A

Project Report on

Wireless Robotic ARM Using

Flex sensor & Accelerometer

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 Table of Contents

Contents
CHAPTER-1: INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4

CHAPTER-2: LITERATURE SURVEY............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 5

CHAPTER-3: BLOCK DIAGRAM................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6

3.1. BLOCK DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................

3.1.1. Flex Sensor:................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 7

3.1.4. Power Supply:............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 7

3.1.5. Transformer:................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 7

3.1.6. Rectifier....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8

3.1.7. Voltage Regulator........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 8

3.1.8 Relays:...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8

CHAPTER-4: CIRCUIT LAYOUT................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10

4.1 Circuit layout:..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

4.2 Component list:................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

4.3 AVR Microcontrollers:.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

4.3.1 Introduction to AVR Microcontroller.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 12

4.3.2 Architecture of AVR.................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 12

4.3.3 AVR-Microcontroller (Atmega8L).............................................................................................................................................................................................. 14

4.3.4 The ATmega8Lprovides the following features........................................................................................................................................................................... 15

4.3.5 Pin Diagram................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 16

4.3.6 Pin Descriptions.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 17

4.4 USART of AVR Microcontroller:.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

4.4.1 USART Pin Configuration.......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 20

Modes of Operation............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 20

4.4.2 Baud Rate Generation................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 20

4.4.3 Order of Bits............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 21

4.5 RF Module:......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

4.8 Liquid Crystal Display:....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

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 4.8.1 Pin Descriptions.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 22

4.8.2 DIAGRAM - LCD INTERFACING............................................................................................................................................................................................ 27

CHAPTER 5 : CONCLUSION, FUTURE, SCOPE AND APPLICATIONS.................................................................................................................................................. 29

5.1. Conclusion:.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

SOFTWARE: CODEVISION AVR................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 30

Steps to Program your Microcontroller:............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 31

ATMEGA8L and ATMEGA16L pin diagram.................................................................................................................................................................................................... 39

PCB DESIGNING............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 41

PCB Layout Designing..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 53

Etching Process:....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Component Mounting and Assembling:.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

PCB ETCHING................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 57

PCB Preparation............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 58

SOLDERING:.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

BIBLIOGRAPHY/REFERENCES................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 69

WEBSITES:..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 69

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CHAPTER-1: INTRODUCTION

A robotic arm consists of several sections connected together by linkages that

help the arm to travel specifically in a designed pattern, with sensors ensuring
that all movements are exactly of the similar pattern . They are endowed with
several degrees-of-freedom, giving them the flexibility to move in many
directions through multiple angles with utmost ease and agility. Haptic
technology or haptics is a tactile feedback technology which makes use of a
user's sense of touch for the enhancement of the remote control of machines
and devices. Devices that enable manual interactions with virtual
environments or tele-operated remote systems are called haptic interfaces . In
general, they receive motor action commands from the human user. Tele-
haptics is the science of transmitting computer generated tactile sensations
over networks, between physically distant users. The movements of the
robotic palm are controlled by moving the users fingers using the Flex
sensors and Wireless RF (Radio Frequency) modules. Wireless RF (Radio
Frequency) module provides unprecedented range in a low-cost wireless data
solution. RF modules are widely used in electronic design owing to the
difficulty of designing radio circuitry. The current era of surgeries has
evolved to bring forth astounding changes in the health-care system.
However even the best traditional surgeries leave behind the huge scars and
increased recovery time.

CHAPTER-2: LITERATURE SURVEY

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 Robots can be used to perform surgeries in a more accurate and precise manner
where the surgeon can make decisions and operate the robot as and when
needed at the spur of the moment. This ensures that no human error is involved,
there is a reduced amount of blood loss, and the area of surgery is
comparatively smaller. In minimally invasive robotic surgery (MIRS), the
surgery is performed by the surgeon using tele-operated robotic tools instead of
using manual instruments. In this scheme, robots do not replace the surgeon, but
instead provide the surgeon with improved abilities to perform the intricate,
precise surgical manipulations. The following are the examples of existing
MIRS systems: Da-Vinci Robot This system has been approved by the FDA for
laparoscopic, non-cardiac thoracoscopic, prostatectomy, cardiotomy, cardiac
revascularization, urologic surgical, gynecologic surgical, pediatric surgical and
trans-oral otolaryngology surgical procedures. Zeus System The Zeus system
has the similar capabilities as the Da Vinci system. It has been approved by the
FDA as well. It is composed of a master console and 3 table-mounted robotic
arms. Two robotic arms mimic the surgeons arms and hold the surgical tool and
the third arm is a voice-controlled robotic endoscopic system. The endoscopic
instrument mounted on the slave manipulator provides five degrees of freedom
to extend the dexterity inside the patient for the surgeon. Robotic systems thus
have proven to play a very important role in the medicinal and surgical sector,
be it in manufacturing medicines and drugs or carrying out simple tasks in
specific surgeries. However, robots do not take over the whole procedure in a
surgery, but certainly assist the surgeons to perform the task accurately and
avoid large incisions, infections and blood loss.

CHAPTER-3: BLOCK DIAGRAM

The block diagram of Flex Sensor based robotics ARM using accelerometer
technology shown in figure1. It comprises power supply section, Flex Sensor,

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 battery, Microcontroller, Max 232 driver , relay driver , sensors, RF Module
Accelerometer.

Fig.1:-Flex sensor based robotic arm using touch screen

3.1. BLOCK DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION

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3.1.1. Flex Sensor:
Flex sensors are analog resistors. These resistors work as variable analog
voltage divider. Inside the flex sensor are carbon resistive elements with thin
flexible substrate. More carbon means less resistance. When the substrate is
bent the sensor produces resistance output relative to the bend radius. The
flex sensor achieves great form-factor on a thin flexible substrate. When the
substrate is bent, the sensor produces a resistance output correlated to the
bend radius. Smaller the radius, higher will be the resistance value . The
impedance buffer in the circuit is a single sided operational amplifier used
with these sensors. Since low bias current of the op amp reduces error due to
source impedance of the flex sensor as voltage divider. The variation in
deflection or bending of flex sensor results in variation of resistance itself.
The signal conditioning circuit is used to read these resistance changes and it
is given to ADC. ADC converts these values into equivalent digital values.

