Health Risks

Nina Henderson-Andrade

Adopting a human security perspective, this paper argues that health

is essential for development, and that health risks are increasingly
globalised. The author divides global health risks into three major
categories. Traditional poverty-related diseases, such as
malnutrition and diarrhoea, still cause widespread illness and death
in developing countries. Women and children are particularly
vulnerable to these diseases, many of which can be easily prevented or
treated. Non-communicable diseases cause sixty per cent of deaths
globally, and are a growing threat in many developing countries.
Emergent highly infectious diseases, such as HIV and AIDS, multi-
drug-resistant tuberculosis, and avian flu form the third category.
Based on case studies, the author develops a framework for change.
She argues that political commitment and leadership is key to
securing health. Functioning health systems are needed to translate
commitment into action, while civil society participation supports
government accountability. Improved commitments and better
governance at global level are essential for national-level
improvements.

This background paper was written as a contribution to the development of From Poverty
to Power: How Active Citizens and Effective States Can Change the World, Oxfam
International 2008. It is published in order to share widely the results of commissioned
research and programme experience. The views it expresses are those of the author and
do not necessarily reflect those of Oxfam International or its affiliate organisations.
1. Introduction - Health Risks from a Human Security Perspective
At the heart of human security is protecting human life. Sustaining and enhancing health and well
being therefore is instrumental to achieving human security.

Health can be defined as:

not just the absence of disease, but as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being.
Human Security Now. 1

Any factors that threaten health security, that is, threaten the survival or the safety of daily life;
imperil the natural dignity of men and women; expose people to the uncertainty of disease; or subject
vulnerable people to sudden deprivation caused by economic downturn, constitutes a breach of
human security.

The human security perspective is built on the notion that people are the most active participants in
determining their well-being. 2 A healthy individual can take responsibility for his/her own
livelihood; is capable of being economically productive; and is able to contribute to the society in
which they live, supporting peers and taking part in civil actions to protect themselves and their
community.

At a higher level, this engenders community integrity, social stability and economic growth. Sudden
epidemic outbreaks or other health crises can, and do, destabilise entire societies and economies.

In todays world, borders cannot withstand globalisation. No country or community is impervious to

the threats of global disease, whether it is communicable or non-communicable, a developed nation
risk or a poverty-related threat. For example, the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS)
epidemic of 1993 emerged from the Guandong Province of China. Within five months, despite
stringent containment strategies, it had spread via humans to 30 countries, infecting over 8,000 people
and killing over 800.

The strong multiplier-effects of globalisation can be positive. Child immunisation protects not just that
child, but also others in the neighbourhood. Control of infectious epidemics like SARS means that
protecting individuals also protects nations. (See SARS case study) These global interdependencies in
health are being recognised. Human security cannot be left to the state. It is a global responsibility,
both collectively and individually.

This paper first considers what constitutes a health risk before defining three major health challenges
to human security. It then uses a human security approach to determine how these health risks can
be mitigated to achieve human security.

2. What Constitutes a Health Risk?

Four factors should be considered before declaring a health risk:
1. The scale of the disease burden, now and projected into the future.
2. The urgency for action: the rate of transmission, the degree of control and the rate at which
control can be asserted.
3. The depth and extent of its impact on society: the extent to which the fabric of the social
structure is affected, as well the economic impact.

1
Commission on Human Security (2003) Human Security Now Communications Development Incorporated, Washington DC,
http://www.humansecurity-chs.org/finalreport/English/FinalReport.pdf, accessed: August 2006
2
Commission on Human Security (2003) Human Security Now Communications Development Incorporated, Washington DC,
http://www.humansecurity-chs.org/finalreport/English/FinalReport.pdf, accessed: August 2006

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4. The degree of interdependencies that will transcend people and places: the threat and rate of
cross-border transmission, and beyond this, the impact on interdependent societies and
economies.

3. Three Major Health Risks

The health risks that pose a serious threat to the human security of this planet can be categorised into
three groups. First, traditional poverty-related threats cause the greatest burden. Secondly, non-
communicable diseases such as cancer, coronary heart disease, strokes and diabetes were considered
to be a greater threat in the developed world, as opposed to the developing world. But as HIV and
AIDS was left unrecognised and largely ignored for long enough for it to get a foothold (which, 25
years later, it has not yet relinquished), so non-communicable diseases are the sleeping monsters of
the twenty-first century in the developing world. Thirdly, new infectious diseases, such as SARS,
could be a catastrophic threat to human survival. Increasingly, these diseases are animal-borne,
transmitted across species to humans and are highly contagious. Very little is known about them
either about their composition, the way in which they cross over into humans or how to treat them.
This, coupled with globalisation, means that the potential for them to wreak transnational havoc,
leaving humanitarian and economic disaster in their wake, is extremely high.

Traditional poverty-related threats

The global share of avoidable deaths is disproportionately high in poor countries. Poor people are
more susceptible to environmental health threats such as water-borne infections like diarrhoea caused
by the lack of clean drinking water and sanitation, and asthma and respiratory infections caused by air
pollution. These are compounded by hunger and malnutrition. Deaths caused by these infectious
diseases, avoidable with basic treatment, constitute a major breach of human security.

The leading causes of childhood mortality are acute respiratory infections and diarrhoeal disease.
Pneumonia poses the most serious threat in children, even though it can be treated with affordable
antibiotics. Diarrhoea is caused by ingesting bacteria spread through water, food, hands, eating and
drinking utensils, flies, and dirt under fingernails. It can easily be prevented by having clean water,
and as illustrated in the case study on Egypt (p. 15), adopting healthy behaviour and treating it
extremely cost-effectively with Oral Rehydration Therapy. Malnutrition often accompanies these
leading causes of childhood death.

Women and children are especially vulnerable. In developed countries in 2000, 13 mothers died per
100,000 live births due to complications during pregnancy or during childbirth. In sub-Saharan Africa,
this figure escalates to 940 mothers dying per 100,000 live births. 3 Many of these deaths could be
avoided if there was better access to basic maternal health care. (See case study on Honduras, p. 16).
The risk of children becoming orphans is heightened, as they are 3.9 times more likely to die in the
two years following their mothers death. 4

Poor people are least able to absorb the effects of ill-health. When a family member becomes ill, the
combined effect of a loss in earnings as well as the spiralling costs of health care can be devastating. In
addition to this funeral, expenses can average a third of an annual wage. 5 Children often suffer as
fewer resources are available for their care. Food, education and basic needs are often sacrificed.

