Essential Services:

Community Based People as

Management for
Right to Education
Changemakers

Richa Kapoor

Oxfam India working papers series

June 2010
OIWPS - II
Abstract

In the light of recent passage of Right to Education Act as a fundamental right to all children between
6-14 years of age, there is a critical need to find ways in which this can be realized. It is also now
widely acknowledged that without community as a primary stakeholder in the process, this right would
not meet its intent. The Act provides for various entry points for such a purpose, most critical of them
being School Management Committees. Oxfam India and many other civil society organizations have
been working through various models for quite some time in which community of parents, teachers,
local institutions and civil society have been working together to provide a vision in which this right
can be realized. This paper attempts to capture some of those learnings which can show the pathway
in which communitys direct stake can be built in accessing free, quality and universal education for
all.

About this working paper:

This paper was conceived primarily as a means to collate some of the ongoing work around
community based management practices in education so that it could become a good learning
tool for future practitioners. A discussion was initiated towards the same on Solution Exchange
(the UN website for knowledge sharing). It was after this that Richa Kapoor, the intern working
with Oxfam India did her field work to do further in depth research. Based on her first draft, a
two-day national consultation was organized by Oxfam India and Wada Na Todo Abhiyan where
various practitioners from about 15 states, activist-academics like Vinod Raina and Prof. Janaki
Rajan, Prof. Apoorvanand, and policy experts like Dr Santosh Mehrotra, Advisor, Planning
Commission, B. Muralidharan, Advisor, UN Resident Coordinator, participated in the same. It
was given a final shape by Kaushik Dasgupta. The paper acknowledges all their contributions
towards the same.

Produced by: Oxfam India

Disclaimer:
Oxfam India Working Paper Series disseminates the finding of the work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development
issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry
the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusion expressed in this paper are entirely
those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of Oxfam India.
For more information, please contact:
Avinash Kumar
Theme Lead, Essential Services
Oxfam India
Plot No. 1, Community Centre
2nd Floor (Above Sujan Mahinder Hospital)
New Friends Colony, New Delhi - 110 025
Tel: 91 11 4653 8000
Website: www.oxfamindia.org
INTRODUCTION

On April 1, 2010, the Government of India notified the rules for the recently passed
Right to Education Act, named, the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory
Education Act. This Act had already received the President of Indias assent on
August 26, 2009. The Act intends to give shape to the right of free and compulsory
education for all children between the age of 6 and 14. Article 21-A, inserted by the
Constitution (Eighty-Sixth Amendment) Act, 2002, provides for such a right.

The salient features of the Right of Education Act include

The Act at a Glance

The Act is a detailed and comprehensive piece of legislation which includes

provisions related to schools, teachers, curriculum, evaluation, access and specific
division of duties and responsibilities of different stakeholders. Key features of the
Act include:

Every child from 6 to 14 years of age has a right to free and compulsory
education in a neighborhood school till completion of elementary education.
Private schools must reserve a quarter of their class strength for students
from weaker sections and disadvantaged groups, sponsored by the
government.
All schools except private unaided schools are to be managed by School
Management Committees with 75 per cent parents and guardians as
members.
All schools except government schools are required to be recognized by
meeting specified norms and standards within 3 years to avoid closure.
No child shall be held back, expelled, or required to pass a board
examination until completion of elementary education
A child who completes elementary education (up to class 8) shall be
awarded a certificate
There must be a fixed student-teacher ratio of 30:1.
Mandates improvement in quality of education
School teachers will need adequate professional degree within five years or
else will lose their jobs
The financial burden will be shared between state and central government.

But the effectiveness of these provisions will depend on getting the right design that
will ensure accountability and transparency in implementing the act. The Right To
Education Act does have many provisions to ensure accountability through
decentralization, including the creation of school management committees (SMCs)
empowered to make plans and monitor school-level expenditures. But as is well
known in India, the devil lies in implementation.
It is increasingly being realized that without active participation of citizens,
policy and program initiatives will not deliver, certainly not in any inclusive way.
Citizens participation helps in mobilizing public awareness as well as building a
strong sense of ownership of government policies and programs. It also creates
greater transparency and accountability, holding public officials/politicians
responsible on their promises. Such initiatives at the local level are also invaluable in
bringing local issues, problems, aspirations and needs into sharper focus, so that
indigenous fixes can be provided for them. Enabling such participation is also a
means of empowering the marginalized groups.
 Community-based monitoring (CBM) must be seen in this context. Simply put,
CBM can be defined as a form of public stewardship, driven by indigenous needs, to
increase the accountability and quality of public services and local development. The
idea behind mobilizing and facilitating communities to take an active role in the
planning, implementation and monitoring of development programssuch as the
Right to Education Actis to let primary stakeholders take ownership. A participatory
role of this kind also builds the communitys awareness of local development issues.
Such kind of participatory approach also builds local partnerships and networks
between key stakeholders such as concerned citizens, government officials,
academics, industry personnel, NGOs, community groups and local institutions.
Within the CBM framework, members of a community affected by a
social/public program generate not just data but also place demands, offer
suggestions and critiques. Such feedback can help in further planning and
implementation, thereby envisioning a model of facilitating grassroots activism.
CBM also promotes evidence-based policymaking and program
implementation.

