UD Toilets and Composting Toilets in

Emergency Settings
This Technical Brief looks at the criteria for selecting Urine Diversion (UD) and Composting Toilets options in
an emergency setting, including the construction, operation and maintenance of such units

Ecological Sanitation or which is used to store and dry the faeces over a specified
period. Normally, it is recommended to store faeces for a
Sustainable Sanitation? minimum of 12-months in one vault before emptying.
Adding a desiccating material such as ash or sawdust will
The approach of Ecological Sanitation (Ecosan) in accelerate the faeces drying process. Typically, in a well-
emergency settings breaks with conventional excreta managed ecosan unit, storage times of greater than 3-
disposal options such as pit latrines or pour-flush toilets. months will reduce many pathogens to safe levels, in
Traditionally, Ecosan systems re-use both faeces and particular those responsible for Ameobiasis, Giardiasis,
urine, turning them into either a soil conditioner or a Hepatitis A, Hookworm, Whipworm, Threadworm,
fertilizer. This not only benefits peoples health through Rotavirus, Cholera, Escherichia coli, and Typhoid
safe excreta disposal and by reducing environmental amongst others. Ascaris is more persistent though, and
contamination, but also implies re-using the by-products may require retention times of 12-months or more.
for some form of agricultural activity.
In an emergency setting, the choice of ecosan options is
very often driven by factors other than the re-use of all
or part of the by-products. Ecosan toilets are very often
better suited to rocky ground or areas with high water
tables, making them more resistant to cyclic flooding for
instance. Unlike pit latrines, they can be used for many
years, making them a much more attractive option in
terms of sustainability. They do however require more
careful operation and maintenance than a pit latrine or a
pour-flush toilet. Saving water may be another key factor
in selecting ecosan units.

Key Concepts in Ecological

Sanitation
Fig 1: UD Squatting plate Fig 2: UD Pedestal unit
Ecological latrines can be broadly divided into two main
categories:
Composting toilets
1. Dehydrating urine diversion (UD) toilets The simplest and best-known composting toilet is the
2. Composting toilets Arborloo. This toilet uses an unlined shallow pit (1 1.5
metre deep), fitted with a ring beam, slab and portable
Urine diversion (UD) toilets superstructure. As the pit is used, soil, ash and leaves
can be added to the pit to keep fresh faeces covered.
These are commonly used to separate human urine at
When the pit is nearly full, a new pit is dug close by, and
source before it mixes with the faeces. This means urine
the ring beam, slab and superstructure are moved to the
and faeces can be handled separately and in a specific
new site. The old pit is then covered with soil, allowing
manner. Separation is achieved through specially
contents to compost down. When fully composted, a tree
designed toilets and urinals, UD toilets, which are
(typically a fruit tree) is planted. The advantage of the
connected to a collection system and then to either a
Arborloo system is that latrines are typically low-cost,
storage container or a soak away. Urine diversion toilets
and can be built from locally available materials. The
come in many forms; seated pedestals; squatting plates;
Arborloo also avoids the need to handle the compost,
and separate urinals for men, making them easy to adapt
making it a very simple and safe way to recycle nutrients.
to local cultural norms. One advantage of separating
urine from faeces is to reduce potential odours as well as
prolonging latrine life.
Urine separation toilets are commonly used in
conjunction with an alternating double vault system,

OXFAM Technical Brief Eco San Latrine Construction 1

 Maintenance and Hand washing
People were trained to use latrines properly and to
wash hands after use. A kit containing soap, brush,
bucket and baby potty and a small shovel were
distributed to the latrine users.

