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Casing Design+rabia PDF

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Casing Design+rabia PDF

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Kesev Keshav
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Casing chapter the following topics will be discussed: trength properties ing specification ing design oyancy effects “Compression in conductor pipe ‘Maximum foad casing design FUNCTIONS OF CASING -The metions of casing may be summarised as follows Fl) To keep the hole open and to provide a support for k, of fractured formations. In the latter case, if the, ol is left uncased, the formation may cave in and zing of the hole will then become necessary ='2) To isolate Porous media with different fluid/pc g- A regimes from contaminating the pay zone. This By sially achieved through the combined presence of Ment and casing. Therefore, production from a Ecific zone can be made, HTo prevent contamination of ‘near-surface fresh- Bec zones, To provide a passage for hydrocarbon fluids; most {Dduction operations arc carried out through special ings which are run inside the casing ) To provide a suitable connection for the wellhead _ipment (e.g. the christmas tree). The casing also Chapter 10 Design (6) To providea hole of known diameter and depth to facilitate the running of testing and completion equipment. CASING TYPES 1m practice, it would be much cheaper to drill a single- size hole to folal depth (TD), probably with a small ameter dril bit, and then to case the hoe from the surface to the TD, However, the presence of high: pressured zones at different depths along the. well bore, and the presence of weak, unconsolidated forme ations or sloughing shaly zones, nevesstates running ypiowerp seyewepp ssouyonp pur a ene a yeoy IO Teves seinboy yug” “aoa eM sprony —seawep BIaKk — aousyersos — —— _ ‘Grom —apysino | £909 adies _esdey109 suIewenxy patdnoo pue pepeasus dig pei reujwon —-a71g. a “a oo 6 a é @ ¢ > € z L (couemussyoy uuewseuueyy jo Asoun09) “sOulseo ,fe1 jo souiedoid SOL FIBVL CASING DESIGN se600 sores, eens esezt so'508 tere. eee eszz geie esezi pave ace ese supa pete weet rou stra see weet sskmn ssimn Ost-n ost-n ont-aw one mn seem seme ois ote ona Seon 6-KN s6o-mN S60 869 36-9) 06-O-mHH 05-2-m08 05--mN oon orn DOILWELL, DRILLING ENGINEERING ores ones oes use us we esse Ost = osak gtk Seo ones cess oes uate ~ ones e209 eze9 seze ore ore ove ave StL Spi 26 ozos 020s ozos zo 6119 eats zee oe oe os ole, ess get sce 00s cosh Oosy - ase 01. 8010s Oste ie uve eee gest eSL eet as Ors or0s © avasOb0s ons ssoa cso car sce ze see sze sept 96bL 906 owe oe our owe 96s ces ose lee 162. bez 6e. seek SbeL 962 ozzy zee ozzy eee e419 @ut9 esre sez se ssc ase, eee, Geet ou cose oe oe ooze cus easel. ez ees aez ake wee Oot = ooet SEB ‘Osve OSvE ave ste OSE nC ez cle ekz lz iz sort sages 608 060 © agar 060e * O60E us Lip eee ore ee aga eae geo roe og as ore oruzoelz = eee ge Bivs eins aves ss S82, sso S32, Bizk iL ee wore ooze ooze one 10s bus eave © BODE gee eee ez ee. Orlt opt eee Ose sve ste ~—osbe ~—asve. seer 65Sr —g90e vez fiz sz ce ce eie szoL Seok Oss 0608 0g0e © o60e © 60e - O60E Sr0r ror isa aee ot geal ak 606 606s HS a eS wr eq 1 9001 1s ‘ ‘@ suo! suet ape p23 ape opeib feuendo pieputis seyt)-4 ewes —s2ubily owes. 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MRY SOE toc toe te toe Sy eter aster ore GE ost once oaey ro, ez ase vee orzo one wn 789 ‘0001 tse 4 @ uo! suo! opes6apesbopeib apa feunieo prepuEs ioutin auies out eee 27016 p88 opei8 pest eee a GH sues soubm sues ouyjanoe ananiuh eer 220818619 81925 Suncnoo sane Suysroo oe souesse79 Gunna Pew vasa ssanirg reeds. fenbey 640} ous ejdno9 pur popeony, Peworasarssanng been punoy ~Heny suas sop PIOK wrusiuras 18 auneseid pyoKkjeuraiay ee eed ero ae Cee reg a oo on a ponwiueg LoL aT8WL 25 ‘GASING DESIGN OILWELL OAILLINS ENGINEERINg 216 ise ue m6 our oss our 190 zor 49 ok 986 sa o6sz 0189 ore u cay ere 08 wor 9 asa gaz ose 0189 decor ‘2008 so ‘@ 2 wel jwiol_ epee apes apesb oped ieuoudo preouEis Jeyom aus saubyy— otueg 20610 ape 2pe18 apes6 . —— souby ewes Jey6y aweS Susman ae souereo10 jervads Buycneo seine Guy uous ——~Butoned uy ——- saute Buycooo ua eOswolose sere peany puncy —yenedg vembey 0x07 joys x0 40 oidno> pur papeani, eSewovasarssenng peo.) puncy eis 84908 wie Pra wnununy 18 asnetard BIaHd (Bu12;U) ae = ee A ee we 8 mle aa penuuwes OL AVL 217 F cAsING DESIGN 218 Compression load ‘A compression load arises in casings that carry inner strings. Production strings do not develop any com- Dression load, since they do not carry innee strings. Other loadings ‘Other loadings that may develop in the casing include: (a) bending with tongs during make-up; (b) pull-out of the joint and slip erushing; (c) corrosion and fatigue failure, both of the body and of the threads; (d) pipe weat duc to running wire line tools and drill string assembly, which can be very detrimental to casing in deviated ‘and dog-legged holes, and (@) additional loadings arising from treatment operations such as ‘squeeze-cementing, acidising and hydraulic fracturing, Only tensile force, collapse pressure, burst pressure and compression load will be considered in the casing design. Other loadings, with the exception of (¢) ‘cannot be determined by direct application of math- ‘ematical equations and will be accounted for through the use of ‘safety factors Safety factors It is evident from