3.1.4. Power Supply:

Power supply is the circuit from which we get a desired dc voltage to
run the other circuits. The voltage we get from the main line is 230V AC but
the other components of our circuit require 5V DC. Hence a step-down
transformer is used to get 12V AC which is later converted to 12V DC using
a rectifier. The output of rectifier still contains some ripples even though it is
a DC signal due to which it is called as Pulsating DC. To remove the ripples
and obtain smoothed DC power filter circuits are used. Here a capacitor is
used. The 12V DC is rated down to 5V using a positive voltage regulator chip
7805. Thus a fixed DC voltage of 5V is obtained.

3.1.5. Transformer:
Transformer is the electrical device that converts one voltage to another
with little loss of power. Transformers work only with AC. There are two
types of transformers as Step-up and Step-down transformer. Step-up
transformers steps up voltage, step-down transformers steps down voltage.
Most power supplies use a step-down transformer to reduce the dangerously

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high mains voltage to a safer low voltage. Here a step down transformer is
used to get 12V AC from the supply i.e. 230V AC.

3.1.6. Rectifier
A rectifier is a circuit that converts AC signals to DC. A rectifier
circuit is made using diodes. There are two types of rectifier circuits as Half-
wave rectifier and Full-wave rectifier depending upon the DC signal
generated.

3.1.7. Voltage Regulator

Voltage regulators produce fixed DC output voltage from variable
DC (a small amount of AC on it). Fixed output is obtained by connecting the
voltage regulator at the output of the filtered DC. It can also be used in
circuits to get low DC voltage from high DC voltage (for example we use
7805 to get 5V from 12V). Two types of voltage regulators are.

1. fixed voltage regulators (78xx, 79xx)

2. Variable voltage regulators (LM317)

3.1.8 Relays:
A relay is an electrical switch that opens and closes under the control of
another electrical circuit. In the original form, the switch is operated by an
electromagnet to open or close one or many sets of contacts. Because a relay
is able to control an output circuit of higher power than the input circuit.

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 Figure 3.4 relays

CHAPTER-4: CIRCUIT LAYOUT

4.1 Circuit layout:

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Various important blocks of system are:
1. Microcontroller
2. GSM Modem
3. LCD Display
4. Humidity Sensor
5. Soil Moisture sensor
6. Crystal Oscillator

4.2 Component list:

Components required to realize the proposed system are as follows.

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 Sr. Component Specification Quantity
No. name s
1) RF Module 433MHz 1
2) AVR ATmega8L 1
Microcontrolle
r IC
3) LCD 1
4) Voltage 7805 1
Regulator
5) Flex Sensor 1
6) Capacitor
7) Diode
8) Resistor 1k 2
9) LED 1
10) Crystal 8MHz 1
Oscillator
11) Pin Connector Male 2
12) 2 Pin Screw 2
Connector
13) 16 Pin Base 1
14) LCD Base 16 Pin 1
15) Accelerometer 1
16) Relay and ULN2003 1
Relay Driver

4.3 AVR Microcontrollers:

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4.3.1 Introduction to AVR Microcontroller

The AVR is a modified Harvard architecture where program and data is

stored in separate physical memory systems that appear in different address
spaces, but having the ability to read data items from program memory using
special instructions. It is an 8-bitRISC single chip microcontroller which was
developed by Atmel in 1996. The AVR was one of the first microcontroller
families to use on-chip flash memory for program storage, as opposed to one-
time programmable ROM, EPROM, or EEPROM used by other
microcontrollers at the time.

4.3.2 Architecture of AVR

The architecture of AVR was developed by Alf-Egil Bogen and Vegard

Wollan. AVR derives its name from its developers and stands for Alf-Egil
Bogen Vegard Wollan RISC microcontroller, also known as Advanced
Virtual RISC. The AT90S8515 was the first microcontroller which was based
on AVR architecture however the first microcontroller to hit the commercial
market was AT90S1200 in the year 1997.
The AVR advanced RISC architecture and consist of 32 x 8-bit general
purpose working registers. Within one single clock cycle, AVR can take
inputs from two general purpose registers and put them to ALU for carrying
out the requested operation, and transfer back the result to an arbitrary
register. The ALU can perform arithmetic as well as logical operations over
the inputs from the register or between the register and a constant. Single
register operations like taking a complement can also be executed in ALU.
We can see microcontrollers are based on the AVR that does not have any
register like accumulator as in 8051 family of microcontrollers; the

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operations can be performed between any of the registers and can be stored in
either of them.

AVR follows Harvard Architecture format in which the processor is

equipped with separate memories and buses for Program and the Data
information. Here while an instruction is being executed, the next instruction
is pre-fetched from the program memory.

Since AVR can perform single cycle execution, it means that AVR can
execute 1 million instructions per second if cycle frequency is 1MHz. The
higher is the operating frequency of the controller, the higher will be its
processing speed. We need to optimize the power consumption with
processing speed and hence need to select the operating frequency
accordingly.

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4.3.3 AVR-Microcontroller (Atmega8L)

The ATmega8 is a low-power CMOS 8-bit microcontroller based on the

AVR RISC architecture. By executing powerful instructions in a single clock
cycle, the ATmega8 achieves through puts approaching 1 MIPS per MHz,
allowing the system designed to optimize power consumption versus
processing speed.

The AVR core combines a rich instruction set with 32 general purpose
working registers. All the32 registers are directly connected to the Arithmetic
Logic Unit (ALU), allowing two independent registers to be accessed in one
single instruction executed in one clock cycle. The resulting architecture is
more code efficient while achieving throughputs up to ten times faster than
conventional CISC microcontrollers.

4.3.4 The ATmega8Lprovides the following features

8K bytes of In-System Programmable Flash with Read-While-Write

capabilities, 512 bytes of EEPROM, 1K byte of SRAM, 23 general purpose
I/O lines, 32 general purpose working registers, three flexible Timer/Counters
with compare modes, internal and external interrupts, a serial programmable
USART, a byte oriented two wire Serial Interface, a 6-channel ADC (eight
channels in TQFP and QFN/MLF packages) with10-bit accuracy, a
programmable Watchdog Timer with Internal Oscillator, an SPI serial
port,and five software selectable power saving modes.