Sustainability
The design is adapted to the local context:
- The latrine is above ground level, helping to stop
surface water entering the pit, and can resist
floods < 15 cm deep.
Fig 3: An Arborloo system in use - All materials are re-usable. The slab can be
moved to another site when the pit is full, or in
The Use of Arborloos, Grande Saline, Haiti case of severe flooding. The rim masonry can be
Maintenance and Hand washing
re-used. The wooden frame and the metallic roof
People were trained to use latrines
The latrine uses a concrete slab. This properly
was theandmost
to
can also be re-used in a new latrine.
wash hands after use. A kit containing soap,
expensive part, and is designed to be moved from the brush,
bucket People understood that even with mud, stones
in useand baby pottydugand a The
smallslab,
shovel were -
pit to the newly one. frame and
distributed to the latrine users. and local material it is possible to construct a
roof were donations, due to cost, and can be expected
simple latrine. Neighbours or people from nearby
to be used for many years.
Sustainability communities, who have the means, can easily
Construction - 4 Steps
The design is adapted to the local context: reproduce the model.
- 1.TheThe
latrine is above
beneficiaries ground
dug theirlevel,pits
helping
(90 to
cm Lesson learned
stopdiameter
surface &water
2 mentering the pit,
deep), with and can
a community The post-flood intervention promoted a simple solution
resisupervisor
st floods < providing
15 cm deep.technical support as the that people can easily replicate, resulting in increased
- All communities
materials arewere digging.The slab can be
re-usable. latrine coverage to 80% of the target population. The
moved to another site when the pit is full, or in Arborloo design requires only local material and
case of severe flooding. The rim masonry can emphasises the message anybody in the community
be re-used. The wooden frame and the metallic can build his/her own latrine. The design is simple,
roof can also be re-used in a new latrine. affordable, easy to maintain and doesnt need to be
- People understood that even with mud, stones emptied when full.
and local material it is possible to construct a
simple latrine. Neighbours or people from
nearby communities, who have the means, can Criteria for Selection
easily reproduce the model. In an emergency setting, a number of factors must be
fully considered before deciding to introduce either UD
Lesson learned toilets or composting toilets, and it is recommended to
The post-flood intervention promoted a simple adopt a programme process, based on solid assessments
solution that people can easily replicate, resulting in of the situation (Excreta Disposal in Emergencies
increased latrine coverage to 80% of the target Manual). Consultation with the affected community is an
population. The Arborloo design requires only local essential part of this assessment process. However, a
material and emphasises the message anybody in number of parameters, specific to the choice of either UD
the community can build his/her own latrine. The or composting technology should also be considered.
design is simple, affordable, easy to maintain and These include:
doesnt need to be emptied when full.
The physical constraints (rocky ground, sandy
Fig 4: An Arborloo under construction soils, high water table, flood plain, etc.) existing
2. A local contractor, from the community, in the target community, which may make
manufactured reinforced slabs (120x120cm) ecosan an attractive option?
near the pits. A 30 x 40 cm masonry rim was Fully understanding the communities preferences
built to prevent cave ins and surface water regarding excreta disposal practices and facilities
inflows. The rim is made of stones and poor Understanding existing local knowledge and
concrete, but capable of supporting the slabs experience in ecosan and local organisations
weight. The stones and wooden frame can be involved in promoting ecosan
reused for a new latrine at a later date.
Do the community intend to re-use any of the
3. Beneficiaries were given responsibility to by-products and are there any strongly held
complete the superstructure using locally beliefs or taboos on handling urine or faeces
available materials. Many people chose mud Being aware of the availability and cost of UD
walls (similar to local houses), but woven hardware and the quality of that hardware
palm tree leaves were also used. Trained
The availability of space, particularly for the
community volunteers supervised the work.
Arborloo system
4. When completed, the contractor installed the Understanding the needs of men, women,
metallic roofing and finalised technical children and those with special needs
aspects of the work.

OXFAM Technical Brief Eco San Latrine Construction 2

Using UD toilets in a 1st
phase response
The priority of 1st phase options is the speed of response,
and it is essential that 1st phase technologies to contain
excreta can be installed quickly. Normally, UD technology
is associated with 2nd phase responses, particularly in
flood prone areas. However, novel solutions to rapid on-
set floods have been tried and tested in Latin America.

Rio Beni Floods, Bolivia

In March 2008, an estimated 20,000 people from
areas surrounding Trinidad (Dept. Beni) moved onto
flood protection embankments surrounding the city.
Shelters were set-up; with water & sanitation issues
quickly became problematic. The embankments were
crowded and open defecation was rife, the ground
was waterlogged, and shelters occupied all of the
empty space. Most importantly, there was no
elevation, so impossible to dig down. Fig 6: Management problems with used toilet paper

The units installed on the embankments were set up In Bolivia, many people use toilet paper and throw
close to those displaced, and came from a local used paper into a bin. If theres no bin, people still
authority contingency stock (from 2007 floods). throw the paper next to the toilet anyway. Quickly,
this becomes a problem in a communal toilet.
Encouraging people to throw their used paper into
the latrine would be one solution to improve toilet
cleanliness.