THE SOCIAL IMPERATIVE

While the central notification for the implementation of the Act have just come into
being, a few figures need to be kept in mind.

According to the latest report of the Union Ministry of Human Resource

Development 2.8 million children in the age group of 6-14 are not in school.
The report notes that slightly less than 50% of these children were never
enrolled in school and slightly more than 50% are dropouts.
Girls constitute half of all out of school children in the age group of 6-14
25% of the out of school children are from Scheduled Castesalthough they
make up 20% of the overall population in the age group of 6-14.).
20% of out of school children in the age group of 6-14 belong to Scheduled
Tribe childrenalthough they make up 10% of the population in the age
group.
23% such children are Muslimalthough they make up 13% of the
population between the age of 6and 14 (Report of Technical Support Group,
Union Ministry of Human Resource Development, March 2009).

So 68% of all out of school children belong to Scheduled Caste, Scheduled Tribes
and Muslim communities. Dysfunctional schools plagued with poor infrastructure,
irregular teacher attendance and unattractive teaching methods are the bane of
schools catering to children of marginalized communities. Such schools are a big
reason behind high drop out rates and the persistence of out-of-school children
(Vaidyanathan and Nair, 2001).
The Sarv Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), the precursor of the Right to Education Act,
recognized such a shortfall. The mission laid much store on community institutions to
improve matters. The Abhiyan tried to involve the community in the following ways:

It stressed on training community leaders for tasks such as the preparation

of village education registers, retention registers, pupil progress cards, and
for maintenance grants for schools.
It envisaged community ownership of the school system and for this purpose
stressed on the involvement of village educational committees (VECs),
school management committees (SMCs) of weaker and disadvantaged
sections as well as of womenin addition to teachers, active community
leaders, parents, representatives of NGO
 For monitoring the quality of education, SSA placed much emphasis on
developing quality indicators. This had to be developed through partnerships
between various stakeholders including research institutions, SMCs, VECs
and Panchayati Raj Institutions
SSA also mandated the formation of standing committees/sub committees
under the Gram Panchayat (GP) as nodal bodies for all matters pertaining to
elementary education. It proposed to link these bodies to school- level or
village-level committees for overall supervision.
SSA also envisioned a supervisory role for all tiers of the PRIs (village,
block, district)

The National Curriculum Framework, 2005another precursor of the Right to

Education Actalso emphasized community participation as a means of enhancing
quality and accountability in education. The document emphasized
Decentralization in planning, implementation and monitoring of education
programs.
Strengthening of PRIs as a major step towards making the system less
bureaucratic, teachers more accountable, and the schools more autonomous
and responsive to the needs of children.
Genuine planning from below by enlisting the support of VECs, state SSA
bodies, and other statutory bodies for micro-planning including such tasks as
the village-level mapping of school participation (non-enrollments,
attendance patterns, special needs, etc.) as well as identification of human
resources
Enabling learning through participation in the life of the community as an
indispensable component of all disciplines
Curricular choices with legitimate stakeholders (read local community
members/parents) to help them see the educational value of curricular
decisions as including a critical understanding of local realities of gender,
caste, class and religion that are oppressive and reaffirm social inequalities
and hierarchies (NCF 2005).
Engage with local community to answer questions about the inclusion or
exclusion of particular knowledge and experiences in the school curriculum,
as well as using the local community as a valuable resource for teaching oral
history and traditional knowledge.
Wide-ranging cooperation and partnerships between the local community
and other stakeholders including the state and civil society groups.