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 The Idle mode stops the CPU while allowing the SRAM,
Timer/Counters, SPI port, and interrupt system to continue functioning. The
Power down mode saves the register contents but freezes the Oscillator,
disabling all other chip functions until the next Interrupt or Hardware Reset.
In Power-save mode, the asynchronous timer continues to run, allowing the
user to maintain a timer base while the rest of the device is sleeping.
The ADC Noise Reduction mode stops the CPU and all I/O modules
except asynchronous timer and ADC, to minimize switching noise during
ADC conversions. In Standby mode, thecrystal /resonator Oscillator is
running while the rest of the device is sleeping. This allows very fast start-up
combined with low-power consumption.
The device is manufactured using Atmels high density non-volatile
memory technology. The Flash Program memory can be reprogrammed In-
System through an SPI serial interface, by a conventional non-volatile
memory programmer, or by an On-chip boot program running on the AVR
core. The boot program can use any interface to download the application
program in the application flash memory. Software in the boot flash section
will continue to run while the application flash section is updated, providing
true Read-While-Write operation. By combining an 8-
bit RISC CPU with In-System Self-Programmable flash on a monolithic chip,
the Atmel.

ATmega8 is a powerful microcontroller that provides a highly-flexible

and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications.

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The ATmega8 AVR is supported with a full suite of program and system
development tools, including C compilers, macro assemblers, program
debugger/simulators, In-Circuit Emulators, and evaluation kits.

4.3.5 Pin Diagram

Fig. PIN DIGRAM ATMEGA8L

4.3.6 Pin Descriptions

VCC: Digital supply voltage.

GND: Ground.

Port B (PB7..PB0)XTAL1/XTAL2/TOSC1/TOSC2: Port B is an 8-bit bi-

directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit).

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The Port B output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both
high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port B pins that are externally
pulled low will source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port
B pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active, even if the
clock is not running.

Depending on the clock selection fuse settings, PB6 can be used as input to
the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating
circuit.

Depending on the clock selection fuse settings, PB7 can be used as

output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.

If the Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator is used as chip clock source,

PB7..6 is used as TOSC2..1input for the Asynchronous Timer/Counter2 if
the AS2 bit in ASSR is set.

Port C (PC5..PC0): Port C is an 7-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal

pull-up resistors (selected for each bit). The Port C output buffers have
symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source capability.
As inputs, Port C pins that are externally pulled low will source current if
the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port C pins are tri-stated when a
reset condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running.

PC6/RESET: If the RSTDISBL Fuse is programmed, PC6 is used as an

I/O pin. Note that the electrical characteristics of PC6 differ from those of
the other pins of Port C.

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If the RSTDISBL Fuse is un programmed, PC6 is used as a Reset input. A
low level on this pin for longer than the minimum pulse length will generate
a Reset, even if the clock is not running.

Port D (PD7..PD0): Port D is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal

pull-up resistors (selected for each bit). The Port D output buffers have
symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source capability.
As inputs, Port D pins that are externally pulled low will source current if
the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port D pins are tri-stated when a
reset condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running.

Reset: Reset input. A low level on this pin for longer than the minimum
pulse length will generate are set, even if the clock is not running.

AVCC:AVCC is the supply voltage pin for the A/D Converter, Port C (3..0),
and ADC (7..6). It should be externally connected to VCC, even if the ADC
is not used. If
the ADC is used, it should be connected to VCC through a low-pass filter.
Note that Port C (5..4) use digital supply voltage, VCC.

AREF: AREF is the analog reference pin for the A/D Converter.

ADC7..6 (TQFP and QFN/MLF Package Only): In the TQFP and

QFN/MLF package, ADC7..6 serve as analog inputs to the A/D converter.
These pins are powered from the analog supply and serve as 10-bit ADC
channels.

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 4.4 USART of AVR Microcontroller:
USART stands for Universal Synchronous Asynchronous
Receiver/Transmitter. This is of the synchronous type, i.e. the data bits are
synchronized with the clock pulses.
If you refer to the USART section in the datasheet of any AVR
microcontroller, you will find several features listed there. Some of the main
features of the AVR USART are:
Full Duplex Operation (Independent Serial Receive and Transmit Registers)
Asynchronous or Synchronous Operation.
Master or Slave Clocked Synchronous Operation.
High Resolution Baud Rate Generator.
Supports Serial Frames with 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9 Data bits and 1 or 2 Stop Bits.

4.4.1 USART Pin Configuration

The USART of the AVR occupies three hardware pins:

1. RxD: USART Receiver Pin (ATMega8 Pin 2; ATMega16/32 Pin 14)

2. TxD: USART Transmit Pin (ATMega8 Pin 3; ATMega16/32 Pin 15)
3. XCK: USART Clock Pin (ATMega8 Pin 6; ATMega16/32 Pin 1)

Modes of Operation

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 The USART of the AVR can be operated in three modes, namely-

1. Asynchronous Normal Mode

2. Asynchronous Double Speed Mode
3. Synchronous Mode.

4.4.2 Baud Rate Generation

The baud rate of UART/USART is set using the 16-bit wide UBRR
register. Since AVR is an 8-bit microcontroller, every register should have a
size of 8 bits. Hence, in this case, the 16-bit UBRR register is comprised of
two 8-bit registers UBRRH (high) and UBRRL (low). The USART Baud
Rate Register (UBRR) and the down-counter connected to it functions as a
programmable prescaler or baud rate generator. The down-counter, running at
system clock (FOSC), is loaded with the UBRR value each time the counter
has counted down to zero or when the UBRRL Register is written. A clock is
generated each time the counter reaches zero.

This clock is the baud rate generator clock output (= FOSC /

(UBRR+1)).

1. FOSC = System Clock Frequency (1MHz) (or as per use in case of external
oscillator)
2. UBRR = Contents of UBRRL and UBRRH

4.4.3 Order of Bits

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1. Start bit (Always low)
2. Data bits (LSB to MSB) (5-9 bits)
3. Parity bit (optional) (Can be odd or even)
4. Stop bit (1 or 2) (Always high)
A frame starts with the start bit followed by the least significant data bit.
Then the next data bits, up to a total of nine, are succeeding, ending with the
most significant bit. If enabled, the parity bit is inserted after the data bits,
before the stop bits. When a complete frame is transmitted, a new frame can
directly follow it, or the communication line can be set to an idle (high) state.

4.5 RF Module:

The RF module, as the name suggests, operates at Radio Frequency. The

corresponding frequency range varies between 30 kHz & 300 GHz. In this RF
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system, the digital data is represented as variations in the amplitude of carrier
wave. This kind of modulation is known as Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK).

Transmission through RF is better than IR (infrared) because of many reasons.

Firstly, signals through RF can travel through larger distances making it
suitable for long range applications. Also, while IR mostly operates in line-of-
sight mode, RF signals can travel even when there is an obstruction between
transmitter & receiver. Next, RF transmission is more strong and reliable than
IR transmission. RF communication uses a specific frequency unlike IR
signals which are affected by other IR emitting sources.