the discussion of casing design criteria that exact values of foadings are difficult to determine. For example, if mud of 0 psifit (72 pet is assumed to exist on the outside of the casing di ‘tunning of the casing, this value cannot be expected to remain constant throughout the life of the wel Deterioration of ruud with time will reduce this value to, say, a salt-water value of 0.465 psi/ft. Hence, calculations of burst values assuming a column of mud of O5 psifft on the outside of the easing are not applicable throughout the life ofthe well. If the initial design of the casing is marginal, then any change in Joading conditions may lead to bursting of the casing in the event of a gas leak from tubing during Production, Thetefore, casing design is not an exact technique, because of the uncertainties in determining the actual Toadings and also because of the change in casing properties with time, resulting from corrosion and ‘wear. A safety factor is used to allow for such un- certainties in the casing design and to ensure that the rated performance of the casing is always greater than any expected loading. In other words, the casing strength is downrated by a chosen safety factor value. Each operating company uses its own safety factors for specific situations, These values have been devel- oped through many years of drilling and production experience, Usual safety factors are collapse: 085-1125 OILWELL DRILLING ENGINEER) burst 1 tension: 1.61.8 ‘The safety factor is determined as the ratio be the body resistance and the magnitude of the applet 3 pressure, Thus the safety factor (SF) in burst is givee by. burst resistance of casing SP = ars pressure Combination strings Ina casing string, maximum tension occurs at the to and the design criterion requires high grade or heayy casing atthe top. Burst pressures are most severe at the top and, again, easing must be strong enough on top tg resist falurcin burst, In collapse calculations, however, the worst conditions occur at the bottom and casing must, therefore, be chosen for the bottom part ty resist collapsing pressure, Hence, the requirements for burst and tension criteria are diferent from the requirement for col, lapse and a compromise must be reached when design: ing for easing, This compromise is achieved in the form of a combination string. In other words, casings” | of various grades or differing weights are used at different depths of hole, each grade of casing being capable of withstanding the imposed loading cone ditions at that depth, Strong and heavy casing is used at the surface, light yet strong casing is used in the middle section, and heavy casing may be required j the bottom to withstand the high collapsing pressurg ‘The combination string method represents the ‘most economical way of selecting casing consistent With safety. Although as many grades as possiblé could be used for a string of casing, practical ei perience has shown that the logistics of using more thi ‘wo different grades of casing create probiems for crews. Biaxial effects” ‘The combination of stresses due to the weight of thé. casing and external pressures are referted to as ‘biaidls stresses. Biaxial stresses reduce the collapse rsistangé of the casing in the plastic failure mode and must 8 accounted for in designing for deep wells or combi ation strings. The collapse resistance, P., under fm sile load is given by CASING DESIGN f lapse resistance with no tensile load (psi, A = cross- sectional area of casing (in?) = ne(dg ~ 0); dg = outside P diameter of casing (in) ¢ = thickness of casing (in, and So= average yield stress of steel (psi) with zero load. Setting K =245, gives PIE for (10.19 FEV 7) Biaxial loading generates forces within the surfaces reavp pe of tho casing which reduce the wecins collapse re- Fal Stance but crease ie ee caste A graphical solution of Equation (10.16) was ES presented in Fi age 41). Equation (10.16) ibulated form, showing the percentage reduction in collapse resistance for a given unit weight carried by the casing (see Table 10.8). To ase this table, determine the ratio between the weight to becarried by the top joint ofthe weakest casing and the yield strength of the casing. Then from the table determine the corresponding reduction in collapse strength. This reduction in collapse resistance applies tothe top joint only and the casing effectively becomes stronger down the hole, since the weakest grade will be carrying less weight with increasing depth. Hence, its only requited to calculate the hydrostatic head due to ‘mud at the top joint and compare this with the net collapse resistance of the tap joint. A minimum SF of, 2), DAS in collapse should be obtained; otherwise replace this joint by a heavier grade. This is explained in detail in Examples 10.1 and 104 Graphical method for easing design Nowadays many oil companies use a graphical tech- nique for solving casing design problems. The method was first described in 1965 in a series of articles by Goins etal” In this book, the graphical method is F &xtended to include the effects of shock loading maximum load conditions and gas leaks during pro duction, In this method a graph of pressure against depth is frst constructed. It is marked such that the {op of the graph starts at zero to coincide with zero depth and zero pressure, as shown in Figure 10.8. Collapse, burst and sometimes fracture gradient lines are drawn on this graph, Strength values of available casing