The decentralisation envisaged by the two precursors of the Right To Education Act
owed much to the 73rd and 74th constitutional amendment acts. Enacted in 1992, the
two pieces of legislation created a key paradigm shift in governance models by
invoking decentralisation, paving the way for the participation of local communities
and institutions in the planning, implementation, and monitoring of government
programs including those in education. The amendments established the three-tier
Panchayati Raj system in the country, with elected bodies at the gram, taluk, and
zilla levels to enable the community to actively participate in developmental programs
and ensure more effective implementation. Amongst the 29 subjects identified by the
73rd amendment act for transfer to the panchayats was education -primary and
secondary, adult and non-formal, vocational and technical.
The institutionalized statutory space provided by the 73rd and the 74th
amendment acts makes mechanisms like Community Bsed Monitoring (CBM)
key factors in facilitating movement from top-down methods to participatory
processes for local engagement in effective governance.
 The Right to Education Act keeps up with this commitment of
decentralisation. It asks that SMCs be constituted for every state school
(including aided schools) with adequate representation of parents (at least
3/4th with proportional representation of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes
and Other Backward Castes). The act devolves the following responsibilities
on SMCs
Monitoring the day-to-day working of school
Preparing school development plans to ensure equitable
distribution
Utilizing grants for development of school
The act has been criticized for excluding children from the committees, or lack of
clarity in terms of the status of the committees vis--vis PRIs. One of the demerits of
the new law is that it provides limited powers to the National Commission for
Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR).
This body does not have the capacity to monitor performance of teachers in
terms of quality. Hence it is not clear which agency/organization is going to monitor
the functioning of the schools, teachers and other units. If monitoring of the systems
and processes are not institutionalised its very difficult for any law to be effective.
But these can be overcome by making substantive rules. For instance, the
rules related to procedure for developing school development plans could build in
participation of children and make it mandatory for the plans to be presented and
discussed before the gram sabha or the panchayat standing committees on
education (Mehandale, 2010).
The formulation of the rules by states on the implementation of the Act can
serve as an effective tool towards engaging local self-governments more
comprehensively with the educational issues and challenges in their respective
areas. In the light of the above the following questions are important:
What should be the roles and responsibilities of each of the local authorities
as envisaged in the act?
What kind of accountability and supervisory mechanisms must be there to
ensure that the line departments in education at each level are made
accountable to the democratic local authorities?
What kind of preparation, capacity enhancement and framework will be
needed for local authorities, to play their role effectively?
What should be the process and mechanism for centre and states to
formulate rules for the implementation of the act, who should be the
participants, how it should be done?
Moreover, the word local authority needs to be further elucidated to differentiate
between various administrative bodies within the government and urban as well as
rural governance structures. In the act, the definition of local authorities clubs a
range of completely different entities and structures which require to be dealt with
separately to define clear roles and responsibilities.
SMCs and community levels groups formed at the village level should
undertake the responsibility of planning and monitoring of each school. Gram sabhas
should be the forum to approve the plans prepared by SMCs. Gram panchayat
should have an oversight role for the schools in its area. One of the roles of gram
panchayat should also be to ensure the convergence between education department
and agencies that provide services such as water and sanitation. It should also
ensure coordination between the education department and the mid day meal
scheme as well as between school development plan and panchayat overall plan for
development. Municipal authorities in urban and semi urban areas should play the
same roles.
 Another important role of local bodies at each level should be to ensure that
complaints can be addressed before they get escalated to the State Child Rights
Commission to be formed in each state under the provision of Right to Education Act.
The process of legislating on right to education is far from over. Civil society
organisations and teachers unions must continue to engage with the rule-making
process, especially at the state level and ensure that their state governments
formulate provisions that effectively realise the goals of the act.

LEARNING FROM EXPERIENCE

Ground realities differ across states, even across regions between states. But there
is a general tendency amongst education department officials to sideline and neglect
local governance structures in the absence of clear guidelines and accountability
mechanisms being in place.
Civil society groups working to ensure that the Right To Education Act is
implemented effectively could draw on a range of experiences that ensure
accountability.

Jan Shiksha Adhiniyam

For instance Madhya Pradeshs Jan Shiksha Adhiniyam, 2002 provides for regular
monitoring of quality education in schools by Parent Teacher Associations (PTAs).
Under this state act, teachers have both rights and responsibilities. But they have the
support of Community and Parents through PTAs in each school.
Teachers cannot be deputed for non-teaching tasks except with explicit orders of
Government from State level (under Section 10). This will provide more time to focus
on improving quality of education. Teachers have right for their Professional
development [Under Section 25(4)
The teachers have to present the schools annual Academic Report (Jan Shiksha
Prateevedan) to PTAs to ensure transparency. They have to organise PTA meetings
every month to consult and review the academic achievement of children and other
problems of school.
Other than the teachers, the PTAs can identify suitable persons like retired teachers
to contribute to teaching in schools on an honorary basis and enlist them through
PTA. The association also has the right to see answer sheets of students and take
action to improve the performance of the academically weak ones.

The Assam experience

In Assam, following a Guwahati Hight Court Verdict of 2003, Shiksha Nyaya Manch,
a quasi-judicial forum, was initiated as a mechanism to address peoples complaints
pertaining to functioning of schools. This initiative has, however, not taken off
because key officials in the project were transferred, but is an example of the kind of
effective monitoring authority that could aid implementation of the Right to Education
Act.
The SSA in Assam has begun a campaign to create databases of educational
amenities in the state. The databases that have been created so far have been made
public through newspapers and small booklets distributed to schools, villages and
panchayats. Clear norms were defined for several interventions. For example: which
habitation qualifies for a community school? Which school is eligible for a para
teacher? These norms were given wide publicity by printing leaflets, discussion in
meetings at village, panchayat and block levels. Village education registers became
the basis for planning at the village level.
The well publicised norms and databases were used for several interventions
including selection of schools for repair and construction, identification of schools that
qualified for additional teachers, gradation of schools for providing additional
academic support, identification of disadvantaged areas that would be eligible for
special compensatory packages, and so on. School and village education
committees also made demands for bridge courses and remedial support teachers
based on these public databases.