This RF module comprises of an RF Transmitter and an RF Receiver. The

transmitter/receiver (Tx/Rx) pair operates at a frequency of 434 MHz. An RF
transmitter receives serial data and transmits it wirelessly through RF through
its antenna connected at pin4. The transmission occurs at the rate of 1Kbps -
10Kbps.The transmitted data is received by an RF receiver operating at the
same frequency as that of the transmitter

The RF module is often used along with a pair of encoder/decoder. The

encoder is used for encoding parallel data for transmission feed while
reception is decoded by a decoder. HT12E-HT12D, HT640-HT648, etc. are
some commonly used encoder/decoder pair ICs.

Pin Diagram:

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Pin Description:

RF Transmitter

Pi
n Function Name
No
1 Ground (0V) Groun
d
2 Serial data input pin Data
3 Supply voltage; 5V Vcc
4 Antenna output pin ANT

RF Receiver

Pi Function Name

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 n
No
1 Ground (0V) Groun
d
2 Serial data output pin Data
3 Linear output pin; not connected NC
4 Supply voltage; 5V Vcc
5 Supply voltage; 5V Vcc
6 Ground (0V) Groun
d
7 Ground (0V) Groun
d
8 Antenna input pin ANT

4.8 Liquid Crystal Display:

In the recent years LCD is finding widespread use replacing the LEDs
( seven segment LEDs or other multi-segment LEDs). This is because of the
following reasons-

The declining prices of LCDs.

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 The ability to display numbers, characters and graphics. This is in contrast to
LEDs,
which are limited to numbers and only a few characters.
Incorporation of a refreshing controller into the LCD, thereby reliving the CPU
of the task of refreshing the LCD. In contrast, the LEDs must be refreshed y
the CPU (or in some other way) to keep displaying the data.
Ease of programming for characters and graphics.

4.8.1 Pin Descriptions

The LCD has 14 pins. The function of each pin is described below

Vcc, Vss and Vee

While Vcc and Vss provide +5V and ground, Vee is used for controlling
LCD contrast.

RS, register select

There are two very important registers inside the LCD. The RS pin is
used for their selection. If RS=0, the instruction command code register is
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selected, allowing the user to send a command such as clear display, cursor at
home etc. If RS=1 the data register is selected allowing the user to send data
to be displayed on the LCD.

R/W, Read/Write
R/W input allows the user to write information on the LCD or to read
information from the LCD. R/W=1 for reading and R/W=0 for writing.

E, Enable
The enable pin is used by the LCD to latch information presented on its
data pins. When data is supplied to data pins, a high-to-low pulse must be
applied to the pin in order for the LCD to latch data present at the data pins.
This pulse must be a minimum 0of 450 ns wide.

D0-D7
The 8-bit data pins, are used to send information to the LCD or read the
contents of the LCDs internal registers.
To display letters and numbers, we send ASCII codes for the letters A-Z,
a-z, and numbers 0-9 to the pins while making RS=1.

There are also instruction command codes that can be sent to the LCD to
clear the display or force the cursor to home position or blink the cursor. The
table shown below shows some instruction command codes-

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 LCD command codes:

Code Command to LCD inst register

(Hex)

1 Clear display screen

2 Return home
4 Decrement cursor
6 Increment cursor
5 Shift display right
7 Shift display left
8 Display off, cursor off
A Display off, cursor on
C Display on, cursor off
E Display on, cursor on
F Display on, cursor blinking
10 Shift cursor position to left
14 Shift cursor position to right

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 18 Shift the entire display to left
1C Shift the entire display to right
80 Force cursor to beginning of 1st line
C0 Force cursor to beginning of 2nd line
38 2 lines and 5*7 matrix

Sample code for displaying on LCD:

//Including necessary header files

#include<avr/io.h>

#include<compat/deprecated.h>

#include<util/delay.h>

#include "lcd.h" //Includes all necessary initializations for LCD

//declaring macros for further use

#define lcd_port PORTC

#define LCD_RS 0x01

#define LCD_RW 0x02

#define LCD_EN 0x04

Void main ()

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{

lcd_init (); //Initializing LCD

lcd_cmd (0x01); //command for clearing the LCD

lcd_cmd (0x81); // Shifting cursor to the first line

lcd_puts ("16X2 LCD DEMO");

While (1)

{}

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4.8.2 DIAGRAM - LCD INTERFACING

In the diagram below we connected the pins of LCD to PORTC.

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CHAPTER 5 : CONCLUSION, FUTURE, SCOPE AND APPLICATIONS

5.1. Conclusion:

The paper discussed a hardware and software co design of robotic arm

controller using four servomotors employing micro controller. Micro
controller programming can be done with an ease to suit the requirements.
Unlike which employ FPGA based control. Micro controller based programs
can be flexibly modified to suit the necessary drive control of the serve motor.
Researcher can work for wireless control of the robotic arm by employing
some wireless application protocol. Then the robotic arm can be more
efficiently employed.
The robotic arm can be fitted with wheel and more sensors to equip the device
with more flexible movements of the robotic arm.

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 SOFTWARE: CODEVISION AVR
INTRODUCTION:

Code Vision AVR is a C cross-compiler, Integrated Development

Environment, and Automatic program generator designed Atmel

AVR family of microcontrollers.

C cross-compiler- The c cross-compiler implements nearly all the

elements of the ANSI C language, as allowed by the AVR architecture with
some features

added to take advantage of specificity of the AVR architecture

and the embedded system needs.

Integrated Development Environment- the IDE as built-in AVR

Chip In-System Programmer software that enables the automatic transfer

of the program to the microcontroller chip after successful

compilation/assembly.

Automatic program generator- CodeVisionAVR also contains

CodeWizard AVR automatic program generator that allows you to write, in

a matter of minutes, all the code needed for implementing the

following functions:

Input/output port initialization

LCD module initialization
ADC initialization
UART initialization
External Interrupts initialization, etc.

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Steps to Program your Microcontroller:

1. Creating a New File

You can create a new file using the FILE|NEW menu command or by
pressing the create new file button on the toolbar.

2. A dialog box appears, in which you must select the file type/project and
press the OK button

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3. A dialog box will open asking you to confirm if you would like to
use the Code Wizard AVR to create the new project. Press yes and continue.