3
UNICEF Statistics, End-decade Database (2006) Maternal Mortality,
http://www.childinfo.org/areas/maternalmortality/countrydata.php, accessed August 2006
4
UNICEF (2006) Africas Orphaned and Vulnerable Generations; Children affected by AIDS, UICEF, UNAIDS and PEPFAR,
http://www.unicef.org/publications/index_35314.html, accessed October 2006
5
UNICEF (2006) Africas Orphaned and Vulnerable Generations; Children affected by AIDS, UICEF, UNAIDS and PEPFAR,
http://www.unicef.org/publications/index_35314.html, accessed October 2006

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Non-communicable diseases a human security threat in developing countries
According to the World Health Organisation, 6 60 per cent of all deaths are due to chronic (non-
communicable) disease. This is more than double the number of deaths from all infectious diseases
including HIV and AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria, maternal and perinatal conditions and nutritional
deficiencies combined. Of these, 80 per cent occur in low or middle-income countries, in men and
women equally. In absolute terms, this translated into 28 million deaths in 2005. In comparison, 2.8
million people died due to AIDS in 2005.

WHO Global Deaths by Cause

Diabetes HIV/AIDS
Chronic 3% 8% TB
Respiratory 5%
Disease Malaria
11% 2%

Cancer
21%

Cardiovascular
diseases
50%

Source: Preventing Chronic Diseases, WHO (2005)

The WHO has predicted 338 million deaths from chronic diseases in the next 10 years, with 310
million taking place in poor countries. (There have been 40 million AIDS deaths in the last 25 years.)
This will have grave economic consequences. It is estimated that China will forego $558 billion in
National Income in the next ten years. The Russian Federation will face a 5.5 per cent decrease in GDP.

An enormous hurdle in the fight against the devastating impact of chronic disease is the
unappreciated cause of poverty. Poor people are more likely to have an unhealthy diet, be physically
inactive and smoke more. Exacerbating this is their increased exposure to the risk of maternal
deprivation, increased risk of unhealthy behaviour, unhealthy living conditions and limited access to
good quality healthcare. They are more likely to suffer the double burden of poverty and disease
arising from the high cost of treatment and the loss of income.

Tobacco use is the leading cause of preventable deaths in adults and therefore one of the biggest
security threats to the worlds health. If current trends hold, it could kill 1 billion people this century,
10 times more than in the 20th century. 7 It contributes to half of all cancer deaths, 8 lung cancer being
one of the most common diseases caused by smoking. It is also the major cause of cardiovascular
disease including strokes and heart attacks. A study in India showed that it accounts for about half the
countrys tuberculosis deaths and could be increasing the spread of infection. 9 Passive smoking
impairs the ability of children to breathe normally, and around pregnant women can contribute to
sudden infant death syndrome and babies being born with a below normal birth weight. Further,

6
World Health Organisation (2005) Preventing Chronic Diseases: a vital investment, World Health Organisation, Switzerland:
Geneva
7
CNN (2006) Tobacco could kill 1 billion this century of current trends hold,
http://www.cnn.com/2006/HEALTH/07/10/tobacco.cancer.ap/index.html
8
Peto, R.A., J. Lopez, M. Boreham et al (1992) Mortality from Tobacco in Developed Countries: Indirect Estimates from
National Vital Statistics, The Lancet, 339: 1268-78
9
Gajalakshmi, C.K., P. Jha, K. Ranson, and S.Nguyen, (2000) Global Patterns of Smoking and Smoking Attributable to
Mortality Patterns, in Tobacco Control in Developing Countries, ed. P. Jha and F.J. Chaloupka. Oxford: Oxford University
Press

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smoking often claims the life of its victims in their prime, thereby robbing countries of labour and
placing a strain on the health system. 10

The socio-economic transition that developing countries are experiencing is playing a major role in the
rising incidence of chronic disease, including diabetes. The culture of working longer hours and
depending on take-away food is pervasive, especially for poor people. Lower paid jobs result in
people working longer hours. Traditional nutritious food is replaced with convenient and cheap take-
away food, high in fat, sugar and salt. Watching television, an increasingly popular pastime in
developing countries, represents a dual threat. Not only does it replace physical activity, especially for
children, but food advertising also contributes to changes in diet. Consequently, obesity is increasing
in adults and children in middle-income countries such as India and China, and also in poor countries
like Tanzania. In poorer countries, associated diseases such as diabetes tend to be diagnosed later.
People have less access to treatment and therefore suffer more acute complications than their
counterparts in richer countries. As diabetes is a lifelong condition, the cost of medicines can drive
patients into a downward spiral of debt and poverty. 11

New Infectious Diseases

A new class of infectious disease has emerged. It has the potential to pose the gravest threat to human
security yet. These new diseases are animal-borne and are transmitted to human beings. They are
highly infectious and in some cases can have a fatality rate of up to 90 per cent. Very little is known
about them, their process of transmission, their genetic make-up and hence their curative treatment.

Avian influenza
Avian flu or bird flu as it is more commonly known, was the latest of this class of disease to threaten
the world. It emerged in South-East Asia in 2003 and was transmitted from birds to humans. It
travelled rapidly to ten countries. To date 261 cases have been reported with 157 deaths, 12 although
there was the potential for it to be much worse. Based on the 1918 pandemic, statistical analyses have
projected a death count of 62 million if this pandemic was to return. 96 per cent of deaths are forecast
to be in the developing world.13

Mad cow disease

These diseases cause fear and also huge economic turmoil. Mad cow disease (Variant Creutzfeldt
Jakob Disease) caused the UK beef and cattle market, worth 720 million/year, to collapse, following a
ban on British beef. The total cost to the UK taxpayer was approximately 288 million in the ten years
up to 1996. 14

SARS
Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), a pandemic declared as an emergency in March 1993, was
contained thanks to quick and effective global collaboration (see SARS case study). From Guandong
province in China, the virus travelled in humans to 30 countries and areas of the world. In less than
five months, over 8,000 people were infected and over 800 died. 15 The economic impact in Asia was
devastating, having been compared to the economic crisis of 1988. 16 The government of Singapore

10
Centre for Global Development (2004) Millions Saved: Proven Successes in Global Health,
http://www.cgdev.org/section/initiatives/_active/millionssaved, accessed August 2006
11
Kamal Smith, M. (2003) Why developing countries need access, Diabetes Voice, 48:2
12
World Health Organisation (2006) Cumulative Number of Confirmed Human Cases of Avian Influenza A/(H5N1) Reported to
WHO, http://www.who.int/csr/disease/avian_influenza/country/cases_table_2006_12_27/en/index.html, accessed January 2007
13
Murray, C.J.L., A. D. Lopez, B. Chin, D. Feehan, K.H. Hill (2006) Estimation of potential global pandemic influenza mortality
on the basis of vital registry data from the 191820 pandemic: a quantitative analysis., Lancet, 368: 2211-2218.
14
Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (2000) The BSE Inquiry:
The Inquiry into BSE and variant CJD in the United Kingdom, http://www.bseinquiry.gov.uk/index.htm, accessed January 2007
15 th
World Health Organisation (2003) SARS Outbreak Contained Worldwide Press Release WHO/56, 5 July 2003
16
PBS (2006) SARS and China Trade Nightly Business Report, http://www.pbs.org/nbr/site/research/educators/060106_16a/

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introduced a $130 million aid package for its tourist industry. There were severe concerns for
Malaysias tourist industry, which normally contributes 20per cent to the nations GDP.

