Radio-frequency identication

nature data structure for RFID and barcodes providing

data, source and read method authenticity. This work is
done within ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 31 Automatic identica-
tion and data capture techniques.
In 2014, the world RFID market is worth US$8.89 bil-
lion, up from US$7.77 billion in 2013 and US$6.96
billion in 2012. This includes tags, readers, and soft-
ware/services for RFID cards, labels, fobs, and all other
form factors. The market value is expected to rise to
US$18.68 billion by 2026.[3]

1 History
See also: History of radar
In 1945, Lon Theremin invented an espionage tool

Small RFID chips, here compared to a grain of rice, are incor-

porated in consumer products, and implanted in pets, for identi-
cation purposes

Radio-frequency identication (RFID) uses

electromagnetic elds to automatically identify and
track tags attached to objects. The tags contain elec-
tronically stored information. Passive tags collect energy
from a nearby RFID readers interrogating radio waves.
Active tags have a local power source such as a battery
and may operate at hundreds of meters from the RFID
reader. Unlike a barcode, the tag need not be within the
line of sight of the reader, so it may be embedded in FasTrak, an RFID tag used for electronic toll collection in Cali-
the tracked object. RFID is one method for Automatic fornia
Identication and Data Capture (AIDC).[1]
RFID tags are used in many industries, for example, for the Soviet Union which retransmitted incident ra-
an RFID tag attached to an automobile during produc- dio waves with the audio information. Sound waves vi-
tion can be used to track its progress through the assem- brated a diaphragm which slightly altered the shape of the
bly line; RFID-tagged pharmaceuticals can be tracked resonator, which modulated the reected radio frequency.
through warehouses; and implanting RFID microchips Even though this device was a covert listening device, not
in livestock and pets allows positive identication of ani-an identication tag, it is considered to be a predecessor
mals. of RFID, because it was likewise passive, being energized
[4]
Since RFID tags can be attached to cash, clothing, and and activated by waves from an outside source.
possessions, or implanted in animals and people, the pos- Similar technology, such as the IFF transponder, was rou-
sibility of reading personally-linked information without tinely used by the allies and Germany in World War II
consent has raised serious privacy concerns.[2] These con- to identify aircraft as friend or foe. Transponders are
cerns resulted in standard specications development ad- still used by most powered aircraft to this day. Another
dressing privacy and security issues. ISO/IEC 18000 and early work exploring RFID is the landmark 1948 paper
ISO/IEC 29167 use on-chip cryptography methods for by Harry Stockman.[5] Stockman predicted that "... con-
untraceability, tag and reader authentication, and over- siderable research and development work has to be done
the-air privacy. ISO/IEC 20248 species a digital sig- before the remaining basic problems in reected-power

1
2 2 DESIGN

communication are solved, and before the eld of useful cuit for storing and processing information, modulating
applications is explored. and demodulating a radio-frequency (RF) signal, collect-
Mario Cardullo's device, patented on January 23, 1973, ing DC power from the incident reader signal, and other
was the rst true ancestor[6] of modern RFID, as it was a specialized functions; and an antenna for receiving and
passive radio transponder with memory.[7] The initial de- transmitting the signal. The tag information is stored in a
vice was passive, powered by the interrogating signal, and non-volatile memory. The RFID tag includes either xed
was demonstrated in 1971 to the New York Port Author- or programmable logic for processing the transmission
ity and other potential users and consisted of a transpon- and sensor data, respectively.
der with 16 bit memory for use as a toll device. The An RFID reader transmits an encoded radio signal to in-
basic Cardullo patent covers the use of RF, sound and terrogate the tag. The RFID tag receives the message and
light as transmission media. The original business plan then responds with its identication and other informa-
presented to investors in 1969 showed uses in transporta- tion. This may be only a unique tag serial number, or may
tion (automotive vehicle identication, automatic toll sys- be product-related information such as a stock number,
tem, electronic license plate, electronic manifest, vehicle lot or batch number, production date, or other specic
routing, vehicle performance monitoring), banking (elec- information. Since tags have individual serial numbers,
tronic check book, electronic credit card), security (per- the RFID system design can discriminate among several
sonnel identication, automatic gates, surveillance) and tags that might be within the range of the RFID reader
medical (identication, patient history).[6] and read them simultaneously.
An early demonstration of reected power (modulated
backscatter) RFID tags, both passive and semi-passive,
2.2 Readers
was performed by Steven Depp, Alfred Koelle, and
Robert Frayman at the Los Alamos National Laboratory
RFID systems can be classied by the type of tag and
in 1973.[8] The portable system operated at 915 MHz and
reader. A Passive Reader Active Tag (PRAT) system
used 12-bit tags. This technique is used by the majority
has a passive reader which only receives radio signals
of todays UHFID and microwave RFID tags.[9]
from active tags (battery operated, transmit only). The
The rst patent to be associated with the abbreviation reception range of a PRAT system reader can be adjusted
RFID was granted to Charles Walton in 1983.[10] from 12,000 feet (0600 m), allowing exibility in ap-
plications such as asset protection and supervision.
An Active Reader Passive Tag (ARPT) system has an
2 Design active reader, which transmits interrogator signals and
also receives authentication replies from passive tags.
2.1 Tags An Active Reader Active Tag (ARAT) system uses ac-
tive tags awoken with an interrogator signal from the ac-
A radio-frequency identication system uses tags, or la- tive reader. A variation of this system could also use a
bels attached to the objects to be identied. Two-way Battery-Assisted Passive (BAP) tag which acts like a pas-
radio transmitter-receivers called interrogators or readers sive tag but has a small battery to power the tags return
send a signal to the tag and read its response. reporting signal.
RFID tags can be either passive, active or battery-assisted Fixed readers are set up to create a specic interrogation
passive. An active tag has an on-board battery and peri- zone which can be tightly controlled. This allows a highly
odically transmits its ID signal. A battery-assisted pas- dened reading area for when tags go in and out of the
sive (BAP) has a small battery on board and is activated interrogation zone. Mobile readers may be hand-held or
when in the presence of an RFID reader. A passive tag mounted on carts or vehicles.
is cheaper and smaller because it has no battery; instead,
the tag uses the radio energy transmitted by the reader.
However, to operate a passive tag, it must be illuminated 2.3 Frequencies
with a power level roughly a thousand times stronger than
for signal transmission. That makes a dierence in inter- 2.4 Signaling
ference and in exposure to radiation.
Signaling between the reader and the tag is done in sev-
Tags may either be read-only, having a factory-assigned eral dierent incompatible ways, depending on the fre-
serial number that is used as a key into a database, or may
quency band used by the tag. Tags operating on LF and
be read/write, where object-specic data can be written HF bands are, in terms of radio wavelength, very close to
into the tag by the system user. Field programmable tags the reader antenna because they are only a small percent-
may be write-once, read-multiple; blank tags may be age of a wavelength away. In this near eld region, the
written with an electronic product code by the user. tag is closely coupled electrically with the transmitter in
RFID tags contain at least two parts: an integrated cir- the reader. The tag can modulate the eld produced by
 3