Community takes matters in hand

It must also be recognised that a community does not ipso facto become aware of
issues concerning rights to education. This is where civil society organizations come
in. For example, the ongoing efforts of Wada Na Todo Abhiyan (WNTA) in large-
scale mobilisation of local communities have not only allowed the network to form
decentralised networks but also provided for greater visibility, outreach and impact in
14 states around the country.
WNTAs Nine is Mine campaign has run on the strength of a mobilised community,
sending the signatures of over 200,000 children to pressure the government to keep
its promises in its Common Minimum Program to invest 6% of the GDP in public
education and 3% in health.
Other civil society groups have motivated communities to do something about the
issues at local levels. For instance, the story of how Bachpan Bachao Andolan (BBA)
succeeded in creating a Bal Mitra Gram (BMG or Child Friendly Village) in Tewari, a
village in Rajasthan historically mired in gender biases and strong patriarchal
traditions, underlines how a mobilized community can be a force to reckon with.
BBA activists in Tewari, after a prolonged time in the field, were able to build rapport
with youth, women, and village leaders through. They shared the concept of a Bal
Mitra Gram with the local people. Once a consensus had been built, the villagers
took the initiative to organise a huge public meeting in their village with the help of
the BMG activists to address issues like gender bias and womens education,
amongst others.
A mobile troupe of artists (in what are termed Mukti caravans) performed, using the
mediums of theatre and song to create awareness of child exploitation and illiteracy.
As a result of the meeting, the community heartily embraced the concept of a Child
Friendly Village. With this new-found self-confidence, and having understood the
critical importance of educating the children of their community, the Tewari
community proactively tackled issues such as ways to revitalise the local school and
curb teacher absenteeism. It even got the gram panchayat to pass a resolution to fix
the problems.

Respect for the community

A common underlying principle for organizations seeking to work with communities to
enhance the educational experiences of their children is a deep respect for what the
community itself can offer to these initiatives. For instance, Ankur, Society for
Alternatives in Education, an NGO, believes the community has resources and
capacities it can draw on to enrich the education of the children. Ankurs Learning
Centers (for children in the age group 5-10 yrs.) are, for example, are built as spaces
intimately involved with the socialscape around and draw sustenance from it. Thus,
grandmothers are welcome here to narrate stories distinctly imprinted with their
times, even as children are encouraged to learn from them recipes for making
gulkand.
In Childrens Clubs (for children in the age group 10-14 yrs.) there is a deliberate
attempt to create opportunities for dialogue between children and adults in the
community engaged in various skills whether carpentry, shoe-making, doll-making, or
welding. The result of these interactions is often beautiful, student-composed texts
that are compiled as flip books, booklets and even audio books. The attempt here is
to use opportunities the community possesses for connecting life and learning.
Another initiative worth mentioning in this respect is the Lucknow-based BETI (Better
Education Through Innovation) Foundation. It runs educational programs for girls in
numerous districts of UP, relying on the resources of the local community. Its
vocational training programs involve a long-standing relationship with local chikankari
craftswomen (part of another NGO called SEWA) who have enabled hundreds of
young girls to be self-reliant by passing on their craft skills to them.
Community participation is also central in the non-profit Prathams use of community
women as volunteer teachers for their Balwadis in bastis and slums in many parts of
the country. The Balwadi Program for pre-school children of 3 to 5 years in
underprivileged areas makes extensive use of community women whom Pratham
trains to run Balwadis (overseen by a supervisor, also drawn from the local
community) for 3 hours each day for 8-10 months, focusing on the cognitive,
emotional, social and motor development of preschool children. The instructor of a
model Balwadi is often asked to demonstrate skills to her peers who visit her
Balwadi to learn from her. In addition, the instructors of about 30 Balwadis of a given
geographical cluster meet weekly to talk about their experiences, plan the next week
and to get help from their trainers or peers (Chavan, 2000, p. 35).
Long-term sustainability of the program also demands decentralization and hence,
the Balwadi instructors are organized under Mahila Mandals. In the two Balwadis in
Punjabi Basti in Delhis Zakhira area, one observes self-confident, poised,
enthusiastic instructors reciting songs and poems, which the children followed with
excitement. Brief talks with these teachers revealed other skills and focused activities
in their repertoire, which they had acquired as a result of their training at Pratham.

For other NGOs like the Society for All Round Development (SARD) and Bachpan
Bachao Andolan (BBA), the notion of community participation is based on the belief
that the local community needs to be empowered and enabled to sustain the
changes occasioned by any intervention, and hence, the communitys active
involvement is integral rather than incidental to the scheme of things.
SARDs work in the Deeg and Kaman blocks of Bharatpur district of Rajasthan
stands as a good model of participatory development with education as a key
intervention. An autonomous Community Based Organisation (CBO), comprised of
10-15 villagers (with representation of marginalized sections), is the main grassroots
institution through which the NGO works to improve program participation and
implementation. These CBOs have played an important role in influencing
community attitudes, garnering support for the SARD-run Quality Education Centers
(QECs) and soliciting contributions from the community.
The NGOs vision of community participation also entails capacity building of the PRI
as a genuine grassroots institution by arming its members with clear guidelines about
the activities they need to undertake and the responsibilities they need to discharge
when it comes to educating the communitys children. SARDs strategies in this
respect involve the following:
To make education a priority issue with the PRI.
Identifying interested PRI members for work with the local community
to bring about a change in attitudes, etc.
Create platforms and opportunities for better interface between the
PRI and government officials. Undertake joint planning, budgeting and decision-
making.
Involving PRIs in fund-raising as well as in generating resources from
available government schemes for education.
Organising exposure visits of PRI members to model educational
institutions around the country to help them develop a better grip on the myriad
issues involved in educating children from marginalized communities, from
infrastructure to the qualitative aspects of classroom processes.