The effect was felt globally. European buyers of Asian fabrics suffered because travel restrictions
limited their ability to touch and see the products they were purchasing. World ports were cautious
about accepting deliveries causing delays that resulted in huge financial loss. Even the fishing
industry as far away as Auckland suffered as boats supplied the suffering restaurants in Hong Kong
and China.

The lives of 700 million rural agricultural workers were devastated as the disease went unreported
and was spreading. Not only were their lives threatened, they were stripped of their livelihoods as
tourism crashed, resulting in decline in demand for their products. As ever, the most vulnerable are
the main victims of such massive human security violations.

Marburg fever and Ebola fever

Other fatal diseases in this class include Marburg haemorrhagic fever 17 and Ebola haemorrhagic
fever 18 transmitted through contact with primates or their tissue. The actual animal host remains a
mystery. Both viruses are from the same family and are highly infectious. The last known outbreak of
Marburg fever was in Angola in October 2004. By 2 April, 163 cases had been reported, 150 of which
were fatal. Ebola virus has a fatality rate of between 50-90per cent of infected cases. The source seems
to be in the rainforests of the African continent and in the Western Pacific. All cases of Ebola have
been in the African sub-continent, although Marburg occurred simultaneously in laboratories in
Germany and Serbia. In the first cases, the African green monkey had been imported for research and
to prepare polio vaccines.

HIV and AIDS

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) are
perhaps the most well-known of this class of infectious disease. The first cases were discovered in 1981
in the United States, the Democratic Republic of Congo and in East Africa. By 1985, cases were
reported in every region of the world. The World Health Organisation declared it a national security
threat in 2000. In 25 years, it has spread to virtually every country in the world, infecting 65 million
people and killing 25 million. In 2005, there were 38.6 million people living with HIV and AIDS: 4.1
million were newly infected, 2.8 million lost their lives to AIDS 19 and there were more than 15 million
orphans due to HIV and AIDS 20 . One per cent of the global population is infected with HIV. Sub-
Saharan Africa remains the global epicentre. Of the 2.3 million children living with HIV and AIDS
globally, 2 million are in this region as well as 76 per cent of all women. 21 By the end of 2005, of the 6.5
million people needing life-saving anti-retroviral treatment (ARV) for HIV, 1.3 million were receiving
it.

Tuberculosis (TB)
TB constitutes a major threat to global human security, particularly in Africa where HIV and TB form
a lethal combination. Each accelerates the progress of the other. TB is rapidly increasing in Africa.

17
World Health Organisation (2005) Marburg haemorrhagic fever fact sheet, World Health Organisation,
http://www.who.int/csr/disease/marburg/factsheet/en/print.html
Centre for Disease Control Marburg Hemorrhagic Fever,
http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/spb/mnpages/dispages/marburg/qa.htm, accessed August 2006
18
World Health Organisation Ebola Haemorrhagic Fever, http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs103/en/print.html
19
UNAIDS (2006) Global Facts and Figures, http://www.who.int/hiv/mediacentre/200605-FS_globalfactsfigures_en.pdf,
accessed January 2007
20
UNAIDS (2006) Report on the Global AIDS Epidemic, http://www.who.int/hiv/mediacentre/2006_GR_ANN2_en.pdf,
accessed January 2007
21
UNAIDS (2006) Report on the Global AIDS Epidemic, http://www.who.int/hiv/mediacentre/2006_GR_ANN2_en.pdf,
accessed January 2007

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It is the leading killer of people living with HIV and AIDS. 22 A quarter of a million TB deaths are HIV
associated; 98 per cent of TB deaths are in the developing world, affecting mostly young adults in their
most productive years. It is also a leading killer of young women, particularly in Africa. A quarter of
all cases is in Africa; half of all new cases are in 6 Asian countries Bangladesh, China, India,
Indonesia, Pakistan, Philippines). TB is a curable disease, and yet it kills 5,000 people every day. In
this trend, it will kill 35 million people within 20 years.
There was no cure until 50 years ago. Now the world faces strains that are drug-resistant in every
country surveyed by the World Health Organisation. More worryingly, strains that are resistant to all
major anti-TB drugs have recently emerged multi-drug resistant TB (MDR-TB). MDR-TB is present
in virtually all 109 countries recently surveyed by the WHO, with the highest rates in the former USSR
and China. Drug-resistant TB is treatable with extensive chemotherapy, which is prohibitively
expensive (100 times more expensive than the drugs to treat drug susceptible TB), and also more toxic.

In 2006, the WHO launched the Stop TB strategy, to be implemented over the next 10 years. It is
comprehensive and includes increasing access to high-quality health services, addressing the
challenge of MDR-TB, engaging care providers, empowering communities and people with TB, and
promoting research. It is set to achieve the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) to stop and reverse
the incidence of TB by 2015.

4. A Human Security Approach to Facing Health Risks

The Human Security approach embodies a two-pronged strategy: protection and empowerment. The
protectionist component seeks to protect people through preventing, treating, monitoring and
anticipating health threats. The empowerment component involves fostering an environment to
increase the capacity of individuals and communities to assume responsibility for their own health by
using a multi-sectoral and multinational approach.

The Table 1 below illustrates strategies that support each of the two components.

Empowerment Protection
Knowledge- Education Knowledge/Information Systems
based strategies Universal basic education, Generation, analysis and
especially for women dissemination of epidemiological data
Tailored curricula to anticipate, monitor and respond to
Education on health behaviours, the risk of infectious disease,
including seeking health services including openly accessible global and
Civil-society participation in national surveillance systems
democratic decision-making to Shared access to knowledge on
protect the health of themselves medical technology and
and their communities through advancement, including vaccines,
deciding appropriate programs drugs and diagnostic equipment
Intellectual Property Rights trade
rules that enable universal access to
affordable medicines
Social Strategies Local Health Groups to educate Health policies, planned and
communities, offer peer support implemented through civil-society
and lead social mobilisation partnerships; that foster community
actions; that empower them to
participate in the decision-making
process; that change behaviours and
attitudes; and enable solutions to
health problems, at least with
prevention.