grades in collapse and burst are then plotied as ‘ertical lines on this graph, Selection is made such that the casing chosen has strength properties which arc higher than the maximum existing collapse and burst pressures, 210 TABLE 10.8 Reduction in collapse resistance due to biaxial effects SE eee ee rE PEE iearried Remaining collapse Tensite ratio = “etoht carried adr ta Yeldsirengih resistance (%) « 100 001 995 005, 973 on 945: 01s 918 02 as 025, 850 030 813 035 77 040, 760 04s, 595 05 850 055, 602 080 558 06s, 500 70 aS 075 05 080 20 as, 250 090 ie 0.95 90 100 ° (or 100%) a Collapse line / The collapse lines determined as follows: (a) calculate the external load due to the mud column, H:(b)ealeulate {he internal load also due to the mud inside the casing, Hy; (6) calculate the collapse pressure, C, as the difference between H and H,, C=H-H, At the surface, the external and internal pressures are both zero and the value ofthe collapse pressure, iszero. At the casing shoe, the collapse pressure, C. has its maximum value, On a pressuze-depth graph, join the zero co-ordinates with the value of C athe casing shoe depth to obtain the collapse line, Collapse calculations are, in some cases, based on 100% evacuation such thatthe internal pressure, H,, is taken as zero. The 100% evacuation condition can only occur when (a) the easing is run empty (b) there is ‘complete loss of fluid into a thief'zone; and (c} there is complete loss of fuid due to a gas blowout which subsequently subsides, eg shallow gas kick through a conductor pipe. Neither of these conditions should be allowed to oocur in practice, and they are, in fact, extremely rare During lost ircutation, the mud level in the well 220 drops to a height such that the remaining hydrostatic Pressure of mud is equal to the formation pressure of ‘he thief zone. In shallow surface casing itis possible to empty out the casing of a large volume of mud if a loss of circulation is encountered. Some designers assume the surface casing to be completely empty when designing for collapse, irrespective of its setting depth, 10 pro: vide an in-built safety factor in the design. ‘This overdesign can be significantly reduced when the pressure ofthe reduced fevel of mud inside the casing 's subtracted from the external collapsing pressure {9 sive the effective collapse pressure. Both of the above-mentioned methods are discus- sed in this chapter, In intermediate casing complete evacuation is never achieved during loss of circulation, while in production casing the assumption of complete evacu- ation is only justified in artificial lift operations. In such operations gas is injected from the surface to reduce the hydrostatic column of liquid against the formation to help production, Ifthe well pressure were bled to zero at surface, a situation of complete evacu- ation could exist. Another case of eomplete evacuation in a production casing may occur in a gas well when perforations plugging may allow the surface pressure to bleed to zero and, hence, give little pressure inside the casing ‘Therefore, it is seen that 100% evacuation is an extreme case and 2 40% evacuation level is normally used. In this ease HY is calculated from a 60% filled casing, This willbe discussed in detail below in the last section of this chapter. Burst line ‘The burst fine is determined as follows. () Calculate sbe-external load due to an assumed mud column onaiaes it ‘This value is equal to the gradient of saltsatorated water. (Here it is assumed ‘that the mud in which the casing i eun wil deteriorate With time, largely because of settlement of mud solids, resulting in a uid with a much reduced pressure sradient) {Q) Calculate the internal load due to the formation pressure. @) Calculate the burst preseure as the difference between (1) and (2), the formation pressure in (2) is the formation pressure that can be encountered during the diling of the next hole. In other words, an intermediate casing Is designed for the maximum formation pressure that ‘may result from a kick during drilling ofthe open hole of the production string. Ovumeut ont Evan Surf 3 —r 4 ms cso Tootnart tte i, fia, 107 Burst criterion In casing design (OS0 =casig setting dopth; TO total depth: Pr=formation preseureg | TO of naxt note). Referring to Figure 10.7, burst pressures at the | casing shoe and at the surface are calculated by use of the foliowing relationship: burst pressure = interiar pressure — external pressure! “Tia burst at the shoe " ae external pressure = CSD x Gy (10.17) interaal pressure = Py -(TD ~CSD)G (10.8) ‘The term (TD ~ CSD) x G represents the hydrosté tic head of formation @uid between TD and casing Setting depth, Formation pressure, P,, will lose afi! amount of pressure equal to (TD-—CSD) x in’ {rayelling from TD to CSD; see Figure 10.7, in which? Fr formation pressure fiom next TD; G = gradient, of formation fluid; CSD =casing setting depth; ‘TD = total depth of next section of hole; and Ga= mud gradient. Burst at shoe = Equation (10.18)-Fquation (10.12) =Pr-(TD—CSD)G—CSD x Gy (1049) 1 is assumed that the gradient of mud teiorates to that of sale water, such thet Gi = OA se (0.1052 bar/m). wo Tn a burst atthe surface external pressure =0 internal pressure = P, 1D x G Therefore, burst at surface=P,—~TD x G (10.20) [CASING DESIGN In conventional casing design it is customary to assume @ gas kick, thereby anticipating the worst ssible type of kick. The gas gradient is of the