A unique and key feature of a BMG is the formation of a childrens assembly known
as the Bal Panchayat which allows children an opportunity to create a legitimate
democratic space for themselves to voice their demands and grievances. A Bal
Panchayat is an elected childrens assembly which is given recognition by the adult
(Gram) Panchayat. Bal Prashikshan programmes (Child Orientation Programme) are
organised to help children to learn about the process of holding elections, debate and
act on issues that impact children and their lives, whether it is the construction of
toilets in the local school or demands for shutting down the local liquor store.

The experience gained from such initiatives can be very useful in framing rules that
enable the community to monitor the implementation of the Right To Education Act.
SARD and BBAs work points to the fact that getting the community to identify with
the aims and objectives of programs/initiatives often works as a solid way of ensuring
the latters impact. Involving community at every stage of the program (i.e. planning,
implementation, monitoring and evaluation) not only empowers the community over
its living conditions (a desirable goal in general) but also ensures that the program
continues to serve the needs of the local community rather than those of the
implementing NGO or its donor agency.

An empowered community acts

The Samajshala Model

Mahadevnagar village in Osmanabad district is home to pardhi community

(denotified tribes) who were branded 'criminal' under British law. The village
has been deprived of basic facilities like roads and sanitation. The children
were mostly missing from school and parents migrated to labour sites or were
found behind bars, leaving their children unattended. Though community
members had access to modern facilities like television, education of children
remained a neglected facet.
In the last two years, the community has taken revolutionary steps to ensure
100% enrolment of children in primary school by deciding a punishment of
Rs. 25,000/- for parents who do not send their children to school. Similarly,
they have acquired land for the school building from the government
administration after long drawn struggle. Today, the parents and village
leaders, including youth and women from the community have come together
to ensure better education for their children.

An improved face of primary education has emerged at 20 government schools in remote

tribal and dalit populated villages in Marathwada and Vidarbha regions of Maharashtra in the
last two years. This has been a result of collective efforts made under the Samajshala
programme, which was initiated to promote quality and equity in primary education through
enhanced community participation and ownership.
In the last two years, community members have started to monitor and supervise the school
administration and various functions with an enhanced sense of ownership and with the help
of School Management Board formed under the programme. The involvement of community
has led to 100% enrolment of children and visible improvements in the performance of
children. The local NGOs implementing the Samajshala model have focused on improving
relationship between school and community and facilitating use of innovative teaching aids
and methods and regular co-curricular activities. This has led to education becoming an
enjoyable experience for the children.
As a result of community participation and advocacy efforts at the Block level, these village
primary government schools have witnessed enhanced physical amenities like compound
walls, playground, kitchen sheds, repair of classrooms and construction of additional
classrooms in schools. There is growing acceptance and appreciation of the Samajshala
model among Block Education Officers (BEOs). In the next phase, state and national level
advocacy will be carried out to showcase the best practices of the Samajshala model for
improving the quality and equity in primary schools across the country.

In Maharashtras Marathwada regions Samajshala, this community-based model, is

active in providing quality, equitable primary education created by a network of
organizations working on Child Rights in the stateBal Hakk Abhiyan (BHA), Oxfam
India, Indian Institute of Education (IIE), along with two independent educational
consultants Dr. Anand K. Dyal Chand and Mrs. Alda S. Dyal Chand.

Samajshala poses the following questions:

What is the role of the gram panchayat in the field of education and why is it
not central to any planning and development process?
How can parents be given a voice in planning, developing, assessing and
monitoring the educational program?
Why is control of the primary education system not in the hands of those who
benefit from it and are the closest to it?
Why does the community not own its school and its educational agenda?

It then makes the following recommendations for enhancing community participation:

Decentralization

Holds civil society participation and ownership as keys to the successful

implementation of any educational program in any community.
Aims to involve the community effectively by decentralizing the administrative,
academic and fiscal management of educational programs.

Training and Capacity Building

Extensive mobilization and capacity building of the community, its various

organizations and leaders.
Address educational equity by mobilizing the community towards social
justice issues such as the enrollment and retention of girls and children from
marginalized social groups, increase enrollments of such children by a
minimum of 20% each year in the first five years with the intention of
achieving 100% enrollment of school-age children from these groups at the
end of the fifth year.

School Management Board

Given the highly political nature of most village educational committees, the
Samajshala model SMCs have a healthy representation of women and members of
the SC, ST and OBC communities. The model recommends exposure trips for
members to allow them to experience how reputable schools and school programs
are organized and managed. The model also recommends the SMCs forming their
own subcommittees (School Building and Ground Improvement Committee, The
Teacher Evaluation Committee, The Admissions and Retention Committee, Finance
and Budgeting Committee, Committee on Curricular and Co-curricular Programs,
etc.) each responsible for specific functions. The model aims to invest the SMCs and
their various sub committees with the following responsibilities:
Operation of the school budget plus making budgetary allocations
Policy decisions including those regarding curricular/co-curricular programs
Setting the annual calendar and ensuring that children get classroom
instruction for no less than 200 days in each year
Monitoring physical and human resource needs
Monitoring the free midday meal program and the free grain distribution plan
Monitoring teacher attendance with the power to take disciplinary action
against errant teachers
Assuring that the physical facilities of the school are available for community
programs such as adult literacy and non-formal education classes after
normal school hours
Assuring that there are programs in place for enrolling and retaining children
from marginalized socio-economic groups and the girl child
Assuring the regular attendance of each child of school-going age including
the authority to appoint a volunteer truancy officer who works with parents to
ensure regular attendance.