22
World Health Organisation Tuberculosis, WHO media centre, http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs104/en/print.html

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 Health systems with adequate
numbers of health workers; free and
accessible basic health care services;
community health care and
community health insurance to
mitigate economic catastrophe
Information To educate and engage the Sensitise the media and use it as a
Media public, increase awareness and platform for public health messages to
engender positive changes in promote healthy behaviours and
health behaviour through change attitudes
coverage of health issues and
debates; and advertisements with
special health messages
Political Political commitment to the health
leadership aspect of the social contract between
elected Governments and citizens
Global Global responsibility for health and
Responsibility human security, including
for Health o public financing for global health,
Security increased foreign assistance for
health,
o increased mobilisation of
international media and non-
government organisations to raise
awareness of health issues
o increased commitment of political
leaders at the global level to
prioritise health issues. e.g. G8
leaders, European Union and
African Union
o increased support for multi-lateral
institutions such as the Global
Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis
and Malaria; and UN agencies
including the World Health
Organisation
Global Health Multi-national institutions to form new
Governance and enhance existing global
collaborative network platforms to
support and co-ordinate national
initiatives for surveillance and
response to health threats
Establish ground rules for health
security
o Modernise national health rules
and regulations (Should include
transnational health risks such as
environmental threats, tobacco
control and criminal violence)
o Rules for trade and food safety
Table 1. Empowerment and Protection Strategies

5. Drivers of change for ensuring Health Security

Some countries have enjoyed successes in combating health security violations. Analysis of a few case
studies (see case studies) has led to the framework below. Although each country did not necessarily
display all the components of the framework, aspects that were exemplified were key drivers of

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change. It could be argued that each had a distinguishing feature that enabled change to happen. For
example, Brazil is famous for its openness on sexual matters, Egypt was on the cusp of a television
phenomenon, which allowed a targeted media campaign to be an extremely powerful tool, and
Poland was upward bound after communism. However, without supporting drivers to translate the
potential of these differentiating features, successful change would not have been possible. The
function of each driver is discussed below.

A Framework for Change

Political Commitment
Sensitise and Leadership Global Health
Governance

Accountability Cooperation
& collaboration
Influence
Information Health policy, Global Responsibility
multisectoral and
Media financial commitment
National for Health Security
surveillance &
evaluation
Social systems, IT
contract
Open Quality Aid and
Sensitise surveillance Technical Assistance
(Targeted)
Universal equitable and affordable
access to quality healthcare
Civil Society Functioning
Participation Health System
Support groups
to increase
capacity
Figure 1. Framework of Drivers of Change

The above framework is based on three cornerstones that are the main drivers of change; the two
other elements, Information Media and Global Responsibility for Health Security are tools to help
achieve change. It is based on strategies for protection and empowerment. (see Table 1.) The case
studies used to illustrate successful change contain elements shown in the framework that were
critical to their achievement.

Protection
Political recognition and commitment to the social contract between the government and civil society
is essential for achieving change. It is expressed in practical action through, for example, a functioning
health system. This includes financial and multi-sectoral commitment to progressive health policy,
and good quality health care delivery to its citizens. National evaluation and surveillance systems
within the health system allow for feedback that enhances the decision-making process and ensures
that policies and projects have the desired effect. The capacity of the national government to deliver
quality health care can be supported globally through global health governance, such as national and
international health regulations that protect health security, technical assistance and quality aid. The
national government must contribute to global health security by allowing shared access to its
surveillance systems, and supporting global collaborative networks that respond to health threats.

Empowerment
Civil society should hold the government accountable for their health security, through the social
contract. People can only be active participants in determining their own well-being if they are
empowered to do so. They must be sensitised to health issues and be empowered to protect the health
of themselves and their communities. The information media is key in this process. The government
should sensitise the media to health issues and use it as a platform to sensitise the public and educate
them in healthy behaviours, including seeking health services. In turn, an empowered civil society can
form organised networks of civil groups who can lobby the government for solutions to their health

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problems. They can also increase the capacity of weak health systems by forming health groups to
educate, offer peer support and assist health workers.

6. Achieving Change Lessons from Past Success

Political Commitment
Political commitment and leadership is a key factor in all the case studies that achieved change. The
ongoing political commitment the Brazilian government has made to its citizens is exemplary (see case
study 1, pp. 13-14). It has resulted in free, universal access to AIDS medicines; AIDS deaths and
related HIV and AIDS infectious diseases have been cut by 50 per cent.

A huge barrier to curbing the ravaging destruction of the AIDS pandemic is the high cost of AIDS
drugs, caused by patents held by pharmaceutical companies. Patents prevent the generic manufacture
and export of drugs, keeping prices of life-saving treatment artificially high. However, Brazils
commitment to its citizens right to health was such that it led the way in the global arena in achieving
compulsory licensing. This exception rule in patent law allows countries to break drug patents in
order to fight a deadly public health crisis. Brazil passed legislation permitting the manufacture of
generic drugs and now produces eight out of seventeen of its AIDS medicines, accounting for an 82
per cent reduction in cost. Brazil continues to relentlessly negotiate lower prices with the
pharmaceutical industry, threatening to break patents by issuing compulsory licenses. Thailand has
recently also shown a commitment to its citizens health over the patents of drug companies by also
issuing a compulsory licence for an AIDS drug. 23 The government has authorised the manufacture of
generic versions of the drug until 2011, and the import of generics from India until domestic
manufacture comes into line. This will lead to a fall in the price of drugs, making them more accessible
to millions of people.

The biggest barrier in the fight against HIV and AIDS is the stigma and discrimination associated with
it. Political delusion surrounding the disease is detrimental to combating it. For example, South
Africas President Thabo Mbeki questioned the safety and value of life saving anti-retroviral treatment
for HIV and AIDS before ultimately questioning whether HIV causes AIDS. This had a deleterious
effect on AIDS treatment and prevention efforts in South Africa. 24

Conversely, Botswanas President Festus Mogae has spoken publicly about the threat. He was
frustrated by the effect that stigma had on people being tested for HIV and said, We are threatened with
extinction. People are dying in chillingly high numbers. It is a crisis of the first magnitude. 25 Botswana was
the first African country to aim to provide ARVs to all its citizens that required it. 26

The importance of political leadership cannot be overemphasised.