order ‘of Ot psift (0.0266 bar/m), therefore causing a very small decrease in formation pressure as the gas rises Fup the well. When a gas kick is assumed, two points ust be considered: AB. (1) The casing seat should be selected such that the gas ‘Afr pressure at the casing shoe is less than the formation breakdown pressure at the shoe. (Q)Gas pressure data must be available from reservoirs in the open hole seetion. In exploration wells where P reservoir pressures are not known, the formation ure at TD of the’ next open hole section is AP calculated from the maximum anticipated mud weight at that depth, A gas pressure equal to this value is used for the calculations of internal pressures. In development arcas reservoir pressures are norm- ally determined by use of wite line logs, drill stem testing or production testing. These pressure values should be used in casing design. Tensile forces E Tensile forces are determined as follows: (a) calculate [the weight of casing in air (positive value) (b) calculate the buoyancy force (negative value}; () calculate the bending force in deviated wells (positive value) and (d) caleulate shock loads due to arresting casing Forces (a)-(C) exist always, whether the pipe is static ot in motion, while forces in (@) only exist when the Pipe is arrosted in the rotary table. fF Tensile loads (sometimes relerted to as installation Hf loads) must be determined accurately so thatthe yield dj. strength of the casing chosen is never exczeded. Also, Hf the installation toads must always be less than the ARE lated derrick toad capacity so that the casing can be Hf 100 or pulled without causing damage to the dertick “In the initial selection of casing, it is important to ‘heck that the easing can carry its own weight in mud, and when the casing is finally chosen, to calculate total tensile loads and compare them with the joint or pipe fF body yield values, A safety factor (= coupling or pipe body yield strength divided by total tensile foads) in tension of 1.6-1.8 should be obtained Example 10,1 = The following three grades of 133 in (340 mm) casings are availablein a company store. Its required to run a combination string based-on collapse and. tension nly. The casing is run ie 67 pet¥1.0734 g/l) fnadto HE sami 11990 mp sate tact ured sor Seanad > 2 ininimum of 083. for llapse. (Note: Figures in j Parentheses are in metrié units) Collapse ai bar) Weight bmn (kg/m) 1130. (78) Kss 545. (61.2) (101) 1930 (134) 72 (107) 2670 (184) Yield strength x 1000 Ib (kN) Body Coupling ss °° 853 (3794) 636 (2829) KS5- > 1069(4755) 1300 (5783) 180% > 1661 (7388) 1693 (7340) Joint type: LTC for KS5, 54,5 Ibjft and BTS for remaining grades. Solution (1) Collapse 67x 6200 Collapse pressure = “SEO 2884.7 psi = 2885 psi 0.0981 ph = 199 bar (Note: Mud gradient is 67/144 =0.4653 psifft or 0.1053 bar/m) On a graph of depth against pressure draw a collapse pressure line between zero at surface and 2885 psi (199 bar) at 6200 ft (1890 m). Draw the collapse resistances of the three grades as vertical lines, a5 shown in Figure 108. From Figure 10.8, selection based on collapse is as shown at the top of page 222. (Note: Minimum safety factor in collapse = collapse resistance of casing divided by collapse pressure of mud column.) Note that the last grade was only suitable down to 4 depth of $400 ft (1740:m) for a safety factor of | However, sincea minimum safety factor of. 858 to be used, this grade is suitable down to 6200 ft (1890 mm), with the lowest safety factor being 0.93 at TD. Above 6200 ft (18907) the safety factor value in collapse inorenes and assumes a maximo value (at $209) of 1950 134 bar fe 7300 67 740 m x 0.1089 bari ~ 1a Length of section Depth Grade and weight Minimum safety factor 0-250 K55, 54.5 Ibmyft 2500 ft 1 aa (0-740 m) (KS, 81.2 kg/m) (740m) 2500-4200 fr K55, 68 Ibm/ft 100 ft 1 (940-1270 m) (KS5, 101 kg/m) (530m) 4200-6200 ft 1-80, 72 1o/t 2000 184 ogy (1270-TD m) (L-80, 107 kg/m) (620m) TWO x 01083 2). Tension Casing-carcying capacity must_ be checked from the bottom joint to the surface. Two values of yield strength are given in the table of strength properties. One specifies the yield strength of pipe body and the other the yield strength of the coupling, The lower ofthese two values is used for the calculation of the safety factor in tension, Therefore, starting from the bottom, see table below. Since a minimum safety factor of L8 is to be used in tension, the K55, $4.5 Ibmyft (81.2 kg/m) may be used if t is designed to carry a maximum weieht, W, given by: Imperial units _ 636 x 1000 = W= 353.333 b Hence, useable weight of section of 54.54 = (Total ‘weight which can be carried) — (weight of lower casing srades) ‘weight of section of 54.5% = 353 333 ~ 259 600, = 9373315 ‘and length of usable section of KSS, 54.5 93 7331b STD 17 345 tome = 770" Metric units 2829 kN 13-88 W = 1571.667 KN The symbol # indiestes ti. Grade and weight Weight of section Tb (kN) Cumulative weight carried Safety factor = by top joint of section 1000 1 (kN) 1.80, 72 Ibe 2000 x 72 = 144000 144 we os 7340 (180, 107 kg/m) (620 107 107? =6508) (650.8) (ed 1069 K55, 68 Ibmyft 1700 x 68 = 115600 239.6 = : 4755, (K55, 101 kgm) (530% 101 gx 10-2=525.13) 17393) tts d een : T1755 ' wee 636 HSS, 545 om 15001 545126280 BBsas ie Bae SIS i (K55, 81.2 kevin) (140 «81.2 xgx 107? 