the reader by changing the electrical loading the tag rep- in order to study their behavior.[16] This trend towards
resents. By switching between lower and higher relative increasingly miniaturized RFIDs is likely to continue as
loads, the tag produces a change that the reader can de- technology advances.
tect. At UHF and higher frequencies, the tag is more than Hitachi holds the record for the smallest RFID chip, at
one radio wavelength away from the reader, requiring a 0.05 mm 0.05 mm. This is 1/64th the size of the
dierent approach. The tag can backscatter a signal. Ac- previous record holder, the mu-chip.[17] Manufacture is
tive tags may contain functionally separated transmitters enabled by using the silicon-on-insulator (SOI) process.
and receivers, and the tag need not respond on a frequency These dust-sized chips can store 38-digit numbers using
related to the readers interrogation signal.[13]
128-bit Read Only Memory (ROM).[18] A major chal-
An Electronic Product Code (EPC) is one common type lenge is the attachment of antennas, thus limiting read
of data stored in a tag. When written into the tag by an range to only millimeters.
RFID printer, the tag contains a 96-bit string of data. The
rst eight bits are a header which identies the version of
the protocol. The next 28 bits identify the organization 3 Uses
that manages the data for this tag; the organization num-
ber is assigned by the EPCGlobal consortium. The next
The RFID tag can be axed to an object and used to
24 bits are an object class, identifying the kind of product;
track and manage inventory, assets, people, etc. For ex-
the last 36 bits are a unique serial number for a particu-
ample, it can be axed to cars, computer equipment,
lar tag. These last two elds are set by the organization
books, mobile phones, etc.
that issued the tag. Rather like a URL, the total electronic
product code number can be used as a key into a global RFID oers advantages over manual systems or use of
database to uniquely identify a particular product.[14] bar codes. The tag can be read if passed near a reader,
even if it is covered by the object or not visible. The tag
Often more than one tag will respond to a tag reader,
can be read inside a case, carton, box or other container,
for example, many individual products with tags may be
and unlike barcodes, RFID tags can be read hundreds at
shipped in a common box or on a common pallet. Colli-
a time. Bar codes can only be read one at a time using
sion detection is important to allow reading of data. Two
current devices.
dierent types of protocols are used to singulate a par-
ticular tag, allowing its data to be read in the midst of In 2011, the cost of passive tags started at US$0.09 each;
many similar tags. In a slotted Aloha system, the reader special tags, meant to be mounted on metal or withstand
broadcasts an initialization command and a parameter gamma sterilization, can go up to US$5. Active tags for
that the tags individually use to pseudo-randomly delay tracking containers, medical assets, or monitoring envi-
their responses. When using an adaptive binary tree ronmental conditions in data centers start at US$50 and
protocol, the reader sends an initialization symbol and can go up over US$100 each. Battery-Assisted Passive
then transmits one bit of ID data at a time; only tags (BAP) tags are in the US$310 range and also have sen-
with matching bits respond, and eventually only one tag sor capability like temperature and humidity.
matches the complete ID string.[15] RFID can be used in a variety of applications,[19][20] such
as:

Access management

Tracking of goods

Tracking of persons and animals

Toll collection and contactless payment

An example of a binary tree method of identifying an RFID tag
Machine readable travel documents
Both methods have drawbacks when used with many tags Smartdust (for massively distributed sensor net-
or with multiple overlapping readers. Bulk reading is a works)
strategy for interrogating multiple tags at the same time,
but lacks sucient precision for inventory control. Tracking sports memorabilia to verify authenticity

Airport baggage tracking logistics[21]

2.5 Miniaturization
Timing sporting events
RFIDs are easy to conceal or incorporate in other items.
For example, in 2009 researchers at Bristol University In 2010 three factors drove a signicant increase in RFID
successfully glued RFID micro-transponders to live ants usage: decreased cost of equipment and tags, increased
4 3 USES

Electronic key for RFID based lock system

Electronic Lock with RFID Card System, ANSI

performance to a reliability of 99.9% and a stable interna-

tional standard around UHF passive RFID. The adoption
of these standards were driven by EPCglobal, a joint ven-
ture between GS1 and GS1 US, which were responsible
for driving global adoption of the barcode in the 1970s An EPC RFID tag used by Wal-Mart.
and 1980s. The EPCglobal Network was developed by
the Auto-ID Center.[22]

3.1 Commerce

RFID provides a way for organizations to identify and

manage tools and equipment (asset tracking) , without
manual data entry. RFID is being adopted for item level
tagging in retail stores. This provides electronic article
surveillance (EAS), and a self checkout process for con-
sumers. Automatic identication with RFID can be used
for inventory systems. Manufactured products such as au- Sewn-in RFID label in garment manufactured by the French
tomobiles or garments can be tracked through the factory sports supplier Decathlon. Front, back, and transparency scan.
and through shipping to the customer.
Casinos can use RFID to authenticate poker chips, and have published requirements that their vendors place
can selectively invalidate any chips known to be stolen.[23] RFID tags on all shipments to improve supply chain man-
Wal-Mart and the United States Department of Defense agement.
3.2 Transportation and logistics 5

3.1.1 Access control 3.2 Transportation and logistics

Yard management, shipping and freight and distribution

centers use RFID tracking. In the railroad industry, RFID
tags mounted on locomotives and rolling stock identify
the owner, identication number and type of equipment
and its characteristics. This can be used with a database
to identify the lading, origin, destination, etc. of the com-
modities being carried.[27]
In commercial aviation, RFID is used to support main-
tenance on commercial aircraft. RFID tags are used
to identify baggage and cargo at several airports and
airlines.[28][29]
Some countries are using RFID for vehicle registration
and enforcement.[30] RFID can help detect and retrieve
stolen cars.[31][32]

3.2.1 Intelligent transportation systems

RFID antenna for vehicular access control

RFID tags are widely used in identication badges, re-

placing earlier magnetic stripe cards. These badges need
only be held within a certain distance of the reader to au-
thenticate the holder. Tags can also be placed on vehi-
cles, which can be read at a distance, to allow entrance
to controlled areas without having to stop the vehicle and RFID E-ZPass reader attached to the pole and antenna (right)
used in trac monitoring in New York City
present a card or enter an access code.