A Functioning Health System

In order to translate commitment into action, the government must ensure a functioning health
system, based on enabling health policy. The Brazilian government set up a dedicated AIDS division.
A national commission was formed with multi-sectoral participation, including non-government
organisations, universities, researchers, intellectuals and social specialists. It recognised the difficulties
people living with HIV and AIDS face, both socially and economically. As such, anti-discriminatory

23
International Centre for Trade & Sustainable Development (2006) Thailand Issues Compulsory License for Patented AIDS
Drug, Bridges Weekly Trade News Digest, 10:42, http://www.ictsd.org/weekly/06-12-13/story2.htm, accessed January 2007
24
Chaisson, R. (2000) The World AIDS Conference in Durban, South Africa Science, Politics and Health, The Hopkins HIV
Report, September 2000, John Hopkins AIDS Service, http://www.hopkins-aids.edu/publications/report/sept00_1.html#top,
accessed January 2007
25
Farley F. "At AIDS Disaster's Epicenter, Botswana Is a Model of Action; During U.N. conference, leader speaks of national
'extinction,' but country plans continent's most ambitious programs", Los Angeles Times, 27 June 2001
26
Avert HIV AND AIDS in Botswana, http://www.avert.org/aidsbotswana.htm, accessed January 2007

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laws were passed to protect its citizens from stigma and discrimination the biggest barrier people
living with HIV and AIDS experience. Multi-sectoral involvement has meant that HIV and AIDS
patients are entitled to free bus passes to make certain they are able to keep medical appointments.
Co-operative agreements with political opposition have served to safeguard laws and budgets,
providing continuity of the AIDS program. Egypt set up the National Control of Diarrhoeal Disease
Project (see case study 2, p. 15). The programme was multi-sectoral, involving the private and public
sectors as well as professional societies. In decreasing maternal mortality rates in Honduras, the
government awarded maternal health priority in its national health policy (see case study 3, p. 16).

In both Brazil and Egypt, the programmes were delivered through the existing, albeit weak, health
system. A huge barrier the world is currently facing is an acute shortage of health workers to deliver
health care. In Honduras, Traditional Birth Attendants (TBAs) supervised by auxiliary nurses and
public health staff increased the capacity of the system to augment access to skilled care for pregnant
women. The basic health infrastructure was expanded with new birthing centres in rural areas.

Significantly, Brazil and Egypt had control systems built into their programmes. It is critical that AIDS
patients strictly adhere to their drug regimen. The Brazilian national control system is able to track
each case of AIDS in the country, with the capacity to monitor and update a patients drug regime at
any antiviral centre in the country. It also allows rigorous control over the supply and distribution of
drugs. An extensive tracking system in Egypt allowed progress on goals to be monitored. Data was
continually fed back into the decision-making loop that ensured the programme was continually
updated and adapted for the desired impact.

Global Responsibility for Health Security

Rampant infectious diseases are emerging to threaten the worlds health security. Global collaboration
and cooperation is required to combat them. Unprecedented global collaboration has already been
witnessed in the fight against Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) (see case study 5, p. 18).
The World Health Organisation (WHO) co-ordinated the collaboration, working with international
partners to support national teams. Initially, international and national teams on the ground provided
information on the disease, which allowed the development of case definitions as well as specific and
detailed measures for surveillance. This information was quickly disseminated globally, allowing
quick identification of imported cases and thus the containment of SARS. Countries not affected
cooperated by accepting requests from the WHO to immediately report any new cases detected.
Epidemiologists around the world worked together in real time using global connectivity to
collaborate on control measures. Clinicians came together globally to understand best how to treat the
disease effectively and find a cure. Seventeen laboratories from nine countries also came together in a
unique collaboration. Operational teams provided 24-hour advice to countries on SARS surveillance,
preparedness and response measures. International teams worked with national authorities on case
management, infection control, and surveillance and epidemiology. By the beginning of July 2003, and
just four months later based on country surveillance reports, the human transmission of SARS
appeared to have been broken everywhere in the world.

The global responsibility for health security goes beyond the agreement of improving open
surveillance. There needs to be a real drive to build country capacity to combat these rapid and
destructive pandemics.

Quality aid and technical assistance is imperative for countries to be able to run life-saving
programmes. Global support for Egypts National Control of Diarrhoeal Disease Project was
essential for its success; from the total cost of $43 million for the project, half came from USAID.
UNICEF donated $827,000 in raw materials for the manufacture of the rehydration salts and the WHO
contributed $452,000 in training programmes and materials; $17 million in cash and in-kind came
from the Egyptian government. In a separate but groundbreaking case, the UKs Department for
International Development is making a major contribution to funding a strategy to strengthen the

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health system in Malawi. 27 It is a long-term commitment, which, in part, is addressing core reasons
for the human resource crisis in the country.

Global leaders must increase their commitment to health security; there has been some success. At the
G8 summit in Gleneagles, global leaders committed themselves to achieving almost universal access
to anti-retroviral drugs for HIV and AIDS by 2010. However, health security must be accorded higher
priority overall in the global political arena. Increasing the capacity of countries to deal with health
threats requires more funding whether in the form of public financing for global health or increased
foreign assistance. There should be support for multilateral institutions such as the Global Fund to
Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria (GFFATM) (see case study 6) and UN agencies such as the
WHO. The GFFATM has been hailed by the Executive Director of UNAIDS as, the best model to
provide strategic and predictable funding. 28

Increased commitment to health security must also translate into better global health governance.
International and national ground rules for global health security must be modernised and
established. These should include transnational health risks such as environmental threats, tobacco
control and criminal violence. It is vital that trade rules recognise the exceptionality of global health
security and ensure that life-saving essential drugs are made universally available at affordable
process. The security of our world is at stake. The success of tobacco control measures is a reminder of
what can be accomplished. Despite the fact that arriving at the Framework Convention on Tobacco
Control was a slow and arduous process, fraught with legal battles and long negotiations over text,
the end product is a powerful instrument in enforcing a rigorous, internationally supported approach
to improving health. Ultimately, rich multi-national corporations lost out to civil society lobbying for
health security (see case study 4, p. 17).

Information Media
The media is instrumental in achieving change. Once sensitised to health issues, the media can
provide a unique platform to sensitise, educate and change the behaviour of the public. It is also
fundamental in getting the voice of the people heard.

The fall of communism in Poland allowed a free media to emerge (see case study 4). The press
reported on studies carried out by the Polish scientific community on the devastating impact of
smoking. This dramatically increased awareness and served to form public opinion on tobacco control
legislation. The media also published advertisements with special health messages and steps on how
to quit smoking. Civil society lobbied hard for tobacco control measures. In 1991, tobacco control
legislation was proposed in the Polish senate. Rich, giant tobacco multinationals, fiercely opposed this,
to no avail. The debates of the opposing lobbies were covered by the media. In 1995, the Polish
parliament passed the Law for the Protection of Public Health Against the Effects of Tobacco Use,
with a 90 per cent majority of the votes.

