the problems faced by poor
countries attempting to trade.
Make aid for trade additional: Aid for trade budgets should be additional to existing
development aid, rather than displacing or diverting current aid commitments from
humanitarian and development priorities such as health, education, and rural
development.
Make aid for trade fair: Aid for trade should not be used as an instrument to coerce
developing countries to liberalize or to accept a trade agreement that does not promote
their development interests. No amount of aid can compensate for fundamentally unfair
and harmful trade rules.
Make aid for trade recipient-driven: Recipient countries should drive the process to
establish priorities for the use of funds rather than responding to donor priorities.
Provide aid for trade in grants, not conditional loans: Poor, indebted countries, already
struggling with scarce resources and high levels of debt to service, should not be forced to
incur more debt to address their trade-related needs.
All donors need to act: Donors, including developed country governments, the IFIs,
business, and the private sector, must provide more and better aid for trade, rather than
relying on the IFIs to manage the process. If trade-related development concerns are left to
the IFIs to manage, there is no guarantee that donor countries will follow through on their
commitments.
Match new WTO commitments to resources: costs linked with new commitments by
developing country members, such as in the trade facilitation negotiations, should be
matched with resources.
Address development in the talks: By addressing developing country concerns as part of
the talks at the WTO, rich countries can be held accountable to provide the aid needed for
poor countries to compete in a multilateral trading system. Otherwise, developing
countries are simply looking at another round of unfulfilled promises and exacerbated
barriers to trade, with no-one to turn to for help.
Reform the Integrated Framework: The IF could be an appropriate mechanism for
disbursing aid for trade, provided it is reformed along these lines and becomes a truly
multi-donor and multi-stakeholder effort, rather than being dominated by the World Bank.

Scaling up aid for trade, Oxfam Briefing Note, November 2005 7

Notes

1
In our Common Interest, Report of the Commission for Africa, March 2005, pp.255-6.
2
WTO, Market Access for Exports of Goods and Services of the Least Developed Countries:
Barriers and Constraints, WT/COMTD/LDC/W/11/Rev.1, 14 December 1998.
3
Source: UNDP, TechnoServ.
4
The UN Task Force report, which lays out a vision of how the trading system could contribute
to achieving the MDGs, was followed up by a research program funded by the UKs Department
for International Development (DFID). The steering committee was headed by Ernesto Zedillo,
Chair of the Yale Center for the Study of Globalization.
5
Strengthening the Global Trade Architecture for Economic Development: An Agenda for
Action, main findings of the research for the Global Trade and Financial Architecture Project,
2005.
6
T. Baunsgaard and M. Keen (2004), Tax Revenue and (or?) Trade Liberalization, IMF
Working Paper, draft version, September 20, 2004, available at: www.imf.org.
7
Sachs, Jeffrey, The Year of Development, World Vision International, Second Quarter 2005,
at: Hwww.globalfutureonline.orgH.
8
1994 Decision on Measures in Favor of Least-Developed Countries, WTO. WTO members
agreed that: least developed countries shall be accorded substantially increased technical
assistance in the development, strengthening, and diversification of their production and export
bases including those of services to enable them to maximize the benefits from liberalized
access to markets.
9
1994 Decision on Measures in Favor of Least-Developed Countries; 1994 Decision on
Measures Concerning the Possible Negative Effects of the Reform Programme on Least-
Developed and Net Food Importing Developing Countries; and 2001 Decision on
Implementation-Related Issues and Concerns.
10
LDC declarations were adopted at Zanzibar (2001), Dhaka (2003), Dakar (2004), and
Livingstone (2005). Accessible at: Hwww.wto.orgH.
11
Livingstone Declaration, 2005.
12
Negotiating Group on Market Access: Minutes of Meeting, WTO, TN/MA/M/9, 19 December
2003.
13
Non-LDC developing countries demand that the development issues be addressed within the
talks, for instance in the most recent G20 Ministerial Declaration, adopted in September 2005,
which states: Ministers recognized that preferencesare being eroded Ministers also agree
that, in accordance with the provisions of the July Framework, preference erosion should be
addressed in the negotiations.
14
Prowse, Susan, Aid for Trade: Increasing Support for Trade Adjustment and Integration, A
Proposal, April 2005.
15
Commitments of TRTA/CB by Donor from 2001-2003, WTO/OECD Trade Capacity Building
Database.
16
What is Trade Capacity Building?, Trade Capacity Building Fact Sheet #1, Inter-Action,
2005.
17
Liebrechts and Wijmenga, Evaluation of the Integrated Framework for Trade Related
Technical Assistance to the Least Developed Countries: Country Reports of Ethiopia and
Yemen, IOB Working Document, June 2004.
18
Trade Progress Report: Doha Development Agenda and Aid for Trade, Development
Committee Meeting, 25 September 2005.