RFID is used in intelligent transportation systems. In

3.1.2 Advertising New York City, RFID readers are deployed at intersec-
tions to track E-ZPass tags as a means for monitoring the
In 2010 Vail Resorts began using UHF Passive RFID tags trac ow. The data is fed through the broadband wire-
in ski passes. Facebook is using RFID cards at most of less infrastructure to the trac management center to be
their live events to allow guests to automatically capture used in adaptive trac control of the trac lights.[33]
and post photos. The automotive brands have adopted
RFID for social media product placement more quickly
than other industries. Mercedes was an early adopter in
3.2.2 Hose stations and conveyance of uids
2011 at the PGA Golf Championships,[24] and by the
2013 Geneva Motor Show many of the larger brands were
The RFID antenna in a permanently installed cou-
using RFID for social media marketing.[25]
pling half (xed part) unmistakably identies the RFID
transponder placed in the other coupling half (free part)
3.1.3 Promotion tracking after completed coupling. When connected the transpon-
der of the free part transmits all important information
To prevent retailers diverting products, manufacturers contactless to the xed part. The couplings location can
are exploring the use of RFID tags on promoted merchan- be clearly identied by the RFID transponder coding.
dise so that they can track exactly which product has sold The control is enabled to automatically start subsequent
through the supply chain at fully discounted prices.[26] process steps.
6 3 USES

3.2.3 Track & Trace test vehicles and prototype Canada (2013).
parts Standards for RFID passports are determined by the
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), and
In the automotive industry RFID is used to Track & Trace
are contained in ICAO Document 9303, Part 1, Vol-
test vehicles and prototype parts (project Transparent
umes 1 and 2 (6th edition, 2006). ICAO refers to the
Prototype).
ISO/IEC 14443 RFID chips in e-passports as contact-
less integrated circuits. ICAO standards provide for e-
3.3 Public transport passports to be identiable by a standard e-passport logo
on the front cover.
RFID cards are used for access control to public trans- Since 2006, RFID tags included in new United States
port. passports will store the same information that is printed
In London travellers use Oyster Cards on the tube, buses within [36] the passport, and include a digital picture of the
and ferries. It identies the traveller at each turnstile and owner. The United States Department of State initially
so the system can calculate the fare. stated the chips could only be read from a distance of 10
centimetres (3.9 in), but after widespread criticism and a
In the Chicago area, riders use the open standard Ventra clear demonstration that special equipment can read the
card to board CTA buses and trains, along with PACE test passports from 10 metres (33 ft) away,[37] the pass-
buses. ports were designed to incorporate a thin metal lining to
In Ontario, Canada, riders in the GTA and Ottawa Area make it more dicult for unauthorized readers to "skim"
use the Presto card to board trains, buses and street cars information when the passport is closed. The department
across multiple dierent transit companies. will also implement Basic Access Control (BAC), which
functions as a personal identication number (PIN) in the
In Melbourne Australia, Public Transport Victoria uses form of characters printed on the passport data page. Be-
RFID-based Myki tickets across the train, tram and bus fore a passports tag can be read, this PIN must be en-
networks. tered into an RFID reader. The BAC also enables the
In northwest Italy (Piedmont region), BIP card uses RFID encryption of any communication between the chip and
Smart_card based on Calypso (electronic ticketing sys- interrogator.[38] As noted in the section below on secu-
tem) technology to enable travellers to use dierents rity, there are many situations in which these protections
MOT including bike and car sharing. It includes also mu- have been shown to be insucient, and passports have
seums and libraries pass. been cloned based on scans of them while they were be-
ing delivered in the mail.

3.4 Infrastructure management and pro-

tection 3.6 Transportation payments
At least one company has introduced RFID to identify In many countries, RFID tags can be used to pay for mass
and locate underground infrastructure assets such as gas transit fares on bus, trains, or subways, or to collect tolls
pipelines, sewer lines, electrical cables, communication on highways.
cables, etc.[34]
Some bike lockers are operated with RFID cards assigned
to individual users. A prepaid card is required to open or
3.5 Passports enter a facility or locker and is used to track and charge
based on how long the bike is parked.
See also: Biometric passport The Zipcar car-sharing service uses RFID cards for lock-
ing and unlocking cars and for member identication.[39]
The rst RFID passports ("E-passport") were issued by In Singapore, RFID replaces paper Season Parking Ticket
Malaysia in 1998. In addition to information also con- (SPT).[40]
tained on the visual data page of the passport, Malaysian
e-passports record the travel history (time, date, and
place) of entries and exits from the country. 3.7 Animal identication
Other countries that insert RFID in passports include
Norway (2005),[35] Japan (March 1, 2006), most EU RFID tags for animals represent one of the oldest uses of
countries (around 2006), Australia, Hong Kong, the RFID. Originally meant for large ranches and rough ter-
United States (2007), India (June 2008), Serbia (July rain, since the outbreak of mad-cow disease, RFID has
2008), Republic of Korea (August 2008), Taiwan (De- become crucial in animal identication management. An
cember 2008), Albania (January 2009), The Philip- implantable RFID tag or transponder can also be used
pines (August 2009), Republic of Macedonia (2010), and for animal identication. The transponders are better
3.9 Institutions 7

known as PIT (Passive Integrated Transponder) tags, pas- to the emergence of an ultimate panopticon", a society
sive RFID, or "chips" on animals.[41] The Canadian Cattle where all citizens behave in a socially accepted manner
Identication Agency began using RFID tags as a replace- because others might be watching.[48]
ment for barcode tags. Currently CCIA tags are used in There is much controversy regarding human applications
Wisconsin and by United States farmers on a voluntary of this technology. On July 22, 2006, Reuters reported
basis. The USDA is currently developing its own pro- that two hackers, Newitz and Westhues, at a confer-
gram. ence in New York City showed that they could clone
RFID tags are required for all cattle, sheep and goats sold the RFID signal from a human implanted RFID chip,
in Australia.[42] showing that the chip is not hack-proof as was previously
claimed.[49] Privacy advocates have protested against im-
plantable RFID chips, warning of potential abuse.
3.8 Human identication