Social marketing and mass media campaigns have been described as the most pivotal aspect of the
success of the Egyptian National Control of Diarrhoeal Disease Project. Based on research on
consumer preferences and cultural practices, communication strategies changed behaviour and
increased awareness of Oral Rehydration Therapy (ORT), an inexpensive and effective treatment for
diarrhoeal disease. Media campaigning was targeted towards mothers of children under the age of
three, pharmacists and health workers. Television adverts used popular soap stars that people could
relate to and employed a maternal love theme. This strategy empowered women by bringing ORT

27
Department for International Development (2004) Improving Health in Malawi: Programme Memorandum, London: DFID,
http://www.u4.no/themes/health/dfidmalawifinalreport.pdf
28
United Nations (2006) Global Fund on AIDS, TB and Malaria Receives $500 million from Gates Foundation,
[email protected], New York, Aug 9 2006

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into the home in a manner that engaged them. After the first national campaign, 90 per cent of
mothers knew of ORT and its use increased by 60 per cent.

In Brazil, the media was instrumental in getting the voice of the people heard in 1999 when the budget
for HIV and AIDS, TB and other diseases came under threat. Six hundred NGOs working on AIDS
demonstrated and were covered in the press; the budget was restored. Empowering civil society
created a vocal lobby not just to fight HIV and AIDS, but for better healthcare in general.

Civil Society Participation

An educated and empowered civil society can be an active participant in determining peoples own
health and hold governments accountable for their health security. They can form organised networks
of civil groups who can hold the government to account and lobby it for solutions to their health
problems. Further, they can increase the capacity of weak health systems by forming health groups to
educate, offer peer support and assist health workers.

In Brazil, an empowered and well-organised network of civil society groups has been critical to the
success of the HIV program. Organised civil groups of gay activists were the first to raise awareness of
HIV and AIDS issues. Other civil society groups were essential in building support for the programme
and increasing the capacity of the health system by designing programmes and making them work.
For example, activist groups were crucial in the prevention strategy by distributing millions of free
condoms. Networks of patient support groups are run in HIV and AIDS clinics by people living with
HIV and AIDS.

In Egypt, local health groups increased the capacity of the health system by acting as depot holders.
They stored rehydration salts in their homes and then distributed them to villagers in rural areas for a
small price or free. They were also trained in Oral Rehydration Therapy.

In Honduras, new decentralisation policies enabled and encouraged civil society participation in the
decision-making process. Communities were provided with the opportunity to identify, and also
provide, solutions to their own health problems.

In Poland, civil-society lobbying enabled groundbreaking tobacco legislation to be put into place.

Recently, African civil groups successfully lobbied leaders at the Africa Union Summit in Abuja in
2006. They petitioned leaders to commit themselves to meeting the 80 percent target of HIV and AIDS
treatment needs and 100 per cent of the prevention needs of all Africans by 2010. The targets formed
the core of Africas common position to the UN General Assembly Special Session on AIDS in June
2006. Progress on achieving these targets can be monitored and leaders held accountable.

7. Conclusion
Past successes show that global health security is possible. They show that in order to accomplish this,
political leaders must make it a priority in the global arena, make a commitment to the social contract,
and ensure that civil society is empowered so that people can be the most active participants in
determining their own well-being.

Case Study 1: Brazil Free, Universal Access to AIDS Medicines

Brazils foresight has mitigated the human security threat of HIV and AIDS for its citizens through
simultaneous programmes of prevention and treatment. AIDS deaths and related HIV and AIDS
infectious diseases have been cut by 50 per cent.29 Today, of the one million people who have

29
Rosenberg, T. Look at Brazil, The New York Times Magazine,
th
http://www.nytimes.com/library/magazine/home/20010128mag-aids.html, accessed: 17 Aug 2006

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 access to life-saving anti-retroviral treatment globally, 30 per cent are in Latin America and 10 per
cent are in Brazil. 30
The key driver of change in Brazil is the on-going political commitment to its citizens right to health
and hence to fighting the AIDS epidemic. Its strategies are based on both protecting and empowering
its citizens.
Protection through committed leadership
In 1996, President Jose Sarney passed legislation guaranteeing every AIDS patient state-of-the-art
AIDS treatment, free of charge. Non-discriminatory laws were also passed to protect citizens living
with HIV and AIDS against the biggest problem they encounter stigma and discrimination.
Free AIDS Treatment
A huge barrier against free, universal access to ARV drugs is their high cost, kept artificially high
because of the patent rights to medicines that pharmaceutical companies hold. Millions of peoples
health security is compromised because life-saving drugs are kept out of reach. The Brazilians led
the way in the global arena at the World Trade Organisation Ministerial meeting in Doha, Qatar, in
achieving compulsory licensing. This exception rule in patent law allows countries to break drug
patents in order to fight a deadly public health crisis. Brazil passed legislation permitting the
manufacture of generic drugs and now produces eight out of seventeen of its AIDS medicines,
accounting for an 82 per cent reduction in cost. Brazil continues to relentlessly negotiate lower prices
with pharmaceutical companies, threatening to break patents by issuing compulsory licenses.
Dedicated AIDS division
Political commitment to combating HIV and AIDS was illustrated in the formation of a separate
government AIDS division in 1986. 31 Following this, a national commission was formed with multi-
sectoral ministerial participation, as well as non-government organisations, universities, researchers,
intellectuals and social specialists.
Co-operative agreements
Co-operative agreements with political opposition have served to safeguard laws and budgets,
providing continuity of the programme, despite changes in governments.
National control system 32
To ensure on-going protection through comprehensive service coverage and effective treatment of
people living with HIV and AIDS, an AIDS clinic network was added to the existing, fragile, public
health system. A computerised national control system, known by its Portuguese acronym SICLOM,
makes it possible for health officials to closely track each case of AIDS in the country. A bar-coded
card kept by the patient is used to access the patients medical notes and history. The drug regime
for each case can be monitored and updated in any of the 111 antiviral treatment centres throughout
the country. Apart from the knowledge base that the system provides to monitor and evaluate the
program, it also enables rigorous control over the supply and distribution of drugs.
Sustained and varied support
The need to help, train and support patients on anti-retroviral treatment to take their medicines
correctly is intuitive but not always forthcoming. A survey of more than 1,000 people in Sao Paulo
found that the most important factors in people discontinuing their treatment were: (i) missing a
doctors appointment; (ii) level of instruction and support available at the clinic; and (iii) the patients
income and education. 33

30 th
Lotrowska, M. (2006) Brazilian deal on tenofovir translation of MoH release of 9 of May [Ip-health],
th
http://lists.essential.org/pipermail/ip-health/2006-May/009546.html, accessed 17 August 2006
31
Quesada, C. The fruits of foresight, IDBAmerica: magazine of the inter-American Development Bank,
th
http://www.iadb.org/idbamerica/English/FEB02E/feb02e1.html, accessed 17 Aug 2006
32
Quesada, C. Leadsership, consensus and technology, IDBAmerica: magazine of the inter-American Development Bank,
th
http://www.iadb.org/idbamerica/English/FEB02E/feb02e5.html, accessed 17 Aug 2006
33
Rosenberg, T. Look at Brazil, The New York Times
th
Magazine,http://www.nytimes.com/library/magazine/home/20010128mag-aids.html, accessed: 17 Aug 2006