8 Scaling up aid for trade, Oxfam Briefing Note, November 2005

19
WTO LDC group coordinator calls for improvement in scaling up of aid-for-trade, press
release from the Hon. Dipak K.A. Patel MP, Minister of Commerce, Trade, and Industry,
Lusaka, Zambia, 10 October 2005.
20
Non-agricultural market access.

Oxfam International November 2005

This paper was written by Emily Alpert. Oxfam acknowledges the assistance of Liz
Stuart in its production. It is part of a series of papers written to inform public
debate on development and humanitarian policy issues.
The text may be used free of charge for the purposes of advocacy, campaigning,
education, and research, provided that the source is acknowledged in full. The
copyright holder requests that all such use be registered with them for impact
assessment purposes. For copying in any other circumstances, or for re-use in
other publications, or for translation or adaptation, permission must be secured and
a fee may be charged. E-mail: [email protected].
For further information on the issues raised in this paper or the Make Trade Fair
campaign, please e-mail: [email protected] or visit:
www.maketradefair.com.

Scaling up aid for trade, Oxfam Briefing Note, November 2005 9

 Oxfam International is a confederation of twelve organisations working together in
more than 100 countries to find lasting solutions to poverty and injustice: Oxfam
America, Oxfam Australia, Oxfam Canada, Oxfam Germany, Oxfam Great Britain,
Oxfam Hong Kong, Intermn Oxfam (Spain), Oxfam Ireland, Oxfam New Zealand,
Novib Oxfam Netherlands, Oxfam Solidarit (Belgium), and Oxfam Quebec. Please
call or write to any of the agencies for further information, or visit www.oxfam.org.
Oxfam International Advocacy Offices:
Washington: 1112 16th St., NW, Ste. 600, Washington, DC 20036, USA
Tel: +1.202.496.1170. E-mail: [email protected]
Brussels: 22 rue de Commerce, 1000 Brussels, Belgium
Tel: +322.502.0391. E-mail: [email protected]
Geneva: 15 rue des Savoises, 1205 Geneva, Switzerland
Tel: +41.22.321.2371. E-mail: [email protected]
New York: 355 Lexington Avenue, 3rd Floor, New York, NY 10017, USA
Tel: +1.212.687.2091. E-mail: [email protected]
Tokyo: Oxfam Japan, Maruko-Bldg. 2F, 1-20-6, Higashi-Ueno, Taito-ku, Tokyo 110-0015, Japan
Tel/Fax: +81.3.3834.1556. E-mail: [email protected]
Oxfam America Intermn Oxfam (Spain)
26 West St. Roger de Llria 15
Boston, MA 02111-1206, USA 08010, Barcelona, Spain
Tel: +1.617.482.1211 Tel: +34.902.330.331
E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected]
www.oxfamamerica.org www.intermonoxfam.org
Oxfam Australia Oxfam Ireland
156 George St. Dublin Office, 9 Burgh Quay, Dublin 2
Fitzroy, Victoria 3065, Ireland, Tel: +353.1.672.7662
Australia Belfast Office, 115 North St, Belfast BT1
Tel: +61.3.9289.9444 1ND, UK, Tel: +44.28.9023.0220
E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected]
www.oxfam.org.au www.oxfamireland.org
Oxfam Canada Oxfam New Zealand
250 City Centre Ave, Suite 400 PO Box 68357, Auckland 1032
Ottawa, Ontario,K1R 6K7, Canada New Zealand
Tel: +1.613.237.5236 Tel: +64.9.355.6500 (Toll-free 0800 400 666)
E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected]
www.oxfam.caT www.oxfam.org.nz
Oxfam Germany Novib Oxfam Netherlands
Greifswalder Str. 33a Mauritskade 9, Postbus 30919
10405 Berlin, Germany 2500 GX, The Hague, The Netherlands
Tel: +49.30.428.50621 Tel: +31.70.342.1621
E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected]
www.oxfam.de www.novib.nl
Oxfam Great Britain Oxfam Solidarit (Belgium)
Oxfam House, John Smith Drive Rue des Quatre Vents 60
Cowley, Oxford, OX4 2JY, UK 1080 Brussels, Belgium
Tel: +44.(0)1865.473727 Tel: +32.2.501.6700
E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected]
www.oxfam.org.uk www.oxfamsol.be
Oxfam Hong Kong Oxfam Qubec
17/fl., China United Centre 2330 rue Notre Dame Ouest, Bureau 200
28 Marble Road, North Point, Hong Kong Montral, Quebec, H3J 2Y2, Canada
Tel: +852.2520.2525 Tel: +1.514.937.1614
E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected]
www.oxfam.org.hk www.oxfam.qc.ca

Published by Oxfam International November 2005

Published by Oxfam GB for Oxfam International under ISBN 978-1-84814-595-5