3.9 Institutions

3.9.1 Hospitals and healthcare

In healthcare, there is a need for increased visibility, e-

ciency, and gathering of data around relevant interactions.
RFID tracking solutions are able to help healthcare facil-
ities manage mobile medical equipment, improve patient
workow, monitor environmental conditions, and protect
patients, sta and visitors from infection or other hazards.
Adoption of RFID in the medical industry has been
widespread and very eective. Hospitals are among the
rst users to combine both active and passive RFID.
Many successful deployments in the healthcare indus-
try have been cited where active technology tracks high-
value, or frequently moved items, where passive tech-
nology tracks smaller, lower cost items that only need
room-level identication.[50] For example, medical facil-
ity rooms can collect data from transmissions of RFID
badges worn by patients and employees, as well as from
tags assigned to facility assets, such as mobile medical
devices.[51] The U.S. Department of Veterans Aairs
(VA) recently announced plans to deploy RFID in hospi-
tals across America to improve care and reduce costs.[52]
An RFID microchip implant
A physical RFID tag may be incorporated with browser-
Implantable RFID chips designed for animal tagging are based software to increase its ecacy. This software al-
lows for dierent groups or specic hospital sta, nurses,
now being used in humans. The rst reported experi-
ment with RFID implants was conducted by British pro- and patients to see real-time data relevant to each piece of
tracked equipment or personnel. Real-time data is stored
fessor of cybernetics Kevin Warwick, who had an RFID
chip implanted in his arm, by his general practitioner and archived to make use of historical reporting function-
George Boulos, in 1998.[43] In 2004 Conrad Chase of- ality and to prove compliance with various industry regu-
fered implanted chips in his night clubs in Barcelona[44] lations. This combination of RFID real-time locating sys-
and Rotterdam to identify their VIP customers, who in tem hardware and software provides a powerful data col-
turn use it to pay for drinks. lection tool for facilities seeking to improve operational
eciency and reduce costs.
The Food and Drug Administration in the United States
has approved the use of RFID chips in humans.[45] Some The trend is toward using ISO 18000-6c as the tag of
business establishments give customers the option of us- choice and combining an active tagging system that re-
ing an RFID-based tab to pay for service, such as the Baja lies on existing 802.11X wireless infrastructure for active
Beach nightclub in Barcelona.[46] This has provoked con- tags.
cerns into privacy of individuals as they can potentially be Since 2004 a number of U.S. hospitals have be-
tracked wherever they go by an identier unique to them. gun implanting patients with RFID tags and using
Some are concerned this could lead to abuse by an au- RFID systems, usually for workow and inventory
thoritarian government, to removal of freedoms,[47] and management.[53][54][55] The use of RFID to prevent mix-
8 3 USES

ups between sperm and ova in IVF clinics is also being conveyor belt, which reduces sta time. This can all be
considered.[56] done by the borrowers themselves, reducing the need for
In October 2004, the FDA approved USAs rst RFID library sta assistance. With portable readers, invento-
chips that can be implanted in humans. The 134 kHz ries could be done on a whole shelf of materials within
[60]
RFID chips, from VeriChip Corp. can incorporate per- seconds. However, as of 2008 this technology remains
sonal medical information and could save lives and limit too costly for many smaller libraries, and the conversion
injuries from errors in medical treatments, according to period has been estimated at 11 months for an average-
the company. Anti-RFID activists Katherine Albrecht size library. A 2004 Dutch estimate was that a library
which lends 100,000 books per year should plan on a cost
and Liz McIntyre discovered an FDA Warning Letter
that spelled out health risks.[57] According to the FDA, of 50,000 (borrow- and return-stations: 12,500 each,
detection porches 10,000 each; tags 0.36 each). RFID
these include adverse tissue reaction, migration of the
implanted transponder, failure of implanted transpon- taking a large burden o sta could also mean that fewer
sta will be needed, resulting in some of them getting laid
der, electrical hazards and magnetic resonance imag-
ing [MRI] incompatibility. o,[59] but that has so far not happened in North Amer-
ica where recent surveys have not returned a single library
that cut sta because of adding RFID. In fact, library bud-
3.9.2 Libraries gets are being reduced for personnel and increased for in-
frastructure, making it necessary for libraries to add au-
tomation to compensate for the reduced sta size. Also,
the tasks that RFID takes over are largely not the pri-
mary tasks of librarians. A nding in the Netherlands
is that borrowers are pleased with the fact that sta are
now more available for answering questions.
Privacy concerns have been raised surrounding library
use of RFID. Because some RFID tags can be read from
up to 100 metres (330 ft), there is some concern over
whether sensitive information could be collected from an
unwilling source. However, library RFID tags do not con-
tain any patron information,[61] and the tags used in the
majority of libraries use a frequency only readable from
approximately 10 feet (3.0 m).[58] Further, another non-
library agency could potentially record the RFID tags of
every person leaving the library without the library ad-
ministrators knowledge or consent. One simple option is
to let the book transmit a code that has meaning only in
conjunction with the librarys database. Another possible
enhancement would be to give each book a new code ev-
ery time it is returned. In future, should readers become
ubiquitous (and possibly networked), then stolen books
RFID tags used in libraries: square book tag, round CD/DVD tag could be traced even outside the library. Tag removal
and rectangular VHS tag could be made dicult if the tags are so small that they
t invisibly inside a (random) page, possibly put there by
Libraries have used RFID to replace the barcodes on li- the publisher.
brary items. The tag can contain identifying information
or may just be a key into a database. An RFID system
may replace or supplement bar codes and may oer an- 3.9.3 Museums
other method of inventory management and self-service
checkout by patrons. It can also act as a security device, RFID technologies are now also implemented in end-user
taking the place of the more traditional electromagnetic applications in museums. An example was the custom-
security strip.[58] designed temporary research application, eXspot, at the
Exploratorium, a science museum in San Francisco, Cal-
It is estimated that over 30 million library items world- ifornia. A visitor entering the museum received an RF
wide now contain RFID tags, including some in the Tag that could be carried as a card. The eXspot system
Vatican Library in Rome.[59] enabled the visitor to receive information about specic
Since RFID tags can be read through an item, there is exhibits. Aside from the exhibit information, the visitor
no need to open a book cover or DVD case to scan an could take photographs of themselves at the exhibit. It
item, and a stack of books can be read simultaneously. was also intended to allow the visitor to take data for later
Book tags can be read while books are in motion on a analysis. The collected information could be retrieved at
3.10 Sports 9

home from a personalized website keyed to the RFID

tag.[62]