4. By selecting different tabs of Code Wizard, You can get

readymade code for initialization of different features of your
microcontroller.
Click on CHIP tab and select the chip you are working on. Also
select the frequency to 1.000000 MHz.

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5.Click on PORT tab and select whichever port you want to set as input or
output. Similarly you can initialize various other features as per your
requirement.

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 7. Now to automatically generate the code go to file ==> save generate
and exit.

8. Code Wizard will automatically generate the code. You have to save the file in
three formats (c compiler file, project file, CODEVISION AVR file)

NOTE: All the files should have same name with different extensions.

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 8. The program will appear initializing each feature. Now you have to
write down the logic after that in the infinite while loop given.

9.Compile the project by clicking on the highlighted button in the tool bar.

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 Syntax check by clicking on this icon we can find syntax (command)
errors in the program code.
Compile project & Make project This option is for compiling (finding
more errors in program code, checking header files) while make project is
optional.

Make all project files - To convert our EMBEDDED C CODE to HEX

CODE.

9. On successful completion of compilation, the confirmation window

will open. Just click on OK. Or else list of errors will
be displayed on code navigator window

Now you have the code, you wish to burn it in your

microcontroller. There are many software available for programming the
controller.

KHAZAMA AVR PROGRAMMER software provides the facility of

burning the code in the microcontroller.
Page 38
 Start KHAZAMA AVR PROGRAMMER software

11.To check whether your programmer is correctly connected and working,

chip signature is done.

12.Load the file you want to program in the controller.

Page 39
13.Now erase the memory of your chip & burn your new program code into
it by clicking AUTO-PROGRAM icon.

ATMEGA8L and ATMEGA16L pin diagram

ATMEGA8l pin diagram

Page 40
ATMEGA16l pin diagram

Page 41
 Step 1 of 7: Introduction
This tutorial shows you how to design and make an electronic circuit with PCB
Wizard. You should
follow this tutorial to learn the basic skills you will need to use PCB Wizard
effectively.

Getting started
In this tutorial you will create a transistor
sensing circuit similar to the one shown
on the right. The circuit will light an LED
when the temperature gets too cold.

Along the way, you will learn how to:

Add components from the Gallery
Wire components together
Change component values and models
Convert the circuit into a PCB layout
View how the finished PCB will look

Components
To make this circuit you will need:
Thermistor (NTC type)
BC548B transistor
Green LED
1K ohm resistor:

PCB DESIGNING

100K ohm variable resistor

PP3 battery and clip
plus suitable PCB making equipment

Page 42
 PCB Wizard 3 Tutorial 1
Drawing a transistor sensing Circuitt
To make the transistor sensing circuit you will also need several other components.

Step 2 of 7: Adding components

It will help later on if you position the
You will begin by creating a new (empty) document in which to draw your circuit. To
createcomponents
a new neatly before you start adding Newfrom theFilemenu.
document, click on the New button or choosese
wires to the circuit.
Next you will learn how to use the Gallery to add components
to your
Youcircuit.
can move If the Gallery is by
components notclicking
currentlyonopen, click on the
Gallery
thebutton
Selecton the top
button toolbar
from to toolbar
the top open it.. Select the
Symbols option. Circuit
In the Circuit Symbol Gallery window, you will be able to selecttee
all the components that are available within PCB Wizard.
Components within the Gallery are grouped according to their function. At the top of
the window, a drop-down list box allows you to select which group is shown

From the
Power Supplies
group,
add a
Battery
component from the
Gallery to your circuit.
To do this:
MoveIn Select
the mode
mousetheover
cursorthe
will appear as a standard pointer
Battery
symbol. Press and hold down
the
Brown,button.
left mouse Black, Red and Gold (4 band)
Brown, Black, Black, Brown and Gold (5 band)
With the
680left
ohmmouse button still
resistor:
held Blue,
down,Grey,
moveBrown
the mouse to (4 band)
and Gold
drag the symbol onto theand Gold (5 band)
Blue, Grey, Black, Black
circuit.
Finally, release the mouse .
button
when the circuit symbol is in

Copyright 1997-2003 New Wave Concepts Limited. All rights reserved.

www.new-wave-concepts.com
Page 43
 PCB Wizard 3 Tutorial 1
Drawing a transistor sensing circuit
Step 3 of 7: Wiring components together
Once the components have been placed, you can start to wire the (b)
components together. To do this you must first click on the Select
button from the top toolbar:

Next, move the mouse over the top pin of (a)

the battery (a). As you hold the mouse
over the pin you will notice a hint appear
describing that particular component pin.
Press and hold down the left mouse
button. With the mouse button still held (c)
down, move the mouse to place a wire.
You can add a bend to the wire by
releasing the mouse button over or
clicking on an empty part of the circuit (b).
To complete the wire, release the mouse
button over the top pin of resistor R3 (c).

If you make a mistake,

you can move back over the wire to retrace your steps.

Page 44
 You can now wire up the rest of the circuit
using the diagram on the right as a guide.
Remember that if you get stuck, you can
always just click on the Undo button to
correct any mistakes:

Finally, for more detailed help and information

on wiring circuits, refer to the topic entitled
Wiring components together in the Help
Copyright 1997-2003 New Wave Concepts Limited. All rights reserved.
www.new-wave-concepts.com

Page 45
 PCB Wizard 3 Tutorial 1
Drawing a transistor sensing circuit

Step 4 of 7: Changing component values and models

With the circuit diagram drawn, you can now start to adjust the components.
In your circuit, resistor R3 will be used to limit the amount of current that
passes through the LED. It is good practice to include current-limiting resistors
when using LEDs; without them, LEDs may be damaged or even destroyed.
As a 9 volt battery has been used, the value of this current limiting resistor will
need to be changed to 680 ohms which would limit the current flowing through
the LED to about 10mA (milli-amps).

The value field for the resistor is shown at the bottom of the window and consists of
both value and a multiplier. The resistor's value (in ohms) is calculated by
multiplying the value by the multiplier.
Value Multiplier, where:

Enter 680
in the first value box and then click once on the down arrow to the right of
the second box to change the multiplier from K (x 1,000) to blank (x 1)

Page 46
To complete the transistor sensing circuit, you will need to specify exactly which type
of transistor is to be used. These types are known as models.
Click the right mouse button over transistor
Q1 and, from the pop-up menu that appears, choose the
BC548B transistor from the Models list.