38.946) (1765.4) ( 2829 Here g= acceleration due to gravity (81 mys, 10°? = factor fo eomvertN 19 KN) 28 econ feeemucwen | 2001 Fig. 10.8. Casing dosign (Example 1). |) Useable weight of section of KS5, 81.2 kg/m : = 1571667 — 1175.93, fi = 395.737 KN | and length of usable section of KS, 81.2 kg/m 395.737 x 1000 i ~Ri2xe : =497m Remaining top length = 2500 — 1720 = 780 ft (740 — 497 = 243 m) f; A heavy casing must be used for the top 780 ft. Try fe KS, 689 (OT kg/m — ie next heavy casing ‘Total weight that can be carried by the top joint of EKSS is: SF in tension for K5, 684 at top joint = 1068 10? _ 6/755 406 373 isi Hence, the final casing selection, based on collapse and tension, is as follows Depth Grade and weight - 780i (O- 243m) K-55, 684 (101 kg/m) ~- 780-2500 ft (243 740 in) KS5, $4.5} (81.2 ke/mn) 2500-4200 ft. (740-1270 m) K55, 689 (101 kg/m) 4200-6200 ft (1270-1890 m) 80, 724 (107 kg/m) In exploration wells the designer often discards arades which give a marginal safety factor, fn fact, the above selection could well be simplified further to obtain added safety factors and to eliminate the risk of using the wrong joint in a critical section of the well. In this example grade K55, 54.59 (81.2 kg/m) is the weakest grade and can therefore be eliminated from cur selection, Hence, final selection can be made as follows: Grade and weight Depth 0-4200 ft K55, 68 lb/ft (0-1270 m) (K55, 101 kg/m) 4200-6200 ft L80 72 Ibyte (1270-1890 m) (L80 107 kg/m) BUOYANCY Archimedes’ principle states that all immersed bodies suffer from a buoyancy force which is equal to the ‘weight of fuid displaced by the immersed body. In casing design a buoyancy force is required in the calculation of the instalation load or effective tension force at the top joint. The buoyancy force acts on the bottom joint of the csing and resus in a reduction in the hanging weight of the casing. Consider a cylinder of Im (or 1) in length, of ‘density, which is fully immersed ina fuid of density Pq: The eylinder is assumed to have an outside diameter of d, and an inside diameter of d, ‘Weight = mass x acccleration due to gravity 228 Air weight of ylindor = (a2 a) x1xpxe or W= Ape (10.21) Where 4, = (n/4\d? ~d?)= cross-sectional area of cylinder. If this eylinder is replaced by an equivalent volume of fluid of density p, the weight of this fluid is (10.22) If the steel cylinder is now immersed inthis uid of density pa it displaces a volume of fluid equal to its ‘own volume and will be subjected to a buoyancy force equal to Wy Hence, the efective or buoyant weight of the casing, Way is m=, We = (Asp, — Asad 8 ‘Multiplying and dividing the right-hand side of this expression by W, gives (10.23) BF = beapaney ator = ( a) Pe (ote: The value of BF is always less than 1) Buoyancy force may be calculated as the difference between air weight and buoyant weight, or W,,= buoyancy force = 1, — Wy ~ WBF) W= W(l—BE) (10.28) Buoyancy force acts on the whole immersed body nd its value is the same throughout the casing. OILWELL DRILLING ENGINEERING Example 10.2 in (177.8 mm) casing, 264 (38.7 kg/m} is to be set £7 000 f (5182 ra). If the internal diameter is 6.276 iy (1594 mm), determine the buoyancy force and buoy ancy factor assuming that the mud density is ys bane (1.498 kg) Solution Weight of casing in air = 26 x 17 000= 442.000 15 (88.7 » 5182 x g= 1.965.325 N = 1965.33 kN) 935 Gs) 08 Dap t= ea we ( where density of steel = 489.5 lb/ft? (7.85 kg). Buoyant weight of easing (0.809 x 442.000 = 357 578 Ib (0.809 x 1965.33 = 1589.95 kN) Buoyancy foree = 442.000 ~ 357 578 = 84.422 1b. ~ (1965.33 ~ 1589.95 = 375.38 KN) or BENDING FORCE Bending forces aise if casing is run in highly deviated * wells or in wells with severe dog-leg problems. An“ ‘equation for the bending force can be derived by‘ considering @ beam subjected to pure bending, 38 shown in Figure 10.9. In the following derivation i assumed that plane transverse sections of a beam will remain plane after bending and that the radius of ‘curvature of the beam is large in comparison with the transverse dimensions. Also, Young's modulus of the ‘beam has the same value in tension as in compression. During pure bending, the upper surface of the beam stretches and therefore is in tension, white the lower surface shortens and therefore is in compression Between the compressed and stretched surfaces there ‘must exist a surface in which longitudinal deformation is zero, This surface is described as the neutral plane and a line parallel to this surface is known as the neutral axis, fine NA in Figure 10.9. Consider a tongitudinal surface HU at a distance y from NA which has the same length as the bre KLat 7 sNG DESIGN 225, fr « Fig. 109. Pure bonding of a beam (NA neutal axis) neutral axis (Figure 1093). After bending, the The maximum tensile stress (0) occurs atthe upper fice HJ deforms to an are (AJ in Figure 10:9) of extreme end of the beam at y= D/2, where D is the ius K and included angle dd. The surface KL, being diameter of the beam, Thus, ft neutral surface, retains its origina length Thus, the longitudinal strain, , in the fibre FI is « a (10.30) AJ-HI _ (R+y)d0~ Rad ee e HI a _ bending force (FB) = x A 7 where A = cross-sectional area. Hence, (10.26) ci re- 2 40 stance of arc IT from the neutral axis and tadius of curvature of the deformed beam. Angle 0 is normally expressed in degrees, while the above formata requires the angle in radians hence, rea) gay (10.27) where @ = change in angle of deviation (in degrees) the original length of the beam is L and the total Equation (10.34) in fleld units Imperial units jodulus of elasticity of steek 30 x 10° psi = in; L= ft; @ = degrees NA=L “Therefore, L=RO (10.28) pry. 30. 