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 In Brazil, health workers spend a large part of their day supporting their patients and their training
has been extended. Multi-sectoral involvement has meant that AIDS patients are entitled to free bus
passes. Churches and Lions Clubs donate food and baby formula. Networks of patient support
groups are run in clinics.
Strong and Effective Civil Society Participation through Empowerment
An enabling environment
A sensitised and empowered civil society can hold the government accountable for the health
security of the nation. However, a culture open to being sensitised is essential to achieving civil
society participation and activism, which can ultimately achieves health security gains.
A key element in Brazils success is that it is famously open about sexual matters. AIDS carries less
stigma than in other countries, where its existence is simply denied. This enabling culture was pivotal
in increasing the visibility of HIV and AIDS issues. Organised civil groups of gay activists were the
first to raise awareness and found a powerful ally in President Jose Sarney.
Empowerment through the Media
Empowerment strategies were put into place simultaneously with the protection strategies. The
government increased the medias awareness of the issues surrounding HIV and AIDS, including the
technical and human aspects of the disease and its treatment. The media was then used as a
platform to sensitise, educate and inform the Brazilian public about AIDS. What followed amounted to
a true media blitz on all television stations, radio networks and print media outlets. Culturally attuned
public service commercials were aired promoting safe sex and increased awareness of the
epidemic. 34
The media was instrumental in getting the voice of the people heard when in 1999, the HIV and
AIDS, TB and other diseases budget came under threat. Six hundred NGOs working on AIDS
demonstrated and were covered in the press. The money was restored. Empowering civil society
created a vocal lobby not just to fight HIV and AIDS, but for better healthcare in general.
Empowerment through networked civil groups
An empowered and well-organised network of civil-society groups has been critical to Brazils
success. They were essential in building support for the programme and increasing the capacity of
the health system by designing and making the programme work. For example, activist groups were
crucial to the prevention strategy, distributing millions of free condoms. They were also instrumental
in getting the issue onto the political agenda and were the key to sustaining the health budget
through vocal lobbying. The support groups they form are vital in ensuring a positive environment for
people living with HIV and AIDS.

Case Study 2: Preventing Diarrhoeal Deaths in Egypt 35

In 1977, at least half of the large number of infant deaths in Egypt was caused by diarrhoea. It amounted
to a serious public health security violation. Through the 1980s, Egypt pioneered a 10-year national
programme of Oral Rehydration Therapy (ORT) administration, an effective and inexpensive treatment for
diarrhoea. By the mid-1980s, and at the peak of the program, there had been a fourfold increase in the
distribution of oral rehydration salts. Virtually all mothers were aware of the treatment, and had the
knowledge to administer it. Infant mortality declined by 36 per cent and child mortality by 43 per cent
between 1982 and 1987. Mortality attributed to diarrhoea fell by 82 per cent in infants and 62 per cent in
children over the same period.
Protection Strategies
The Ministry of Health set up the National Control of Diarrhoeal Disease Project in 1981. Its aim was to
promote the use of locally manufactured rehydration salts, distributing the salts along with information of

34
Cohn, J. (2003) Sexual Healing, The New Republic. http://www.cptech.org/ip/health/c/brazil/newrepublic06302003.html,
th
accessed 17 Aug 2006
35
Centre for Global Development (2004) Millions Saved: Proven Successes in Global Health,
http://www.cgdev.org/section/initiatives/_active/millionssaved, accessed August 2006

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 the appropriate treatment for children. It was essential that the salts were locally manufactured to ensure
uninterrupted supply of the salts this was vital to the programmes success.
The programme was multi-sectoral and involved both the public and private sectors and also professional
societies. It worked through the existing health infrastructure in order to strengthen the capacity of service
delivery units to produce, promote and explain ORT. It had an extensive tracking system that was used to
forecast and monitor progress on goals. An evaluation component tracked the progress of the
interventions, their effects and the impact on mortality. Data was continuously fed back into the decision-
making process. This data analysis allowed the programme to be adapted frequently.
It was imperative to change the behaviour of the two most important groups that would be administering
ORT health workers and mothers. Health workers were trained on how to accurately diagnose and treat
diarrhoea and dehydration. They were also trained to teach mothers how to use ORT. Physicians were
trained in the scientific basis of ORT to break the ingrained culture of prescribing diarrhoeal drugs. Medical
and nursing schools were also persuaded to include ORT in their curricula.
Global support for the programme was critical. Of the total cost of $43 million, half came from USAID and
$17 million in cash and in-kind came from the Egyptian government. UNICEF donated $827,000 in raw
materials for the manufacture of the rehydration salts and the WHO contributed $452,000 in training
programmes and materials.
Empowerment through knowledge
The social marketing and mass media campaigns have been described as the most pivotal aspect of the
programme. Based on research on consumer preferences and cultural practices, communication
strategies changed behaviour and increased awareness.
In this case, the government sensitising strategy was two-pronged: training offered through the health
infrastructure coupled with media campaigning. Media campaigning was targeted towards mothers of
children under the age of three, pharmacists and health workers. Television adverts used popular soap
stars that people could relate to and employed a theme of maternal love. This strategy empowered women
by bringing ORT into the home in a manner that engaged them. Uniquely, the television phenomenon had
just started in Egypt. Families would congregate around neighbours or friends television sets in the
evening to watch soaps. As the adverts were aired at this time, all of society was engaged in the media
campaigns to raise awareness, particularly poorer audiences who would not have had access to print
media. This high media penetration was very powerful. After the first national campaign, 90 per cent of
mothers knew of ORT and its use increased by 60 per cent.
Civil Society Participation
Local health groups strengthened the capacity of the health infrastructure. In remote rural areas where the
death rate from diarrhoea was twice that in the urban centres, long distances between homes and health
centres inhibited the distribution of rehydration salts. Community leaders, traditional birth attendants and
health workers were recruited as depot-holders. They would hold the rehydration salt packets in their
homes and distribute them to villagers for either a small price of about 2 cents or for free. They were also
trained in the use of ORT.

Case Study 3: Reducing Maternal Mortality in the Poorest Areas of Honduras 36

In Honduras in 1990, 182 out of every 100,000 women died in or as a result of childbirth 37 . The
national government was made aware of this serious threat to the security of pregnant women and
mothers through a study in the early 1990s. Together with development agencies, the government
made a concerted effort to tackle the issue. By 1997, the maternal mortality rate had decreased by
38 per cent an achievement widely recognised as remarkable.
The governments strategy, in tackling the issue, neatly combined a strategy of both protectionism
and empowerment.