Sustainability

One of the hallmarks of the Samajshala model is its community mobilization and
training. Once a community becomes involved and begins to own its school and
recognizes that providing a good education is not the sole responsibility of the
government, the sustainability of those institutions and their continued excellence are
assured even after outside input ends. This is what is anticipated with the primary
schools in this model. Groups like the SMCs, the Mahila Mandals and local
management boards will continue to retain their power and responsibility and remain
the vital groups that insist on demanding excellence.
The model can be replicated as a whole or in part, i.e. such elements of the
program that serve the needs of a particular community, with the following key
features in place:

Community Involvement
Institution of the Education Committees/Management Boards to ensure
administrative, academic and fiscal accountability and efficiency with
representation from village organizations like the VECs, PTAs, Mahila
Mandals, youth organizations, etc.
The defined roles of the, VEC, PTA, Mahila Mandal, youth organizations (if
any), and partnering NGOs.
Joint school community ventures to address quality and equity issues in
school education.

Accountability and Transparency through Community Stewardship:

Accountability of teachers particularly in terms of attendance
Fiscal accountability
Availability of all school records and reports to the community
Formation of a community based School Management Board

The Bodh Model

Bodh Shiksha Samiti, an NGO formed in 1987, has also given prime place to
community participation in its programs aimed at contributing to the evolution of a
system of equitable and quality education and development for all children.
Currently working in both urban and rural educationally-underserved areas in
Rajasthan, the NGO provides pedagogic and managerial support to about 200
government schools in the State. However, it is in the running of what are called
Bodhshalas (Community Resource Schools, both within the city limits of Jaipur as
well as in locations in Thanagazi and Umren blocks of Alwar district), that the NGO
shows its genuine commitment to democratic decentralization at the grassroots.
Bodhs involvement of PRIs in education has organically evolved out of its
experiences of directly engaging with communities first.

The NGOs beliefs about community participation include:

It is not possible to ensure quality education for children without first
developing a deep understanding of the surrounding contexts in which this education
will take place.
Bodh makes concerted efforts to engage reflectively with families and
community organizations to make them appreciate and demand a quality education
for their children. It maps the educational status of the children in the community.
Household surveys, weekly and monthly meetings, street performances, film shows,
etc., are all used to create a conducive environment for providing formal education to
children in the community. Thus, significantly, the Bodhshalas get established only
when the community demands such schools for its children to receive a quality
education.
Bodh believes that community participation (in the limited, add-on
sense that the term implies) is not enough. Programs have to be owned (in the
fullest sense of the term) by communities.
The organization believes that education should not create any social
distance between the child and her family. The aim is to involve families as willing
and equal partners in the educational endeavour. Bodh teachers frequently meet with
parents, share impressions of the childs progress and make efforts to understand
the familys perceptions about the childs education. Such interactions are useful for
strengthening the communitys interest in the school. Community contact also clears
misconceptions about unconventional pedagogies employed in Bodhshalas.

Capacity Building

The organization conducts capacity-building exercises to make various, key

stakeholders fully aware of their roles and responsibilities so that they can then play
an effective, participatory role in the process. The capacity-building entails both
educational management issues as well as academic dimensions of schooling like
curriculum, pedagogy etc. For instance, Bodhs Janpahal program is based on the
concept of co-governance of government schools. For this purpose Village Education
Development Committees or VEDCs are set up (with representation from the
community, PRIs, and the teachers collective).
Devolution of adequate power and authority to the local community
network of stakeholders.
Sensitizing the bureaucratic machinery towards problems and social
processes at the local level.
Bringing about a change in the generally-held notion that the
community, owing to its handicap of illiteracy, cannot use its authority judiciously.
One of Bodhs key interventions for developing the local capacities of
care givers and others in the community has been through the concept of mother
teachers women from the local communities, having a good understanding of the
given socio-cultural context, who after receiving intensive training can address the
developmental needs of children in the 3-4 yrs. age group. Not only does it empower
the women, it also facilitates the process of community reflection resulting in an
increased awareness and understanding of the need for Early Childhood Education
and Development.

The organizations experiences show effective PRI involvement is critical for school
effectiveness and development. Hence Bodh members spend a lot of time enhancing
the capacity of the PRIs, the first democratic governing unit, by involving them in the
discourse on education.
An active PRI engages in such activities like frequent school visits;
taking part in community meetings (so as to establish a close relationship with the
members of the community as well as understand the problems faced by them);
being in regular touch with both the general administrative apparatus of the state as
well as education department officials regarding issues faced by its schools; and
leverage resources for school infrastructure from various government schemes.
The organisation has worked hard on establishing a close relationship with
PRI members in both Thanagazi and Umren Blocks. As a result, PRI representatives
began to regularly attend the inauguration of various Bodhshalas as well as other
functions held on their premises. The team members ensured their participation in
the decision-making related to the functioning of schools. In monthly meetings with
the community, Members apprised the Panchayat about the progress, condition and
status of the Bodhshalas.