10°(LbI/in*) x DG bstituting Equation (10,28) in Equation (10:27) 210) x (32) By _ Eby cH DA Tete (10.29) =21817 x 10° (10.32) 206 In practice, the rate of change of angle @ per 100 fis used Lo indicate the degree of dog-lep severity. Hence, replacing L by 100 in Equation (10.22) gives FR=218D49 Also. the nominal weight of the casing is approxi ately proportional® to its cross-sectional area with, an error of less than 2% for the most used weights Mathematically (10.39 Hy(tbmift 2 Alin’y For most casing types, the constant of proportionality is approximately 3.46; hence, Wy = 1464 110.34) Substituting Equation (10.34) in Equation (10.33) ives Ww =218p x YX 4 FB=2180 x 7% = 63pI0 tb (0038 Metric units 210 « 10° Nin? FB 21010 Nim? B( mm » aor | «donno \ 10° mm? \ 211m), Dog-leg severity is normally expressed in degrees, per 10m, hence, replacing L by #0 results in FB=0.18330.40 (10.36) ‘The weight of casing in kg/m is celated to the cross sectional area in mm? by the following relationship: By= 791084 (10.36) Combining Equations (10.36) and (10.362) gives FB=23.20180 kN 037) SHOCK LOADS The running of casing steings (or deill pipe] requiees that the pipe be decelerated during the last 5 ft before the slips are set in the rotary table to arrest the pipe. ‘The process of arresting the casing sets up shock (ar dynamic) stresses through the body of the pipe. These stresses (or loadings) are active for a very short period of time, affecting only one part of the pipe at any OILWELL DRILLING ENGINEARg instant Shock foadings, therefore, dilfer from stag loadings (such as pipe body weight or bending log ing) in which the whole pipe is subjected (0 tension compression, When combined with pipe body sight and beng ing loads, he magnitude of shock loaels can be such that parting of the casing results, The effect of shock loading was first recognised jy Vreeland in 1961, when he presented an analyticg method for the calculation of shock lowds. In this section it will be shown that the magnitude of shock ads is twice the value suggested by Veceland when average running speeds are considered. When peak speeds are considered, it will be shown that the actual shock loading is four times that suggested by Vrecland®, Transmission of shock waves When casing or drillpipe is suddenly arrested by slips, particles of the pipe ncar the slips are given a forward velocity V and a compressive sttess ¢. These particles will impinge on neighbouring particles, imparting to them both stress and velocity. The impacting process contin generating a compressive stress wave through the casing body (Figure 10.10). The compress ie stress wave travels from the slips area to the casing shoe. where it will experience reflection, Assume that the velocity of the stress wave is Co: then, afer time 2, the wave will eccupy a distance of Cot along the casing, as showa in Figure 10-10) Fig. 10.10, (a) Shock loading: {b) element af casing under the influence of a shock stress wave ps «ar 1 che wd | les to ss we se ing oe ber der CASING DESIGN During the same time ¢ through a distance of Ve. Using the law of conservation of momentum, change of momentum of length Cyt the casing particles move = impulsive force x time (10.38) impulsive force = stress x cross-sectional area “oA (10.39) Substituting Equation (1039) in Equation (10:38) gives nx Ve(odye (10.40) Where m= mass of element of casing of length Cyt =(ACot)p; and V = velocity of particles in the im acted area. Substituting the value of m in Equation (10.40) yieids (ACyt)p x V=(oAye Therefore, (104i) Thus, a compressive stress o of magnitude given by Equation (10.41) propagates to the casing shoe. The above analysis assumed a one-dimensional theory in which the casing is considered as a long thin bar. This assumption produces a negligible error in the final result” o= pC Reflection of the generated stress wave ‘When the compressive stress wave arrives at the shoe, it encounters a free end in which particle movements are not resisted. At this end three changes occur. The Wave is reflected, it changes its nature from compress. ive to tenste and it propagates up the casing string. At the casing shoe the reflected tensile stress cancels the compressive wave, which results in zero stress at this end, The reflected tensile wave travels up the casing shoe to arrive atthe surface, where it encounters a fixed end (since the casing is held in place by the slips). Particle Movements are inhibited ata fixed end and the tensile Wave reflects as a tensile wave. Thus, at a free end reflection of waves is accompanied by a change in sign, Wheteas at fixed ends reflection does not alter the sign of the original incident wave. Further details of the mechanics of wave reflection can be found in Reference 7, Reflection of the stress wave at the surface results in 4 total stress of 2a at the slips area. It is this stress which contributes to total loading at the slips. The stress wave is of such short duration that it dies away when the next casing joint (or drillpipe join) is stabbed in, eer For example, for a 10000 fi well the time, « required for the wave to travel from surface to shoe and back to surface is a 2x 10000f Go Tomiie 28 where Co = one-dimensional wave velocity in stee! = 17 028 fs. Thus, after a time 1,2 s no shock loading is experienced at the surface. Since