Construction of UD toilets in
2nd phase of a response
The easiest way to construct an UD toilet is to build it
above ground. This makes it easier to both contain and
to remove contents when desiccated. The impermeable
bottom of chamber prevents contamination of the soil
and ground water. Commonly, above ground vault
structures have twin chambers, with one chamber being
used while the faeces in the other chamber break down
into dry compost. Enough space must be left at the top
of the chambers in order to install the hose or piping
required to collect the urine, and to take it from the urine
separation bowl to either a storage container or a
Fig 5: UD Communal Toilet, Bolivia specially designed urine soak away.
The UD design itself is innovative, as it can be set up Careful attention must also be paid to the ergonomics
quickly, and separates urine from faeces. Urine is and design of the superstructure, as the inappropriate
drained to a container, while the faeces are collected selection of materials may result in a latrine being overly
in a 200-litre drum lined with a bin liner. The local hot or cold, and being seen climbing up steps to enter
authorities are then responsible for collecting the the latrine may discourage use. Good latrine siting is
faeces filled bags on a daily basis. Bags are then therefore a prerequisite to successful implementation.
disposed of at a landfill after collection by truck.
Separating the faeces from the urine facilitates the Community Dialogue
handling of the two human waste streams. The The requirements of men, women, young people,
collection & disposal system does work, but children, those with special needs and disabilities in
experiences from Bolivia highlighted the local relation to Eco San toilet will be different. In consulting
authorities need to provide a reliable O&M service. The with the community it will be important the men and
awareness of users also needs to be raised, women are both consulted and their needs and
particularly in relation to good hygienic practices. requirements identified. For example, women having
monthly bleeding may safely use ecological toilets.

OXFAM Technical Brief Eco San Latrine Construction 3

 The choice of superstructure materials will impact
Designing a Twin-vault UD heavily on subsequent usage and acceptability. The
structure should promote safety, dignity and comfort
Toilet for the user. Windows, and painting with bright
colours will make the interior bright and friendly,
Chambers: hence more likely to be used.
In a 12-month period, an adult will produce 500 litres of
The provision of a ventilation pipe will reduce smells
urine & 50 litres of faeces. The chamber size must be
and may be useful in preventing flies from entering
adjusted for the planned number of users. Typically, for a
the unit. This will however raise the overall cost.
household of 5 people, this will require two chambers of
0.40 m3 minimum. This will result in a chamber of 0.9m Finally, a clear plan to allow both the participation of
high x 0.7m deep x 0.6 wide, giving a usable volume of the target community and to subsequently train and
0.40 m3. Two chambers are required for a double vault raise their awareness about the correct use and
unit. The larger the volume, the longer the faeces maintenance of UD units.
retention time, resulting in better pathogen die-off.
However, larger volumes will result in higher costs due to
increased quantities of materials and higher labour costs.

Fig 8: Complete twin vault UD latrine, Sri Lanka (courtesy ACF)

Urine Disposal through infiltration:

In the event that a decision has been taken not to reuse
Fig 7: Twin vault UD latrine drawing, Sri Lanka (courtesy ACF)
the urine for agricultural purposes, then it will be
Key steps in UD Toilet Construction necessary to select a suitable safe means of disposal.
For the construction of good quality UD toilets, the Typically, urine will be directly drained to an infiltration
following steps must to be adhered to, particularly in the bed or seepage trench. Plants like banana, papaya or
2nd phase of an emergency: other fruit trees can be planted in and around the bed.
There are several options for the disposal of urine at
A good design needs to be selected which meets the house hold level including:
needs and aspirations of the affected communities.
The design must be adapted to follow cultural norms For high water tables
in relation to safe excreta disposal. a) Evaporation Bed
Once an adequate design has been decided on, it b) French Drainage
will be necessary to produce the engineering
For water tables below 2 m
drawings and the BOQs for that particular design.
a) Seepage bed
A decision needs to be made as to whether the urine
will be collected and stored, or whether it will be b) Seepage Trench
collected and drained away to a soak-away?
Opportunities for productive use of by products will
need to be explored.
The UD pedestal or squatting plate choice will
depend on cultural appropriateness, quality and cost.
The choice of the correct hardware will be key to
ensuring the units are used and maintained. Operation and Maintenance
Suppliers for the necessary UD hardware and the
required technical expertise for the construction of
of UD Toilets
the units must be identified. Where appropriate, the Toilets constructed under the Eco san approach need the
relevant supplies and technical expertise may need user help to separate urine from faeces. Therefore the
to be contracted out (see Oxfam TBN no. XX). user has to be aware to urinate only in the front of the
Unit construction must be supervised closely, to toilet pan or closet while defecating only in the back part.
ensure the unit performs in a safe and user-friendly After defecation, a small amount of water should be
manner. In particular, care must be given to ensure added to clean the urine bowl, while the fresh faeces
the chambers are hermetic and that the door sealing should be covered with soil, sawdust, ash or another
the chambers fit well and are easy to operate. desiccating material.