3.9.4 Schools and universities

School authorities in the Japanese city of Osaka are now

chipping childrens clothing, backpacks, and student IDs
in a primary school.[63] A school in Doncaster, England
is piloting a monitoring system designed to keep tabs on
pupils by tracking radio chips in their uniforms.[64] St
Charles Sixth Form College in west London, England,
started September, 2008, is using an RFID card system
to check in and out of the main gate, to both track at-
tendance and prevent unauthorized entrance. Similarly, J-Chip 8-channel receiver next to timing mat. The athlete wears
Whitclie Mount School in Cleckheaton, England uses a chip on a strap around his ankle. Ironman Germany 2007 in
RFID to track pupils and sta in and out of the building Frankfurt.
via a specially designed card. In the Philippines, some
schools already use RFID in IDs for borrowing books and
also gates in those particular schools have RFID ID scan- to be about 400mm from the mat and so give very good
ners for buying items at a school shop and canteen, library temporal resolution. Alternatively a chip plus a very large
and also to sign in and sign out for student and teachers (a 125mm square) antenna can be incorporated into the
attendance. bib number worn on the athletes chest at about 1.25m
height.
Passive and active RFID systems are used in o-road
3.10 Sports events such as Orienteering, Enduro and Hare and
Hounds racing. Riders have a transponder on their per-
son, normally on their arm. When they complete a lap
they swipe or touch the receiver which is connected to a
computer and log their lap time.
RFID is being adapted by many recruitment agencies
which have a PET (Physical Endurance Test) as their
qualifying procedure especially in cases where the candi-
date volumes may run into millions (Indian Railway Re-
cruitment Cells, Police and Power sector).
A number of ski resorts have adopted RFID tags to pro-
vide skiers hands-free access to ski lifts. Skiers do not
have to take their passes out of their pockets. Ski jack-
ets have a left pocket into which the chip+card ts. This
nearly contacts the sensor unit on the left of the turnstile
as the skier pushes through to the lift. These systems were
ChampionChip
based on high frequency (HF) at 13.56 megahertz. The
bulk of ski areas in Europe, from Verbier to Chamonix
RFID for timing races began in the early 1990s with pi- use these systems.[65][66][67]
geon racing, introduced by the company Deister Elec-
tronics in Germany. RFID can provide race start and end The NFL in the United States equips players with RFID
timings for individuals in large races where it is impossi- chips that measures speed, distance and direction trav-
ble to get accurate stopwatch readings for every entrant. eled by each player in real-time. Currently cameras stay
focused on the quarterback, however, numerous plays are
In the race, the racers wear tags that are read by antennas happening simultaneously on the eld. The RFID chip
placed alongside the track or on mats across the track. will provide new insight into these simultaneous plays.[68]
UHF tags provide accurate readings with specially de- The chip triangulates the players position within six
signed antennas. Rush error, lap count errors and acci- inches and will be used to digitally broadcast replays. The
dents at start time are avoided since anyone can start and RFID chip will make individual player information acces-
nish any time without being in a batch mode. sible to the public. The data will be available via the NFL
The design of chip+antenna controls the range from 2015 app.[69] The RFID chips are manufactured by Zebra
which it can be read. Short range compact chips are twist Technologies. Zebra Technologies tested the RFID chip
tied to the shoe or velcro strapped the ankle. These need in 18 stadiums last year to track vector data.[70]
10 5 REGULATION AND STANDARDIZATION

3.11 Complement to barcode tags may be found in future supply chain scenarios. The
main advantage in comparison to traditional RFID tags
RFID tags are often a complement, but not a substitute, is their low price and the usually employed oine preag-
for UPC or EAN barcodes. They may never completely gregation of data to the class level.
replace barcodes, due in part to their higher cost and Unlike most other RFID chips (which use radio
the advantage of multiple data sources on the same ob- frequencies of 0.1250.1342, 0.1400.1485, 13.56,
ject. Also, unlike RFID labels, barcodes can be generated and 868928 MHz), optical RFID operates in the
and distributed electronically, e.g. via e-mail or mobile electromagnetic spectrum between the frequencies of 333
phone, for printing or display by the recipient. An exam- THz (3.331014 hertz, 900 nm) and 380 THz (788 nm)
ple is airline boarding passes. The new EPC, along with and 750 THz (400 nm). The tag information is com-
several other schemes, is widely available at reasonable municated to the reader by reecting the read request.
cost. Parts of the incoming signal are ltered by the tag in a
The storage of data associated with tracking items will well-dened way as it is sent back to the reader. On the
require many terabytes. Filtering and categorizing RFID readers side, the tag data can be deduced by analysing
data is needed to create useful information. It is likely the pattern used for ltering.[72] As an alternative to re-
that goods will be tracked by the pallet using RFID tags, ection mode, active circuits can be used, replacing awk-
and at package level with Universal Product Code (UPC) ward RFID antennae with photovoltaic components and
or EAN from unique barcodes. IR-LEDs on the ICs.One of the earliest examples of Op-
tical RFID is RFIG: Radio Frequency Identity and Ge-
The unique identity is a mandatory requirement for RFID
ometry, by Ramesh Raskar, Paul Dietz, Paul Beardsley
tags, despite special choice of the numbering scheme.
and colleagues. This combines an optical tag with a RF
RFID tag data capacity is large enough that each individ-
tag to provide ID as well as geometric operations, such as
ual tag will have a unique code, while current bar codes
location, pose, motion, orientation and change detection.
are limited to a single type code for a particular product.
The uniqueness of RFID tags means that a product may Regarding privacy, optical RFID provides much more
be tracked as it moves from location to location, nally protection against abuse than RFID based on common
ending up in the consumers hands. This may help to com- electromagnetic waves. This is mainly because line-of-
bat theft and other forms of product loss. The tracing of sight is required for malicious read out. Such an attack
products is an important feature that gets well supported can easily be prevented with low cost optical RFID sight
with RFID tags containing a unique identity of the tag and blockers. Nevertheless, if needed some penetration of
also the serial number of the object. This may help com- solids and liquids can be achieved e.g. with near-IR wave-
panies cope with quality deciencies and resulting recall lengths.
campaigns, but also contributes to concern about tracking
and proling of consumers after the sale.
5 Regulation and standardization
3.12 Telemetry
A number of organizations have set standards for RFID,
including the International Organization for Standardiza-
Active RFID tags also have the potential to function as
tion (ISO), the International Electrotechnical Commis-
low-cost remote sensors that broadcast telemetry back to
sion (IEC), ASTM International, the DASH7 Alliance
a base station. Applications of tagometry data could in-
and EPCglobal.
clude sensing of road conditions by implanted beacons,
[71] There are also several specic industries that have set
weather reports, and noise level monitoring.
guidelines. These industries include the Financial Ser-
Passive RFID tags can also report sensor data. For ex-
vices Technology Consortium (FSTC) which has set a
ample, the Wireless Identication and Sensing Platform
standard for tracking IT Assets with RFID, the Com-
is a passive tag that reports temperature, acceleration and
puter Technology Industry Association CompTIA which
capacitance to commercial Gen2 RFID readers.
has set a standard for certifying RFID engineers, and the
It is possible that active or battery-assisted passive (BAP) International Airlines Transport Association IATA which
RFID tags, could broadcast a signal to an in-store receiver has set tagging guidelines for luggage in airports.
to determine whether the RFID tag (product) is in the
In principle, every country can set its own rules for
store.
frequency allocation for RFID tags, and not all radio
bands are available in all countries. These frequencies are
known as the ISM bands (Industrial Scientic and Med-
4 Optical RFID ical bands). The return signal of the tag may still cause
interference for other radio users.
Optical RFID (aka OPID) is an alternative to RFID that is
based on optical readers. Applications for optical RFID Low-frequency (LF: 125134.2 kHz and 140148.5
 11