force is the product of stress and cross- sectional area, total shock (dynamic) forces at the surface are given by F, F=Qo)xA (10.42) ‘Combining Equations (10.42) and (10.41) gives Fea MCV x A (1043) ‘The shock force calculated from Equation (10.43) is ‘wice the value given in Vreeland'’s paper® Field version of Equation (10.43) Equation (1043) can be simplified by replacing the term pCo by a numerical value and the cross-sectional ‘rea by the nominal weight pet foot. For steel, the term pC is simplified as follows bm ft thm = 489,50" x 17 oa dal Ca = A895 FF x 17028 = 83352067 (1048) Albo, for most casing sizes, the eross-sectional area is related to the nominal weight per foot, with neg ligible error? through the following formula: A (10.45) Biv Substituting Bquations (10.44) and (10.45) in Equation (10.43) and simplifying yields F.= 0610 x PIb 1046) The velocity, V, may be taken as equal to the average running speed of 13s per 40 of easing join Thus F,= 320004 Ib i047) In metric units Equation (10.47) is = 940% kN (10.48) Peak velocity ‘The magnitude of the shock load is greatly increased when the peak velocity is considered. Assuming that ‘he initial velocity of the casing is zero, then the peak 26 velocity, H.'s twice the average running speed of 13 5 per 40ft. Thus. Equation (10:46) becomes F (peak) ~ 640014, (10.49) Exampie 10.3 tule of shock loading during the cunning of L80, 43.5 Ibmtl, 9$ an easing, using: (a) an average running speed of 135 per 40 ft (b) a peak velocity of twice the average speed Solution (a) From Equation (10.47) = 3200 x 14, = 3200 « 43.5 39 200 Ib (b) Equation (1049) is applicable; hence, F peak) = 2 x 139 200 = 278 400 1b ‘The result of pact (b) clearly shows that, for mar inal casing design, the casing running speed is critical and should not exceed a maximum of 13 per 40 ft Shock loading can also be decreased by reducing the average running speed to below 135 per 40 f. CASING DESIGN EXAMPLE (EXAMPLE 10.4) An exploration wel is to be drilled to a total depth of 13 900 ft (4327 my Relevant data are as follows Drilling programme: (0-350 ft (107 m), 26 in (660.4 mm) hole 350-6200 ft (1890 m), 174 in (444.5 mm) hole 6200-10 400 f (3170 m), 124 in GL.2 mm) hole 10 400-13 900 f (4237 m), 84 in (215.9 mm) hole Casing programme 20 n(508 mam) casing to beset at 350 (107 mp 132 (339.7 mm) casing to be set a¢ 6200 fe (1890 mm) 94 in 244.5 mm) casing to be Set at 10400 ((3170 ra) 7 in(177.8 mm) casing to be set at 13 900 tt(4247 m) ‘The casing head housing will be installed on the 20 in casing. The 7 in casing will be run ta the surface. Mud programme: Down to 350 f¢ (107 m), mud weight is 65 pet (1041 kel) Down to 6200 ft (1890 m), mud weight is 67 pet (1.073 kg/l) OILWELL DRILLING ENGINEERING Down to 10.400 {¢ (3170 m), mud weight is 73 pot (1.169 key Down to 13.900 ft (4237 m), mud weight is 87 pef (1.394 kg) Safety factors Burst = 1.1 Collapse = 085 Tension = 18 Formation fuid gradient 10-6200 1 (1890 m}, Py = 0465 psift (0.105 bar/m) £6200-10.400 ft (3170 ma), Py 0.48 paift (0.1086 bar/m) 10400-13 900 fe (4237 m), Py 0.57 psift (0.1289 bar/n The 124 in hole experiences a maximum dogeleg severity of 3/100 fl. Other sections of the well ex perience negligible deviation. Shock loads are to be included in the design of 9§ in and 7 in casing strings, For collapse, burst and yield strength values refer to Tables 104-107, Design suitable casing strings for the given hole sizes, taking into consideration the available casing grades and the maximum expected pressures, Solution 1, Conductor pipe (20 in casing) This pipe is set at 350 f¢ (107 m) and will be subjected to formation pressure {rom the next hole drilled to a depth of 6200 ft (1890 m), IC will be assumed that no ‘gas exists at this shallow depth and kick calculations will be based on a water kick situation in which formation gradient is 0.465 psi/ft (0.105 bar/m). Note that if gasis known to exist at shallow depths, it must be included in the calculations. Collapse Collapse pressure at surface = 0 mud weight « depth ‘ollapse pressure at 350 fi = MAS NeIBML = depth Collapse pressure at 350 f - where mud weight is Ibinyft, Therefore, 65 x 350 apse pressure at 350 fh = 22 350 collapse p 1 350 t= = 158 psi(H1 bar) This pressute acts on the outside of the casing and for the worst possible situation assume that the casing CASING DESIGN is 100% circulation situation), Burst Burst pressure = internal pressure ~ external pressure (a) Burst at shoe From Figure 10.11, formation pressure at next TD = 6200 x 0.465 or P, = 2883 psi (199 bar) Pe=(TD—CSD) x G 2883 5 (6200 — 350) x 0.465 = 163 psi (11 bas) ‘where G~ gradient of invading fluid = 0.465 pit External pressure = casing setting depth Internal pressure x mud gradient external pressure = (350 x 65)/144 = 158 psi (11 bar} Burst at sho« ternal pressure external pressure = 163 ~ 198 =5 psi (0.4 bar) (b) Burst at surface Burst at surface = Py ~TD x G = 2883 — 6200 x 0.465 =0 It should be noted that the zero values were ‘obtained as a result of the fact that a salt-water kick is considered. If instead a gas kick is considered, the burst pressure values at the shoe and surface will be 2135 psi and 2140 psi, respectively. Selection A graph is not normally required end selee- tion is determined by comparing the strength pro perties of available casing with existing pressures From Table 10.4 it can be seen that all the available ‘grades have collapse and burst values above those calculated above. Hence, select grade K555, 944, having collapse pressure = 520 psi (36 bar), burst pressure=2110 psi (145. bar) and yield strength = 1479 000 ib (6579 KN). It should be noted that grade K5S, 94f is the lightest and the cheapest of the three available grades, Since the casing head housing is installed on the 20 in casing, the latter will be subjected to com- vacuated (as is the case in a complete-loss 3s0ft 6200 tt qo. Fig. 1.11, Solution to Example 10.4 (20 in casing design). pression forces resulting from the weights of sub- sequent casing strings. ‘This casing will be checked later to determine whether itis capable of carrying other casing strings. 