You will notice that the transistor is now labelled as

a
BC548B on the circuit diagram.
Most components within PCB Wizard support
different models. LEDs, for example, are available in a
range of different colours. Try this now. Click the right
Select model mouse button on the LED and select
Green from the from list list of available models.
Copyright 1997-2003 New Wave Concepts Limited. All rights reserved.
www.new-wave-concepts.com

Page 47
 PCB Wizard 3 Tutorial 1
Drawing a transistor sensing circuit
Step 5 of 7: Converting the circuit into a PCB layout (1)
Now that the transistor sensing circuit is complete, you can convert it into a
printed circuit board.

From the Tools

menu choose
Convert | Design to Printed
Circuit
Board
. You will see a window appear to
lead you through the
conversion process. The window
contains a series of pages that
allow
you to decide how your circuit is
converted

These pages cover areas such as the size and shape of your
PCB layout, which components are used as well as more advanced features such as
automatic routing and component placement. For more information on the options
available for converting your circuit diagrams into PCB layouts, see the topic entitled
Converting to a PCB layout in the Help. For many circuits you can leave the settings
in the window unchanged. With your transistor sensing circuit, just one option will be
changed. You will change a setting to increase the thickness of the copper tracks that
will be added during the automatic routing process. By increasing the thickness of the
tracks, you will make your finished PCB layout easier to build.Note that with more
complex circuits, particularly circuits involving integrated circuits (ICs), thinner
tracks are normally required to allow the circuit to be routed successfully.
Click the ,Next button five times until the automatic routing page is shown (see
below).

Page 48
The track thickness is determined by the
Grid option. It is so named because routed tracks are placed on a grid and it is this
grid size that determines the size of the tracks. With simple circuits, such as your
transistor sensor that have few components and connections, it is often preferable to
increase the track width from the default setting of 0.020" (about 0.5mm) to 0.040"
(about 1mm). This will make the final printed circuit board easier to make.
Click on the Grid list and select the
0.100" grid with 0.040" tracks option.
Copyright 1997-2003 New Wave Concepts Limited. All rights reserved.
www.new-wave-concepts.com

Page 49
 PCB Wizard 3 Tutorial 1
Drawing a transistor sensing circuit
Step 6 of 7: Converting the circuit into a PCB layout (2)
With the Grid option changed, click on the
Next button twice to reach the final page of the window
as shown below. You are now ready to convert your circuit. Click on the Convert
button.

PCB Wizard will now create a printed circuit board for your transistor circuit.
The first step in the conversion process is for an outline of the board to be created.
This is
shown on the left as a blue rectangle. Next, you will see each component added to
the board. This is known as
automatic
component placement
. PCB Wizard calculates the optimum position for
each component in your circuit.
As the components are positioned, you will

Page 50
also see a series of green lines. These are known as nets and represent electrical
connections between the components. with the components in
position, PCB Wizard will then add the necessary copper tracks
during a process known as automatic routing.
A path, or route, is found for each connection such that it does
not touch any existing tracks on your circuit. Unlike wires on a
circuit diagram, copper tracks on a printed circuit board cannot
overlap.
Finally, at the end of the process, a solid copper area will be
added to your printed circuit board. Copper areas help reduce
costs by limiting the amount of etching solution that is required
when the circuit is eventually manufacture.

Copyright 1997-2003 New Wave Concepts Limited. All rights reserved.

www.new-wave-concepts.com

Page 51
 PCB Wizard 3 Tutorial 1
Drawing a transistor sensing circuit

Step 7 of 7: Viewing how the finished PCB will look

With your printed circuit board now created, you can see how it will look when made.
On the left-hand side of the main PCB Wizard window, you will see the Style toolbar.
This toolbar shows the different ways in which your circuit can be viewed.

Click on the Real World button.

The display of your circuit will
change to show you how your
circuit would look if it were
professionally manufactured (a).

Next, click on theArtwork

button. You now see the artwork
(or mask) for your circuit (b). It is
this artwork that you would use
to make the printed circuit board.

To see how a professionally

manufactured circuit would look
prior to the components being (a)
soldered in place (c), click on
the Unpopulatedbutton.

Finally, try clicking on the

Prototype button. This is how
your circuit would look if made
as a one-off prototype (d).

You can use the above styles to help when

manufacturing the finished printed circuit
board. In particular, the Real World and
Unpopulated views of your board will show where each component
needs to go.

Copyright 1997-2003 New Wave Concepts Limited. All rights reserved.

www.new-wave-concepts.com

Page 52
PCB Layout Designing
Layout of the desired CIRCUIT is the most important in any circuit board
manufacturing process. The following points are to be observed while designing
the layout of the PCB

Sufficient space should be maintained between two components.

High heat dissipation components like high voltage resistors should be mounted
at a sufficient distance from the semiconductors and electrolytic capacitors.

Components layout should make proper combination with copper side circuit
layout.

Circuit copper line thickness should be decided taking into account the current
drain in the circuit.

Preparation of Screen:

Nylon bolting cloth (Silk screen cloth) is stretched and attached to a

wooden frame. Photosensitive chemical (silcot-6) and ammonium bicarbonate is
spread on cloth and dried in total darkness. The screen is exposed to UV light and
is developed in water.

Printing:

The screen is placed on suitable copper laminated sheet on copper side and
circuit black printing ink (acid resistant paint) is spread on it. After printing the
PCB should be allowed to dry for at least 10 hrs. in a dust proof chamber.

Etching:

The removal of excess copper on the copper laminated PCB apart from the
printed circuit is known as etching. Generally PCB is placed in F3C13 solution
and kept for one hour.

Page 53
 Etching Process:
Etching process requires the use of chemicals acid resistant dishes and
running water supply Ferric chloride is maximum used solution but other
enchants such as ammonium per sulfate can be used. Nitric acid can be used but
in general it is not used due to poisonous fumes. The pattern prepared is glued to
the copper surface of the board using a latex type of adhesive that can be cubed
after use. The pattern is laid firmly on the copper use a very sharp knife to cut
round the pattern carefully a remove the paper corresponding to the required
copper pattern areas. Then apply the resist solutions, which can be kind of ink
proportion fort the purpose maintaining smoothing clean outlines as far as
possible. While the board is drying test all the components.

Before going to next stage, check the whole gotten and cross cheek against the
circuit diagram check for any freeing matte on the copper. The etching bath
should be in a galls or enamels disc. If using crystal of ferric-chloride these
should be thoroughly dissolved in water to the proportional suggested. There
should be 0.5 Lt.of water for 125 Gm. of crystal.