kHz) (LowFID) tags and high-frequency (HF: 13.56 Part 3: Parameters for air interface communi-
MHz) (HighFID) tags can be used globally without cations at 13.56 MHz
a license. Part 4: Parameters for air interface communi-
cations at 2.45 GHz
Ultra-high-frequency (UHF: 865928 MHz) (Ultra-
HighFID or UHFID) tags cannot be used globally Part 6: Parameters for air interface communi-
as there is no single global standard and regulations cations at 860960 MHz
dier from country to country. Part 7: Parameters for active air interface
communications at 433 MHz
In North America, UHF can be used unlicensed for 902 ISO/IEC 18092 Information technology
928 MHz (13 MHz from the 915 MHz center fre- Telecommunications and information exchange
quency), but restrictions exist for transmission power. In between systemsNear Field Communication
Europe, RFID and other low-power radio applications are Interface and Protocol (NFCIP-1)
regulated by ETSI recommendations EN 300 220 and
EN 302 208, and ERO recommendation 70 03, allow- ISO 18185: This is the industry standard for elec-
ing RFID operation with somewhat complex band restric- tronic seals or e-seals for tracking cargo containers
tions from 865868 MHz. Readers are required to moni- using the 433 MHz and 2.4 GHz frequencies.
tor a channel before transmitting (Listen Before Talk); ISO/IEC 21481 Information technology
this requirement has led to some restrictions on perfor- Telecommunications and information exchange
mance, the resolution of which is a subject of current between systemsNear Field Communication
research. The North American UHF standard is not ac- Interface and Protocol 2 (NFCIP-2)
cepted in France as it interferes with its military bands.
On July 25, 2012, Japan changed its UHF band to 920 ASTM D7434, Standard Test Method for Determin-
MHz, more closely matching the United States 915 MHz ing the Performance of Passive Radio Frequency
band. Identication (RFID) Transponders on Palletized or
Unitized Loads
In some countries, a site license is needed, which needs to
be applied for at the local authorities, and can be revoked. ASTM D7435, Standard Test Method for Determin-
According to an overview assembled by GS1, as of 31 ing the Performance of Passive Radio Frequency
October 2014, regulations are in place in 78 countries Identication (RFID) Transponders on Loaded
representing ca. 96.5% of the worlds GDP, and work on Containers
regulations is in progress in 3 countries representing circa ASTM D7580, Standard Test Method for Rotary
1% of the worlds GDP.[73] Stretch Wrapper Method for Determining the Read-
Standards that have been made regarding RFID include: ability of Passive RFID Transponders on Homoge-
nous Palletized or Unitized Loads
ISO 11784/11785 - Animal identication. Uses ISO 28560-2 : species encoding standards and data
134.2Khz. model to be used within libraries.[74]

ISO 14223 Radiofrequency [sic] identication of In order to ensure global interoperability of products, sev-
animals Advanced transponders eral organizations have set up additional standards for
RFID testing. These standards include conformance, per-
ISO/IEC 14443: This standard is a popular HF
formance and interoperability tests.
(13.56 MHz) standard for HighFIDs which is be-
ing used as the basis of RFID-enabled passports un- Groups concerned with standardization are:
der ICAO 9303. The Near Field Communication
standard that lets mobile devices act as RFID read- DASH7 Alliance an international industry group
ers/transponders is also based on ISO/IEC 14443. formed in 2009 to promote standards and inter-
operability among extensions to ISO/IEC 18000-7
ISO/IEC 15693: This is also a popular HF (13.56 technologies[75]
MHz) standard for HighFIDs widely used for non-
contact smart payment and credit cards. EPCglobal this is the standardization framework
that is most likely to undergo international stan-
ISO/IEC 18000: Information technologyRadio dardisation according to ISO rules as with all sound
frequency identication for item management: standards in the world, unless residing with limited
scope, as customs regulations, air-trac regulations
Part 1: Reference architecture and denition and others. Currently the big distributors and gov-
of parameters to be standardized ernmental customers are pushing EPC heavily as a
Part 2: Parameters for air interface communi- standard well-accepted in their community, but not
cations below 135 kHz yet regarded as for salvation to the rest of the world.
12 6 PROBLEMS AND CONCERNS