OXFAM Technical Brief Eco San Latrine Construction 4

 The toilet pan or squat plate should be covered to risks to people undertaking this. The removal and
prevent flies from entering into the unit. application process involves three areas of risk:
When urine collection and storage is practiced, the
Those responsible for emptying the pit and
urine storage container should be emptied on a regular
applying faeces to the land come into direct
basis. Correct handling and storage of the urine is
contact;
critical for agricultural purposes.
A badly smelling toilet could be a sign that either urine
Children and adults walk, work or play in the
area where faeces is deposited or applied to
is mixing with faeces or that not enough desiccating
land and poor hygiene practices lead to
material is being used.
contamination and infection; and
Organic materials such as toilet paper can be added to
the faeces. None organic waste should be separated Contamination of crops, which is particularly
and kept outside the toilet, being disposed of important for crops that may not be cooked
separately. before eating, such as tomatoes or lettuce.
When the chambers are emptied, it is necessary to The risk of contamination to members of the community
handle the contents with care and attention. Safety depends on how the faeces being removed are applied to
equipment such as boots and gloves should be used. crops, as well as the amount of time people from the
community spend on that land. When faeces are
Using faeces and urine from deposited near peoples homes, or on land where people
often congregate, the risk of contamination is increased.
an Ecosan Toilet A high risk of contamination occurs if the contents are
spread by hand to the land and used as a top dressing.
Since ancient history, human urine and excreta have
Exposed helminth eggs and pathogens will be a health
been used in agriculture to improve soil fertility,
risk to anybody walking on the land, although this risk
particularly in countries like China, where the use of
will diminish with time as pathogen die-off is accelerated
night soil has generated trade in human by-products
through the effects of sunlight and desiccation.
such as urine and faeces.
If excreta or excreta-derived products are applied to the
On average, an adult produces around 500 litres of urine
field before planting crops:
and 50 litres of faeces in a year, enough nutrients to
produce around 250 kg of cereal. People removing faeces should be adequately
protected during the process;
Fertilizer Urine Faeces Total Requirement for
(kg/500 l) (kg/ 50 l) (kg) 250kg cereal
The faeces should be placed in trenches and
Nitrogen 5.6kg 0.09kg 5.7kg 5.6kg covered with at least 25cm of soil; and
Phosphorus 0.4kg 0.19kg 0.6kg 0.7kg Root crops should not be planted directly over
Potassium 1.0kg 0.17kg 1.2kg 1.2kg the trenches.
Table 1: The nutrition value of urine and faeces as fertilizers