Water liquid should be thoroughly deflated and druid in water land; never pour
down the drain. To prevent particles of copper hindering further etching, agitate
the solutions carefully be gently twisting or rocking the tray.

The board should not be left in the bath a moment longer than is needed to
remove just the right amount of copper. In spite of there being a resist coating
there is no protection against etching away through exposed copper edges; this
leads to over etching. Have running water ready so that etched board can be
removed properly and rinsed; this will hall etching immediately.

Drilling is one of those operations that call for great care because most of the
holes will be made a very small drill. For most purposes a 1 mm drill is used

Page 54
 Drill all holes with this size first those that need to be larger can be easily drilled
again with the appropriate lager size.

Drilling:

Under this operation drilling should be done as per circuit lay with the suitable
drill and high speed machine. Drilling should always be done from copper side
to avoid possibility of coming out of copper circuit and chipping out of Bakelite.

Thinning:

It is an electroplating process (tin plating) done to increases the conductivity of

the conducting medium and to avoid oxidizing effect.

Component Mounting and Assembling:

All components are mounted at their respective position as per the components
layout. Proper precautions should be taken during mounting process.

From the greatest variety of electronic components available today, which runs
into tens of thousands of different types it is often a perplexing task to know
which the right task for a given job is. There should be damage such as hair line
crack intuit opera on PCB that could age a serious fiec on the operational ability
to the completed assemble. If there are than they can and should be repaired
fiesta bye soldering a short link of bare copper wire over the affected part.

The most popular method of holding all the items is to been the wires future
apart after they even been indebted in the appropriate holes. This will hold the
component in position ready for soldering.

Some components will be considerably larger than other occupying and possible
partially obscuring neighboring components. Because of this best to start by

Page 55
 mounting the smallest first and progressing through to the largest. Before
starting make certain that no further drilling I likely to be necessary because
access may be impossible later.

Next will probably be the resistor small signal diodes of other similar size
components some capacitor are very small but it would be best to fit these after
words when fitting each group of components marks of each one on the
components its as it is fitted and if we have to leave the job we know where to
recommence. Although transistor & integrated circuit are small items there are
good reasons for leaving the soldering of these until the last step the main pint is
that these components are sensitive to heart and is subjected to prolonged
application to the soldering iron they could be internally damaged.

All the components before mounting are rubbed with sandpaper so that oxide
layer is removed from their tips. Now they are mounted according to the
components layout.

2.1.6 Soldering Techniques:

A soldered connection ensures metal continuity. The soldering process involves:

Melting of the flux which in turn removes the oxide films on the metal to be
soldered. Melting the solder which remove the impurities. The solder partially
dissolve of the metal in the connection. The solder cools and fuses with the
metal.

The soldering techniques involves knowledge of :

Soldering iron

Soldering wire

Soldering procedure

Replacing components

Page 56
PCB ETCHING

The PCB layout is a mirrored positive one - black on white. Mirrored as

viewed from the silkscreen top (component) side. The PCB layout is printed 1:1
on paper by means of a laser printer or copier machine. The laser printer or
copier toner will not run out when it gets wet or oily. The ink of an inkjet paper
print does run out and inkjet printers are therefore useless with the described
method.

I have used several types of HP laser printers (LaserJet Series II, 5L, 4000 and
1100). These printers work fine. It might be possible that the toner texture on
the layout prints from your used laser printer is not dense enough and passes too
much light. However, results might be improved by setting the toner density to
maximum. Generally printer driver properties allow to set the toner density.

Component (top view) layout

Positive mirrored (top view)
layout

Page 57
 PCB Preparation

The PCB layout paper is drenched with sunflower-seed oil. Sunflower-seed oil
is common available from your local grocery or wall market. Superfluous oil
should be removed carefully with tissue paper. The sunflower-seed oil is used to
make the white part of the layout paper transparent for light.

If you prefer to use the PCB layout more than once let the drenched PCB layout
paper dry at least 48 hours. The layout paper should be carefully dried on
forehand as much as possible with tissue paper. Sunflower-seed oil is a `drying'
oil. Exposed to the air over a number of hours, the layout paper becomes rigid
again. A kind of polymerization takes place. You will get a lot less or no greasy
fingers anymore afterwards.

Other mineral or vegetable oils might work as well to obtain light transparency.
However, they might not be `drying' oils. When I started experimenting,
sunflower-seed oil was the first oil I used and it worked fine. So I didn't try any
other oils. Using water does not work. The layout paper crumples up a bit.

Page 58
 Drench layout with sunflower-seed oil Layout fully
drenched

Greasy layout

PCB UV Exposure

The protective plastic layer is removed - peeled back - from the photosensitive
PCB. The toner side of the greased layout is placed on the copper of the PCB.
Captured air-bubbles are gently pressed away from underneath the layout. The
PCB with the layout is now covered with an appropriate sized windowpane and
placed on a piece of plain polished tile or marble. The tile or marble absorbs the
heat coming from the UV bulb, which is significant. Three to four minutes
300W bulb UV exposure from a distance of 30-40 cm will do the photo process.
Take care when finished and removing the PCB, it gets hot!

Page 59
Home-built UV exposure box with PCB with partly peeled back protective

300W UV bulb, plastic layer and `dried' layout

polished tile and window pane

Place layout with toner side on Cover PCB and layout with
copper of the PCB

Page 60
 window-pane

Exposure

PCB Development

The PCB is developed with a 1% solution of sodium hydroxide NaOH. You can
make this solvent by adding 10 gram of sodium hydroxide pellets to 1 liter of
water and mix it until everything is dissolved. Use a brush to speed up the
developing and clean the PCB during this process if the PCB is still greasy due
to the applied sunflower-seed oil. The developing process takes about 1 minute.
It is sometimes difficult to guess when the developing is finished. The traces
should become clear and the exposed photosensitive layer has dissolved (during
the brushing you see darker `cloud' coming off the PCB surface).

Page 61
PCB Etching

The developed PCB is etched with a 220 g/l solution of ammonium

peroxydisulfate (NH4)2S2O8 a.k.a. ammonium persulfate, 220 gram added to
1 liter of water and mix it until everything is dissolved. Theoretically it should
be possible to etch slightly more than 60 grams of copper with 1 liter etching
solution.

Assume an 50% efficiency, about 30 grams of copper. With a thickness of 35

m copper on your PCB this covers a copper area of about 1000 cm2.
Unfortunately the efficiency of the etching solution degrades, dissolved
ammonium peroxydisulfate decomposes slowly. You better make just enough
etching solution you need to etch.