5.1 EPC Gen2 dundant raw data to signicant processed data.

EPC Gen2 is short for EPCglobal UHF Class 1 Generation

2. 6.2 Global standardization
EPCglobal, a joint venture between GS1 and GS1 US, is
working on international standards for the use of mostly The frequencies used for UHF RFID in the USA are cur-
passive RFID and the Electronic Product Code (EPC) in rently incompatible with those of Europe or Japan. Fur-
the identication of many items in the supply chain for thermore, no emerging standard has yet become as uni-
companies worldwide. versal as the barcode.[80] To address international trade
concerns, it is necessary to use a tag that is operational
One of the missions of EPCglobal was to simplify the Ba- within all of the international frequency domains.
bel of protocols prevalent in the RFID world in the 1990s.
Two tag air interfaces (the protocol for exchanging infor-
mation between a tag and a reader) were dened (but not 6.3 Security concerns
ratied) by EPCglobal prior to 2003. These protocols,
commonly known as Class 0 and Class 1, saw signicant Retailers such as Walmart, which already heavily use
commercial implementation in 20022005. RFID for inventory purposes, also use RFID as an anti-
In 2004, the Hardware Action Group created a new proto- employee-theft and anti-shoplifting technology. If a
col, the Class 1 Generation 2 interface, which addressed product with an active RFID tag passes the exit-scanners
a number of problems that had been experienced with at a Walmart outlet, not only does it set o an alarm, but it
Class 0 and Class 1 tags. The EPC Gen2 standard was also tells security personnel exactly what product to look
approved in December 2004. This was approved after a for in the shoppers cart.[81]
contention from Intermec that the standard may infringe a A primary RFID security concern is the illicit tracking of
number of their RFID-related patents. It was decided that RFID tags. Tags, which are world-readable, pose a risk to
the standard itself does not infringe their patents, mak- both personal location privacy and corporate/military se-
ing the standard royalty free.[76] The EPC Gen2 standard curity. Such concerns have been raised with respect to the
was adopted with minor modications as ISO 18000-6C United States Department of Defense's recent adoption of
in 2006.[77] RFID tags for supply chain management.[82] More gen-
In 2007, the lowest cost of Gen2 EPC inlay was oered erally, privacy organizations have expressed concerns in
by the now-defunct company SmartCode, at a price of the context of ongoing eorts to embed electronic prod-
$0.05 apiece in volumes of 100 million or more.[78] Nev- uct code (EPC) RFID tags in consumer products. This is
ertheless, further conversion (including additional label mostly as result of the fact that RFID tags can be read,
stock or encapsulation processing/insertion and freight and legitimate transactions with readers can be eaves-
costs to a given facility or DC) and of the inlays into us- dropped, from non-trivial distances. RFID used in access
able RFID labels and the design of current Gen 2 protocol control, payment and eID (e-passport) systems operate at
standard will increase the total end-cost, especially with a shorter range than EPC RFID systems but are also vul-
the added security feature extensions for RFID Supply nerable to skimming and eavesdropping, albeit at shorter
Chain item-level tagging. distance.[83]
A second method of prevention is by using cryptogra-
phy. Rolling codes and challenge-response authentication
6 Problems and concerns (CRA) are commonly used to foil monitor-repetition of
the messages between the tag and reader; as any messages
that have been recorded would prove to be unsuccessful
6.1 Data ooding on repeat transmission. Rolling codes rely upon the tags
id being changed after each interrogation, while CRA
Not every successful reading of a tag (an observation) is uses software to ask for a cryptographically coded re-
useful for business purposes. A large amount of data may sponse from the tag. The protocols used during CRA can
be generated that is not useful for managing inventory or be symmetric, or may use public key cryptography.[84]
other applications. For example, a customer moving a Security concerns exist in regard to privacy over the
product from one shelf to another, or a pallet load of ar- unauthorized reading of RFID tags. Unauthorized read-
ticles that passes several readers while being moved in ers can potentially use RFID information to identify or
a warehouse, are events that do not produce data that is track packages, consumers, carriers, or the contents of a
meaningful to an inventory control system.[79] package.[84] Several prototype systems are being devel-
Event ltering is required to reduce this data inow to a oped to combat unauthorized reading, including RFID
meaningful depiction of moving goods passing a thresh- signal interruption,[85] as well as the possibility of legis-
old. Various concepts have been designed, mainly oered lation, and 700 scientic papers have been published on
as middleware performing the ltering from noisy and re- this matter since 2002.[86] There are also concerns that
 13

the database structure of Object Naming Services may Shielding eectiveness depends on the frequency being
be susceptible to inltration, similar to denial-of-service
used. Low-frequency LowFID tags, like those used in
attacks, after the EPCglobal Network ONS root serversimplantable devices for humans and pets, are relatively
were shown to be vulnerable.[87] resistant to shielding though thick metal foil will prevent
most reads. High frequency HighFID tags (13.56 MHz
smart cards and access badges) are sensitive to shielding
6.4 Health and are dicult to read when within a few centimetres
of a metal surface. UHF Ultra-HighFID tags (pallets and
Microchipinduced tumors have been noted during ani- cartons) are dicult to read when placed within a few
mal trials.[88][89] millimetres of a metal surface, although their read range
is actually increased when they are spaced 24 cm from
a metal surface due to positive reinforcement of the re-
6.5 Exploitation ected wave and the incident wave at the tag.

Ars Technica reported in March 2006 an RFID buer

overow bug that could infect airport terminal RFID
databases for baggage, and also passport databases to ob-
7 Controversies
tain condential information on the passport holder.[90]

6.6 Passports

In an eort to standardize and make it easier to process

passports, several countries have implemented RFID in
passports, despite security and privacy issues.[91] The en-
cryption on UK chips was broken in under 48 hours.[92]
Since that incident, further eorts have allowed re-
searchers to clone passport data while the passport is be-
ing mailed to its owner. Where a criminal used to need to
secretly open and then reseal the envelope, now it can be
done without detection, adding some degree of insecurity
to the passport system.[93]

6.7 Shielding

In an eort to prevent the passive skimming of RFID-

enabled cards or passports, the U.S. General Services Logo of the anti-RFID campaign by German privacy group
Administration (GSA) issued a set of test procedures digitalcourage (formerly FoeBuD).
for evaluating electromagnetically opaque sleeves.[94] For
shielding products to be in compliance with FIPS-201
guidelines, they must meet or exceed this published stan-
dard. Shielding products currently evaluated as FIPS- 7.1 Privacy
201 compliant are listed on the website of the U.S. CIOs
The use of RFID has engendered considerable contro-
FIPS-201 Evaluation Program.[95] The United States gov-
versy and even product boycotts by consumer privacy ad-
ernment requires that when new ID cards are issued, they
must be delivered with an approved shielding sleeve orvocates. Consumer privacy experts Katherine Albrecht
holder.[96] and Liz McIntyre are two prominent critics of the spy-
chip technology. The two main privacy concerns regard-
Further information: Aluminium foil Electromagnetic ing RFID are:
shielding
Since the owner of an item will not necessarily be
There are contradicting opinions as to whether aluminum aware of the presence of an RFID tag and the tag
can prevent reading of RFID chips. Some people claim can be read at a distance without the knowledge of
that aluminum shielding, essentially creating a Faraday the individual, it becomes possible to gather sensi-
cage, does work.[97] Others claim that simply wrapping tive data about an individual without consent.
an RFID card in aluminum foil only makes transmission
more dicult and is not completely eective at preventing If a tagged item is paid for by credit card or in con-
it.[98] junction with use of a loyalty card, then it would be
14 7 CONTROVERSIES