2, 133 in casing This string is set at 6200 ft and will be subjected, in the event of a kick, to formation pressures from the next hole drilled to 4 TD of 10.400 Collapse Collapse pressure at surface = 0 Collapse pressure at 6200 (1890 m) = 7 ati = 2885 psi (199 bar) The collapse line is drawn between 0 atthe surface and. 2885 psi at 6200 fi, as shown in Figure 10.12. From Table 105 the collapse resistances of the available grades as adjusted for a safety factor of 085 ate as follows Grade Weight Coupling Gbm/t) Collapse resistance SF=1 SF= KS S450 LTC 130 K5S 680. -BTS_— 1950 190 720 —-BTS. 280 i The collapse resistance values are plotted as vert ical fines, as shown in Figure 10.12, Burst Formation pressure from next TD > 10-400 x 0.48 1992 psi (344 bar} (sce Figure 10.13) Burst at sho ternal pressure external pressure Internal pressure = P (1D — CSD) x G = 4992 ~(10-400 — 6200) < 0.1 572 psi (315 bar) 62004 104001 A402 Fig. 10.43, Solution to Example 10.4 (198 in easing design) Fig. 10.2, 133-in casing design ( h OILWELL DRILLING ENGINEERING 000 cane et | SO 1 collapse lines; (------) burst ties (where . eradicnt of invading uid, assumed to be having 0.1 psig gradient). External pressure = CSD x 0.465 where 0465 psf is the gradi casing, Therefore of ud outside the external pressure = 6200 x (1465 = 2883 ps1 1199 batt Thus, burst at shoe = 4572 ~ 2883 = 1689 psi (116 bar) Burst at surface = internal pressure external pressure External pressure =0 Internal pressure = Py (TD) x G Therefore, burst at surface PUD eG = 4992 19.400 «01 = 3982 psi (273 bar) The burst fine can now be drawn between 1689 psi at the shoe and 3952 psi at the surface, see Figure 10.12 From Table 105, of casing properties, the burst | ‘esingess a the available grades are given below, | together with adjustment for SF = 11 Ng CASING DESIGN Grade Weight Coupling Burst rosistance (psy (ibm SPot Stati KS 4S LTC ooo K3 680 BTS uso Lo BTS 5180 ‘The burst resistance values are drawn as vertical lines, as shown in Figure 10.12. Selection Selection should consider the lightest weights first, as these grades ate the cheapest. On the basis of collapse only, Figure 10.12 indicates that the given grades are suitable for the following depths: 030508 K55, 5459 3050-4950 ft K55, 687 4950-6200 it L80, 724 ‘On the basis of burst only, Figure 10.12 gives the following selection 0-2400ft L80, 724 2400-42008 K55, 684 4200-6200 KS5, $4.54 When selection is based on both collapse and burst, Figure 10.12 indicates that grade K'5, 54.5 does not satisfy the burst requirement from 0 to 4200 ft Also, grade K55, 68/ does not satisfy burst from 0 0 2400 ft Hence, selection from 0 to 2400 ft i limited to grade 180, 724 Below 2400 fi, grade K55, 684 is suitable for collapse from 0 to 4950 ft and for burst from 2400 ft to 4200 ft, Hence, the mide seotion consists of KS, {684 from 2400 to 4200 ft The last section of hole can only be satisfied by rade 1.80, 724 in both collapse and burst; see Figure 10.12. Hence, selection based on collapse and burst is 231 Note that grade K55, 54.57 has been rejected, since it does not satisfy both collapse and burst at once along any section of the hole. Tension If bending ani! shock forces ace ignored, the suitability of selected grades in tension can be checked by comparing the weight in air carried by each section with ils yield strength. For the 9f in and 7 in casing, effects of bending and shock loading will be included ‘and buoyant weight will be considered to reduce the possibility of over-designing. Hence, starting from the bottom, see table at the top of page 232 Note that yield strength values are obtained from ‘Table 10.5 as the lowest value of either the body or coupling yield strength, ‘The safety factor must, at least, be equal to the required value of 1.8 ifany of the selected grades is to satisfy the criterion of tension. The table overleaf pro duces values of SF of greater than 1.8, which indicates that the grades satisfy collapse, burst and tension. Pressure testing After the casing is landed and cemented, i isthe practice to tet the casing prior to drilling the casing shoe. The testing pressure employed by some operating companies is 60% of the burst rating of the weakest rade of casing ja the string Henes, \ testing pressure of 134 in = 60% x burst pressure of KS, 684 = 60% % 3450 = 2070 psi (143 bars) During pressure testing an extra tensile force is exerted on the casing and the SF should, again, be > 1.8 for the top joint (or the joint of weakest grade). Hence, total tensile force during pressure testing at top joint = buoyant weight of casing + tensile force due to pressure testing, = weight in air BB+ Fad? (Gee table below): testing pressure

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