For an etching tray of about 20 x 25 cm a minimum practical amount is 200-250

ml solution. So you dissolve about 44 grams ammonium peroxydisulfate into
200 ml or 55 grams into 250 ml water.

Page 62
Etching at ambient temperature might take over an hour, it is better to heat up
the etching solvent to about 35-45 degrees Celcius. The etching solution heating
up could be done in a magnetron, this takes about 40 to 60 seconds in a 850W
magnetron depending on the initial temperature of the etching solution (hint:
first try this with just water to determine the timer setting of the magnetron).
The etching - rocking the etching tray - takes about 15-30 minutes at this
temperature. If you have a heated, air-bubble circulated etching fluid tank
available, this is probably the fastest way to etch.
At higher temperatures the etching performance decreases. The etching process
is an exothermic reaction, it generates heat. Take care, cool your etching tray
when necessary! You should minimize the amount of copper to etch by creating
copper area in your PCB layout as much as possible.
When starting the etching process and little to etch it is difficult to keep the
etching solution at 35-45 degrees Celsius. It helps to fill for example the kitchen
sink with warm water and rock the etching tray in the filled kitchen sink.

When the ammonium peroxydisulfate is dissolved it is a clear liquid. After an

etching procedure it gradually becomes blue and deeper blue - the chemical
reaction creates dissolved copper sulfate CuSO4. Compared to other etching
chemicals like hydrated iron (III) chloride FeCl3.6H2O a.k.a. ferric chloride or
the combination of hydrochloric acid HCL and hydrogen peroxide H2O2, using
ammonium peroxydisulfate is a clean and safe method. Did you ever spilled
dissolved iron chloride on your clothes or your assumed stainless steel kitchen
sink? Do you really want to keep concentrated hydrochloric acid and hydrogen
peroxide at home? So, without doubt ammonium peroxydisulfate is the best
choice for etching at home. However, copper sulfate is a poisonous substance
and should be treated as chemical waste.

Page 63
Rock the etching tray The epoxy of the PCB becomes visible

Almost finished The etching solution colors slighty blue

Page 64
 Finished

Trouble shooting

The above mentioned exposure timing should be determined experimentally.

But even when the exposure timing is correct PCB etching failures could
happen because of low quality or too old photosensitive PCB, the
photosensitive layer has aged despite the protective plastic layer. Other possible
causes are too high concentration of development solution causing the
photosensitive part not exposed to light to be dissolved by the sodium
hydroxide solution as well. When developing too short not all of the copper of
the PCB will be etched. Developing might take some experimenting to get used
to it and know what to expect. Furthermore set the toner density of your laser
printer driver always to maximum.

Page 65
More examples

Page 66
Drilling:
Holes through a PCB are typically drilled with small-diameter drill bits made of
solid coated tungsten carbide. Coated tungsten carbide is recommended since
many board materials are very abrasive and drilling must be high RPM and high
feed to be cost effective. Drill bits must also remain sharp to not mar or tear the
traces. Drilling with high-speed-steel is simply not feasible since the drill bits
will dull quickly and thus tear the copper and ruin the boards. The drilling is
performed by automated drilling machines with placement controlled by a drill
tape or drill file. These computer-generated files are also called numerically
controlled drill (NCD) files or "Excellon files". The drill file describes the
location and size of each drilled hole. These holes are often filled with annular
rings (hollow rivets) to create vias. Vias allow the electrical and thermal
connection of conductors on opposite sides of the PCB.
When very small vias are required, drilling with mechanical bits is costly
because of high rates of wear and breakage. In this case, the vias may be
evaporated by lasers. Laser-drilled vias typically have an inferior surface finish
inside the hole. These holes are called micro vias.
It is also possible with controlled-depth drilling, laser drilling, or by pre-drilling
the individual sheets of the PCB before lamination, to produce holes that

Page 67
connect only some of the copper layers, rather than passing through the entire
board. These holes are called blind vias when they connect an internal copper
layer to an outer layer, or buried vias when they connect two or more internal
copper layers and no outer layers.
The walls of the holes, for boards with 2 or more layers, are made conductive
then plated with copper to form plated-through holes that electrically connect
the conducting layers of the PCB. For multilayer boards, those with 4 layers or
more, drilling typically produces a smear of the high temperature
decomposition products of bonding agent in the laminate system. Before the
holes can be plated through, this smear must be removed by a chemical de-
smear process, or by plasma-etch. Removing (etching back) the smear also
reveals the interior conductors as well.

SOLDERING:

Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together by
melting and flowing a filler metal (solder) into the joint, the filler metal having
a lower melting point than the work piece. Soldering differs from welding in
that soldering does not involve melting the work pieces.
There are three forms of soldering, each requiring higher temperatures and each
producing an increasingly stronger joint strength soft soldering, which
originally used a tin-lead alloy as the filler metal silver soldering, which uses an
alloy containing silver, brazing which uses a brass alloy for the filler.
The alloy of the filler metal for each type of soldering can be adjusted to modify
the melting temperature of the filler. Soldering appears to be a hot glue process,
but it differs from gluing significantly in that the filler metals alloy with the
workpiece at the junction to form a gas- and liquid-tight bond.
Soft soldering is characterized by having a melting point of the filler metal
below approximately 400 C (752 F), whereas silver soldering and brazing use
higher temperatures, typically requiring a flame or carbon arc torch to achieve

Page 68
the melting of the filler. Soft solder filler metals are typically alloys (often
containing lead) that have liquid us temperatures below 350C.

In the soldering process, heat is applied to the parts to be joined, causing the
solder to melt and to bond to the work pieces in an alloying process called
wetting. In stranded wire, the solder is drawn up into the wire by capillary
action in a process called 'wicking'. Capillary action also takes place when the
work pieces are very close together or touching. The joint strength is dependent
on the filler metal used, where soft solder is the weakest and the brass alloy
used for brazing is the strongest. Soldering, which uses metal to join metal in a
molecular bond has electrical conductivity and is water- and gas-tight.

BIBLIOGRAPHY/REFERENCES

BOOKS :

1. Electronic devices and circuit theory by J.B Gupta.

2. Electronic projects by Varun Bansal.

3. Microelectronic circuits by Sedra and Smith.

4. Electronic for you by J.B Gupta.

5. 8051 and embedded system by Mazidi and Mazidi.

Page 69
WEBSITES:

About ATmega8 from www.atmel.com

www.ijres.org

www.triindia.co.in

www.8051projects.net

Page 70