Creating and Strengthening Forum

Bodh has managed to create several openings for dialogue and engagement with the
community. More often than not, the PRIs have initiated the forums that contribute to
the building of solidarity, help overcome internal rifts among people, and allow
collective action to make the ideal of meaningful education for rural children a reality.
Community Level Meetings: In these monthly meetings (attended by
PRI members) the status of school, teachers attendance, teaching-
learning processes and infrastructure all figure prominently.
Gram Panchayat Meetings: Held twice a month, these village-level
meetings help in carrying forward the work initiated in the form of joint
ventures by Bodh and the Panchayats.
Panchayati Samiti Meetings: These monthly, block-level meetings
provide spaces for discussions regarding educational initiatives led by
Bodh and the Panchayats. They also provide impetus for expanding
programs as well as the addition of new features to existing programs.
These meetings often result in an increased monitoring of schools
functioning through regular visits made by PRI members, district
officials, etc.
Gram Sabha Meetings: Occurring once in six months, Bodhs efforts
have resulted in education being an important topic of discussion in
these meetings, with the result that a number of solutions have been
put forward.
Village-Level Education Meetings or Gram Shiksha Sabhas: Formed
with Bodhs active intervention, this forums monthly meetings help
sustain the momentum to solve educational problems at the village
level.
Some of the issues discussed include enrolment (and non-
enrollment), availability of adequate classrooms, community
contributions to build more facilities, status of various facilities,
 availability and attendance of teachers, attendance of students,
learning levels/achievement levels, etc.
Panchayat Education Group: In this forum, Panchayats come together
for regular monitoring of schools and assess educational progress at
the cluster level
Block-Level Panchayat Group: Meetings take place yearly at the block
level and include all the Panchayats that Bodh works with.
Kishori Samooh/Mahila Samooh: Community level forums accessible
to young girls and women where issues such as education and
literacy figure prominently.
Community Program Coordination Committee: A significant step in
creating a specialist forum to supervise, monitor, support and
strengthen the education program both at the Bodhshalas as well as
in the government schools of the block, thus allowing the community
to take ownership of them. This forum formalizes the involvement of
local communities and their PRI representatives in providing children
with a quality education.

Lessons from Bodh

The Bodh model proves alternate educational management mechanisms that replace
traditional top-down approaches are possible. An aware and organized community,
actively supported by the PRI and the teachers, has the power to transform the
educational experiences that children get even in government schools.
In rural communities with deep divides of caste, class, religion and gender, Bodhs
way of addressing deeply-entrenched practices of social exclusion and discrimination
is to create an ideal of the common good like educating the communitys children -
which everyone in the community aspires to achieve. As the community aspires to
achieve this common good, it necessarily reorganizes and mobilizes itself collectively
around the issue.

The Lokmitra Model

Lokmitra, an UP-based NGO, works to improve services (amongst them education)

provided by the government with a strong focus on strengthening local self-
governance. Its operational area includes the districts of Raebareli, Pratapgarh,
Jaunpur and Sitapur in central-eastern Uttar Pradesh. Primary education, Early Child
Care and Development (ECCD), womens leadership and empowerment, improving
the living conditions of brick kiln workers, providing basic literacy and arithmetic skills
to slum children before mainstreaming them, are some of its areas of work.
Where primary education is concerned, Lokmitras experiences have been that the
policy framework for decentralized governance and community ownership was either
nonexistent or ineffective in practice, with no mechanism/enabling process for
effective discharge of those entitlements. For instance, the VECs were too politicised
with the pradhan and the head teacher (chairperson and secretary respectively of the
VEC) more often than not colluding with each other for their own vested interests.
The nominal representation of three parents as members of a VEC was not only
insufficient but sometimes parent-members remained ignorant of the fact they had
been nominated to the VEC.
Further, there was little or no parent involvement in decision making as the members
had insufficient understanding of their rights and responsibilities. In this context,
Lokmitras demonstrated innovations in participatory governance to improve the
performance of government schools through a new institutional set-up consisting of
multi-level parent associations are attempts at getting the most important
stakeholders parents to play an active role in their childrens education.
At the same time it has attempted to bring in adolescent girls who had to leave their
education at an early stage into the mainstream education system through a bridge
course by creating Kishori Kendras from where they move onto successfully join the
school system.