The majority of nutrients are contained in the urine,

Selecting UD hardware
while the vast majority of the pathogens are in the Toilets and urinals are typically constructed of ceramic,
faeces. The quantity of nutrients contained in by- concrete, fibreglass or plastic. Drainpipes and tubing are
products may vary according to geographical location. normally made of durable plastics, such as PVC or
polyethylene. Storage containers for urine are typically
Urine is normally free from pathogens, but can become
made from plastic. Components made of metal should be
contaminated when mixed. Urine when collected from
avoided wherever possible as urine can cause corrosion.
different households should be stored for between one to
six months for hygiene reasons. However, when Good quality toilet hardware can be procured/obtained
households use their own urine, there is no need for from a number of sources, including a range of producers
storage prior to application. In both cases, the last located in Sweden, Philippines, Mexico, El Salvador and
application should take place at least one month before South Africa. Alternatively, products can be manufactured
harvesting. It can be applied pure or diluted, and to locally, using appropriate mass production techniques
avoid smells, burns to foliage and ammonia loss, it including concrete and fibreglass moulds. In the event of
should be applied close to the soil and incorporated as local manufacture, considerable care must be given to
quickly as possible. controlling production quality, and ensuring that the UD
toilet hardware is of the highest quality. I.e. concrete
The faecal part of the by products must always be
toilet pedestals may be covered with a high quality
sanitized before use as a fertiliser. The faeces, although
enamel paint or fibreglass layer to produce a smooth,
having a lower nutrient content, is high in organic matter,
non-porous surface that is easy to clean.
phosphorus, aids water retention and is also a good soil
improver. Sanitized faeces should be applied prior to
planting or sowing, as the high phosphorus content is
good for young plants. The decomposed faeces needs to
be fully mixed in and covered.
Post-latrine handling
Independently of the latrine model used, faeces from all
ecosan toilets (with the exception of Arborloo) will need
to be removed from the unit and applied to the crops.
How this is done will have a significant impact on the

OXFAM Technical Brief Eco San Latrine Construction 5

 There are a number of networks exist globally that
promote the use of sustainable sanitation and ecosan
technology. Key organisations include:
In English:
Stockholm Environment Institute (EcoSanRes)
http://www.ecosanres.org/
GTZ (German Federal Government)
http://www.gtz.de/en/themen/umwelt-
infrastruktur/wasser/8524.htm
Sustainable Sanitation Alliance (SuSanA)
http://www.susana.org/
WASTE Netherlands
http://www.ecosan.nl/page/447
IWA Specialist Group "Resources oriented Sanitation"
http://www.ecosan.org/
Sustainable, Organic, Integrated Livelihoods (SOIL)
http://www.oursoil.org/ecologicalsanitation.php
Sustainable Settlement in Southern Africa
Fig 9: UD Pedestal toilet manufacture in Mexico. http://www.sustainablesettlement.co.za/howto/urinediv/what.ht
ml
Choosing hardware that meets the needs and cultural
preferences (i.e. seated, squatting, wet or dry anal EcoSan Philippines
cleansing) of users is key in terms of technology http://www.ecosan.ph/index.php?option=com_frontpage&Itemi
acceptance. d=1

In French
Centre Rgional pour l'Eau Potable et
l'Assainissement faible cot (CREPA)
http://www.reseaucrepa.org/page/1306

In Spanish
Sarar Transformacin SC
http://www.sarar-t.org/portal/index.php

Further information
Excreta Disposal in Emergencies, a field manual
Harvey, P. (an Inter-agency publication).
Toilets That Make Compost EcoSanRes Paper
http://www.ecosanres.org/pdf_files/ESR-factsheet-13.pdf

Ecological Sanitation - Authors: Smet, J. and Sugden, S.,

April 2006. WELL FACTSHEET
Fig 10: Urinal and container (courtesy GTZ) http://www.lboro.ac.uk/well/resources/fact-sheets/fact-sheets-
htm/Ecological%20sanitation.htm
The adoption of urinals for in UD toilets for men, who
prefer to stand when urinating, is one way of Guidelines on the Use of Urine and Faeces in Crop
accommodating a particular physiological difference, and Production EcoSanRes Paper
hence improving the performance and effectiveness of http://www.ecosanres.org/pdf_files/ESR-factsheet-06.pdf
UD toilets. Should ecological sanitation carry a health warning?
Assessing the health risks of ecological latrines. Scott, R.,
(2006) WELL Briefing note 27. WELL, Loughborough
Sustainable Sanitation & University.
http://www.lboro.ac.uk/well/resources/Publications/Briefing%20
Ecosan Networks Notes/BN27%20Ecological%20sanitation.htm

Oxfam has collected a number of resources on

sustainable sanitation and ecological sanitation, and
these can be found on the Sanitation in Emergencies web
page:

Link to Oxfam resource site

http://oxfam.org.uk/resources/learning/huma
nitarian/ecosan.html

OXFAM Technical Brief Eco San Latrine Construction 6