possible to indirectly deduce the identity of the pur- ing his card with aluminum foil.[103]
chaser by reading the globally unique ID of that item In 20042005 the Federal Trade Commission Sta con-
(contained in the RFID tag). This is only true if the ducted a workshop and review of RFID privacy concerns
person doing the watching also had access to the loy- and issued a report recommending best practices.[104]
alty card data and the credit card data, and the per-
son with the equipment knows where you are going RFID was one of the main topics of 2006 Chaos Com-
to be. munication Congress (organized by the Chaos Computer
Club in Berlin) and triggered a big press debate. Top-
ics included: electronic passports, Mifare cryptography
Most concerns revolve around the fact that RFID tags af- and the tickets for the FIFA World Cup 2006. Talks
xed to products remain functional even after the prod- showed how the rst real world mass application of RFID
ucts have been purchased and taken home and thus can at the 2006 FIFA Soccer World Cup worked. Group
be used for surveillance and other purposes unrelated to monochrom staged a special 'Hack RFID' song.[105]
their supply chain inventory functions.[99]
The RFID Network argued that these fears are unfounded
in the rst episode of their syndicated cable TV series 7.2 Government control
by letting RF engineers demonstrate how RFID works .
They provided images of RF engineers driving an RFID- Some individuals have grown to fear the loss of rights due
enabled van around a building and trying to take an inven- to RFID human implantation.
tory of items inside. They discussed satellite tracking of a
By early 2007, Chris Paget of San Francisco, Califor-
passive RFID tag, which is surprising since the maximum
nia, showed that RFID information can be pulled from
range is under 200m.
individuals by using only $250 worth of equipment.
The concerns raised by the above may be addressed in This supports the claim that with the information cap-
part by use of the Clipped Tag. The Clipped Tag is an tured, it would be relatively simple to make counterfeit
RFID tag designed to increase consumer privacy. The passports.[106]
Clipped Tag has been suggested by IBM researchers Paul
According to ZDNet, critics believe that RFID will lead
Moskowitz and Guenter Karjoth. After the point of sale,
to tracking individuals every movement and will be an in-
a consumer may tear o a portion of the tag. This allows
vasion of privacy.[107] In the book SpyChips: How Major
the transformation of a long-range tag into a proximity
Corporations and Government Plan to Track Your Every
tag that still may be read, but only at short range less
Move by Katherine Albrecht and Liz McIntyre, one is en-
than a few inches or centimeters. The modication of the
couraged to imagine a world of no privacy. Where your
tag may be conrmed visually. The tag may still be used
every purchase is monitored and recorded in a database
later for returns, recalls, or recycling.
and your every belonging is numbered. Where some-
However, read range is both a function of the reader and one many states away or perhaps in another country has a
the tag itself. Improvements in technology may increase record of everything you have ever bought. Whats more,
read ranges for tags. Tags may be read at longer ranges they can be tracked and monitored remotely.[108]
than they are designed for by increasing reader power.
The limit on read distance then becomes the signal-to-
noise ratio of the signal reected from the tag back to 7.3 Deliberate destruction in clothing and
the reader. Researchers at two security conferences have other items
demonstrated that passive Ultra-HighFID tags normally
read at ranges of up to 30 feet, can be read at ranges of According to an RSA laboratories FAQ, RFID tags can
50 to 69 feet using suitable equipment.[100][101]
be destroyed by a standard microwave oven;[109] however
In January 2004 privacy advocates from CASPIAN and some types of RFID tags, particularly those constructed
the German privacy group FoeBuD were invited to the to radiate using large metallic antennas (in particular RF
METRO Future Store in Germany, where an RFID pi- tags and EPC tags), may catch re if subjected to this
lot project was implemented. It was uncovered by acci- process for too long (as would any metallic item inside a
dent that METRO Payback customer loyalty cards con- microwave oven). This simple method cannot safely be
tained RFID tags with customer IDs, a fact that was dis- used to deactivate RFID features in electronic devices,
closed neither to customers receiving the cards, nor to this or those implanted in living tissue, because of the risk
group of privacy advocates. This happened despite as- of damage to the host. However the time required is
surances by METRO that no customer identication data extremely short (a second or two of radiation) and the
was tracked and all RFID usage was clearly disclosed.[102] method works in many other non-electronic and inani-
During the UN World Summit on the Information So- mate items, long before heat or re become of concern.
ciety (WSIS) between the 16th to 18 November 2005, Some RFID tags implement a kill command mech-
founder of the free software movement, Richard Stall- anism for permanently and irreversibly disabling them.
man, protested the use of RFID security cards by cover- This mechanism can be applied if the chip itself is trusted
 15

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 18 10 EXTERNAL LINKS

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10 External links
UHF regulations overview by GS1
What is RFID? Educational video by The RFID
Network

How RFID Works at HowStuWorks

Privacy concerns and proposed privacy legislation

RFID at DMOZ
What is RFID? - Animated Explanation

Hardgrave, Bill C.; Aloysius, John; Goyal, Sandeep

(2009). Does RFID improve inventory accuracy?
A preliminary analysis. International Journal of RF
Technologies: Research and Applications. 1 (1): 45
56. doi:10.1080/17545730802338333.
IEEE Council on RFID
 19

11 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

11.1 Text
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MudskipperMarkII, MrFawwaz, Immunize, BillyPreset, Nkalandadze, Chandrashekhara h, Tisane, Sergedomk, Wikipelli, Dcirovic, We
hope, Anirudh Emani, Gagandeeps117, Rdtags, Meumeumarj, CYBRA1, Cayden Ryan, Jonpatterns, CandaceIDZ, Egomorales, Wikfr,
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Volkancc, Rm1271, Mrrd, Semanticwebbing, Zorglub x, Cjhorn, Mascarponette, Iaito, Vitrify, Scot gardner, Glacialfox, Next gen RFID,
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