School Management Committees

Lokmitra has set in place a system of ensuring local accountability through evolving
and forming SMCs with about 10-20 members. The NGO organises large parent
meetings as community-mobilization exercises and to identify active, interested and
vocal parents who can contribute effectively as SMC members. In addition to
parents, the SMCs have Panchayat representatives and a few other active
community members who are motivated to work on the issue of education.
The organisation has encouraged the participation of women and
marginalized sections in the SMCs.
The SMCs meet twice a month and raise and discuss issues of school
infrastructure, proper utilization of available resources, mid-day meals, teacher
regularity, timely student enrollment, students learning levels, etc.
Lokmitras role has been in helping the SMCs to evolve into effective
grassroots bodies by building the leadership potential of its members and sensitizing
them to their democratic roles and responsibilities. Capacity-building exercises
initiated by Lokmitra include organising intense debates about issues in quality
education to help mobilize the community towards the education of their children.
Its team works with teachers, children and parents to develop locally relevant
teaching, learning material, develops school development plan and works towards its
better implementation.

Cluster Parent Associations

The system of ensuring transparency, accountability and proper utilisation of

available resources is further strengthened by the creation of parent associations at
the cluster and block levels (Cluster Parent Association or CPA and Block Parent
Association or BPA), with members raising educational issues during public hearings
and in joint meetings with officials, issuing press releases to local newspapers, using
the Right to Information Act (RTI) to seek information and even taking legal recourse
in case of extreme violations. Lokmitra has worked at the capacity building of the
members of these organisations through meetings/discussions, training sessions,
workshops and other awareness programs.
Lokmitra has activated the Gram Panchayats to make education an important issue
on their governance agenda in the areas. This has led to improvements in the quality
of mid-day meals, installation of hand pumps, construction of toilets, improvements in
teacher attendance, construction of more classrooms, etc.
Teachers Forum

Community involvement in childrens work also demands a greater synergy with all
the stakeholders in terms of looking at the ways in which they can support each
other. In this respect, the model also works towards bringing teachers on a common
platform for their own inter-linking, learning and sharing. Besides, their specific
problems are discussed and ways found to resolve them. Their stake is thus
deepened in the entire process where they become co-travelers and not just half-
hearted duty bearers. Towards this end, Lokmitra also works closely with teachers to
enhance their learning and involvement in the development process itself.

Basic Shiksha Manch

It is to upscale the model at the state level and follow it up with an active advocacy
work that the model also works with an upward linking model of parents-teachers
association called Basic Shiksha Manch which works to organize them at the village,
block, district and state level. Linking with several other like-minded organizations it
has brought scores of parents and teachers on a common platform for cross-learning
and sharing exercises, helped to build their voices demanding greater accountability
of the state and improvement in delivery services.

It is in this sense that Lokmitra model looks at the issue both horizontally and
vertically for the fulfillment of universal access to quality education.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

The Right to Education Act is an example of civil society pressure forcing

government to enact enabling legislation. However, the government is yet to deliver
on its promise of providing 6 per cent of the budget for education.
So the task of civil society groups is far from over. But the experiences of various
organisations in successfully getting communities to steer the initiatives to educate
their children recounted above, shows it is possible to break both the ignorance and
the cynicism that existed earlier. A vigilant community can demand its entitlements,
access available government incentives, monitor programs, and initiate processes of
change to ensure better delivery of government services.
The wealth of experiences of NGOs in the field makes it evident that facilitating the
PRIs into effective institutions which can fulfill their mandated roles has to be
concurrent with community mobilisation since involvement of elected representatives
can add teeth to the process. Citizen monitoring can exact both transparency and
accountability on the part of the providers leading to better governance.

REFERENCES

Chavan, Madhav, Building Societal Missions for Universal Pre-School and Primary
Education: The Pratham Experience, International Institute for Educational
Planning, 2000.

Drze, Jean, and Mamta Murthi, Fertility, Education, and Development: Evidence
from India, Population and Development Review, Vol. 27, No. 1, March 2001, pp.
3363.
Goldman , Charles A., Kumar, Krishna B., and Liu, Yang, Education and the Asian
Surge: A Comparison of the Education Systems in India and China, RAND Center for
Asia Pacific Policy, 2008.

Mehendale, Archana, Model Rules for The Right To Education Act, Economic and
Political Weekly, January 2010

Ministry of Human Resource Development; Report of the Technical Support Group

on Education, May 2009

National Curriculum Framework, 2005

Ramachandran, Vimala, (Ed.), Getting Children Back to School: Case Studies in

Primary Education, New Delhi: Sage Publications, (2003).

Ramachandran, Vimala, Status of Basic Education in India: An Overview, in Status

of Health and Education in India, Wada Na Todo Abhiyan, 2007.

Sebastian John; Keralas Education System, Is More Government The Solution

Economic and Political Weekly, EPW, January 10, 2010

Sufian, Abu Jafar Mohammad, Socio-Economic Correlates of Life Expectancy at

Birth: The Case of Developing Countries, Journal of Population and Health Studies,
Vol. 9, No. 1989, pp. 214226.

Tooley, James:The Beautiful Tree, A Personal Journey into How The Worlds
Poorest Are Educating Themselves, Penguin 2009

Vaidyanathan, A., and Nair, P.R. Gopinathan, (Ed.), Elementary Education in Rural
India: A Grassroots View, New Delhi: Sage Publications, (2001).
Oxfam India, Plot No. 1, Community Centre, 2nd Floor (Above Sujan Mahinder Hospital), New Friends Colony, New Delhi - 110 025
Ph: 91 11 4653 8000; www.oxfamindia.org