36
Centre for Global Development (2004) Millions Saved: Proven Successes in Global Health,
http://www.cgdev.org/section/initiatives/_active/millionssaved, accessed August 2006.

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 Protectionist strategies
Protectionist strategy was implied in the new priority maternal health. It included increasing equitable
access to skilled care for pregnant women, targeted by geographical differentials; increasing the
number of health workers by introducing traditional birth attendants (TBAs) supervised by auxiliary
nurses; and expansion of the basic health infrastructure, with new birthing centres in rural areas.
TBAs and public health staff were trained to recognise and deal with emergencies as well as routine
births.
Empowerment strategies
New decentralisation policies enabled and encouraged civil participation in the decision-making
process. Communities were provided with the opportunity to identify as well as provide solutions to
their own health problems. Resources from donors were channelled in to support this process.
Between 1990 and 1997 the maternal mortality rate in Honduras declined from 182 deaths per
100,000 live births to 108 deaths per 100,000 live births. Some of the biggest declines were in the
poorest and most remote areas in the country.

Case Study 4: Cutting Smoking in Poland a civil triumph 38

In the 1980s Poland had the highest rate of smoking in the world; this translated into Polish middle-aged
men suffering from one of the highest rates of lung cancer in the world. However, the rise of a free media
after the fall of communism and the unanimous voice of a democratic and empowered civil society, led to
groundbreaking tobacco control legislation. Between 1990 and 1998 tobacco consumption fell by 10 per
cent. Lung cancer in middle-aged men fell by 30 per cent; there was a 7 per cent decrease in heart
disease and a decrease in babies born with a low birth-weight. There were 10,000 fewer deaths per year.
An Empowered Civil Society
At a time when tobacco consumption was escalating, the Polish scientific community illustrated the
devastating impact smoking has on health. In response to this, and in the wake of the fall of communism,
Polands budding civil society rallied for tobacco control measures. Later, when non-government
organisations were allowed to form, civil-society had an even stronger voice.
In the new democratic era, the free-media was central to the success of the civil-movement in increasing
awareness of the dangers of smoking and obtaining tobacco control measures. Covering health issues,
the press reported on the studies illustrating the health consequences of smoking. This dramatically
increased awareness and served to form public opinion on tobacco control legislation. The media also
published advertisements with special health messages as well as steps on how to quit smoking.
In 1991, tobacco control legislation was proposed to the Polish senate. Rich, giant tobacco multi-nationals,
fiercely opposed this, to no avail. The debates of the opposing lobbies were covered by the media. In
1995, the Polish parliament passed the Law for the Protection of Public Health Against the Effects of
Tobacco Use, with a 90 per cent majority of the votes.
The groundbreaking legislation included a ban on electronic media advertising, the printing of health
warnings on cigarette packets and the free provision of treatment for smoking dependence. The tobacco
control legislation served as a model for other countries, as well as for the European Union in 2003.

Case Study 5: SARS unprecedented global collaboration 39

The World Health Organisations Global Alert Response system is a surveillance system that continually
tracks the outbreak of emerging potential health epidemics around the world. SARS was one such threat
identified on the 12 March 2003.

37
This case study is about Honduras in the 1990s. No progress has been made since to advance towards reaching the MDG. In
2000, the maternal mortality rate increased to 119 per 100,000 live births, and for the years 2001 and 2006 (no official figures
available for other years) stood at 108, for both years.
38
Centre for Global Development (2004) Millions Saved: Proven Successes in Global Health,
http://www.cgdev.org/section/initiatives/_active/millionssaved, accessed August 2006
39
World Health Organisation (2003) The Operational Response to SARS, WHO
http://www.who.int/csr/sars/goarn2003_4_16/en/print.html

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 Unprecedented global collaboration was the key to the containment of this deadly disease. Initially,
international and national teams on the ground provided information of the disease, which allowed the
development of case definitions as well as specific and detailed measures for surveillance. This
information was quickly disseminated globally, allowing quick identification of imported cases and thus the
containment of SARS. Other information sources, including NGOs, the media, other UN agencies and
partners in the Global Outbreak Alert Network (GOARN) were used to identify new cases. The WHO
received daily updates on the situation in countries with outbreaks. They also requested the immediate
reporting of cases detected in all other countries. Operational teams provided 24-hour advice to countries
on SARS surveillance, preparedness and response measures.
The WHO worked with partners in the Global Outbreak Alert Network to support international teams.
Teams consisted of 60 experts representing 20 organisations and 15 nationalities working with national
authorities on case management; infection control; surveillance and epidemiology. Teams were brought
together on a daily basis via telephone or videoconferences for progress updates, to share experience and
to plan further action. Epidemiologists around the world worked together in real time using global
connectivity to collaborate on control measures. Clinicians came together globally to understand how to
treat the disease effectively and find a cure. Seventeen laboratories from nine countries also came
together in a unique collaboration with the support of the WHO.
As a direct result of this global collaboration, the cause of SARS was identified so inroads could be made
into its isolation and treatment. By the beginning of July 2003 and just four months later, based on country
surveillance reports, the human transmission of SARS appeared to have been broken everywhere in the
world.

Case Study 6: The Global Fund to Fight AIDS Tuberculosis and Malaria (GFFATM)
The GFFATM was proposed by the former Secretary-General of the UN, Kofi Annan in 2001. It is a unique
international public/private collaboration dedicated to attracting and disbursing funds to fight the three
diseases. It aims to do this through strengthening health systems and paying for drugs, diagnostics and
other commodities.
With grants from the GFFATM, 132 countries have begun to exhibit substantial results. Now, 544,000
people have access to life-saving anti-retroviral HIV and AIDS drugs; more than 1.4 million people are
being treated for TB and more than 11 million bed nets have been distributed to protect children from
malaria. 40

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United Nations (2006) Global Fund on AIDS, TB and Malaria Receives $500 million from Gates Foundation,
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 Oxfam International June 2008

This paper was written by Nina Henderson-Andrade in January 2007. It is one of a

series written to inform the development of the Oxfam International publication
From Poverty to Power: How Active Citizens and Effective States Can Change the
World, Oxfam International 2008.

Nina Henderson-Andrade is an independent research consultant for health and HIV

and AIDS policy.

The paper may be used free of charge for the purposes of education and research,
provided that the source is acknowledged in full. The copyright holder requests that
all such use be registered with them for impact assessment purposes. For copying
in other circumstances, or for re-use in other publications, or for translation or
adaptation, permission must be secured. Email [email protected]

For further information on the issues raised in this paper, please email
[email protected]

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