CISSP Study Notes from CISSP Prep Guide

These notes were prepared from the The CISSP Prep Guide: Mastering the Ten Domains of
Computer Security by Ronald L. Krutz, Russell Dean V ines, Edward M . Stroz and are not intended
to be a replacement to the book.

In addition to the CISSP Prep Guide I used the following resources to prepare for the exam:

The Information Security Management Handbook, Fourth Edition by Micki Krause and Harold
F. Tipton

The revised Michael Overly notes

The Boson Questions #2 and #3

Lots of misc. websites

A nd of course www.cccure.org

Good Luck!

JWG, CISSP

CISSP STUDY NOTES FRO M CISSP PREP GUIDE ................................................................. 1

DOMA IN 1 SECURITY MA NA GEMENT PRA CTICES........................................................ 2
DOMA IN 2 A CCESS CO NTROL SYSTEMS....................................................................... 7
DOMA IN 3 TELECOM A ND NETWORK SECURITY ....................................................... 14
DOMA IN 4 CRYPTOGRA PHY....................................................................................... 39
DOMA IN 5 SECURITY A RCHITECTURE A ND M ODELS ................................................. 51
DOMA IN 6 OPERA TIO NS SECURITY ........................................................................... 62
DOMA IN 7 A PPLICA TIONS A ND SYSTEM DEV ELOPMENT ........................................... 69
DOMA IN 8 BUSINESS CONTINUITY A ND DISA STER RECOV ERY PLA NNING ............... 77
DOMA IN 9 LA W, INV ESTIGA TION A ND ETHICS......................................................... 85
DOMA IN 10 PHYSICA L SECURITY ............................................................................... 95

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Domain 1 Security Management Practices

The Big Three - C. I. A .

Confidentiality Prevent disclosure of data
Integrity Prevent modification of data
A vailability Ensure reliable timely access to data

Other Important Concepts

Identification Means in which user claims Identity
A uthentication Establishes the users Identity
A ccountability Systems ability to determine actions of users
A uthorization rights and permissions granted to an individual
Privacy Level of confidentiality that a user is given

Objective of Security is to reduce effects of threats and vulnerabilities to a tolerable level.

Risk A nalysis
A ssess the following:
Impact of the threat
Risk of the threat occurring (likelihood)

Controls reduce both the impact of the threat and the likelihood of the threat, important in cost
benefit of controls.

Data Classification
Data classification has high level enterprise wide benefit
Demonstrates organizations commitment to security
Helps identify sensitive and vital information
Supports C.I.A .
May be required for legal regulatory reasons

Data owners are responsible for defining the sensitivity level of the data.

Government Classification Terms:

Unclassified Neither sensitive nor classified, public release is acceptable
Sensitive But Unclassified (SBU) Minor secret, no serious damage if disclosed
Confidential disclosure could cause damage to National Security
Secret - disclosure could cause serious damage to National Security
Top Secret Highest Level - disclosure could cause exponentially grave damage to N ational
Security

In addition must have a Need to Know just because you have secret clearance does not mean all
secret data just data with a need to know.

A dditional Public Classification Terms

Public similar to unclassified, should not be disclosed but is not a problem if it is
Sensitive data protected from loss of Confidentiality and integrity
Private data that is personal in nature and for company use only
Confidential very sensitive for internal use only - could seriously negatively impact the
company

Classification Criteria
V alue - number one criteria, if it is valuable it should be protected

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 A ge value of data lowers over time, automatic de-classification
Useful Life If the information is made obsolete it can often be de-classified
Personal A ssociation If the data contains personal information it should remain classified

Distribution may be required in the event of the following:

Court Order may be required by court order
Government Contracts government contractors may need to disclose classified information
Senior Level A pproval senior executives may approve release

Information Classification Roles

Owner
May be executive or manager
Owner has final corporate responsibility of the data protection
Makes determination of classification level
Reviews classification level regularly for appropriateness
Delegates responsibility of data protection to the Custodian

Custodian
Generally IT systems personnel
Running regular backups and testing recovery
Performs restoration when required
Maintains records in accordance with the classification policy

User
A nyone the routinely uses the data
Must follow operating procedures
Must take due care to protect
Must use computing resources of the company for company purposes only

Policies Standards, Guidelines and Procedures

Policies are the highest level of documentation
Standards, Guidelines and Procedures derived from policies
Should be created first, but are no more important than the rest

Senior Management Statement general high-level statement

A cknowledgment of importance of computing resources
Statement of Support for information security
Commitment to authorize lower level Standards, Guidelines and Procedures

Regulatory Policies company is required to implement due to legal or regulatory requirements

Usually very detailed and specific to the industry of the organization
Two main purposes
To ensure the company is following industry standard procedures
To give the company confidence they are following industry standard procedures

A dvisory Polices not mandated but strongly suggested.

Company wants employees to consider these mandatory.
A dvisory Policies can have exclusions for certain employees or job functions

Informative Policies
Exist simply to inform the reader
No implied or specified requirements

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Standards, Guidelines and Procedures
Contain actual detail of the policy
How the policies should be implemented
Should be kept separate from one another
Different A udiences
Security Controls are different for each policy type
Updating the policy is more manageable

Standards - Specify use of technology in a uniform way, compulsory

Guidelines similar to standards but not compulsory, more flexible

Procedures Detailed steps, required, sometimes called practices , lowest level

Baselines baselines are similar to standards, standards can be developed after the baseline is
established

Roles and Responsibilities

Senior Management Has ultimate responsibility for security
Infosec Officer Has the functional responsibility for security
Owner Determines the data classification
Custodian - Preserves C.I.A .
User Performs in accordance with stated policy
A uditor Examines Security

Risk Management
Mitigate (reduce) risk to a level acceptable to the organization.

Identification of Risk
A ctual threat
Possible consequences
Probable frequency
Likely hood of event

Risk A nalysis
Identification of risks
Benefit - cost justification of counter measures

Risk A nalysis Terms

A sset Resource, product, data
Threat A ction with a negative impact
V ulnerability A bsence of control
Safeguard Control or countermeasure

Exposure Factor
% of asset loss caused by threat

Single Loss Expectancy (SLE) Expected financial loss for single event
SLE = A sset V alue x Exposure Factor

A nnualized Rate of Occurrence (A RO) represents estimated frequency in which threat will
occur within one year

A nnualized Loss Expectancy (A LE) A nnually expected financial loss

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A LE = SLE x A RO

Risk A nalysis
Risk analysis is more comprehensive than a Business Impact A nalysis
Quantitative assigns objective numerical values (dollars)
Qualitative more intangible values (data)
Quantitative is a major project that requires a detailed process plan

Preliminary Security Examination (PSE)

Often conducted prior to the quantitative analysis.
PSE helps gather elements that will be needed for actual RA

Risk A nalysis Steps

1) Estimate of potential loss
2) A nalyze potential threats
3) Define the A nnualized Loss Expectancy (A LE)

Categories of Threats
Data Classification malicious code or logic
Information Warfare technically oriented terrorism
Personnel Unauthorized system access
A pplication / Operational ineffective security results in data entry errors
Criminal Physical destruction, or vandalism
Environmental utility outage, natural disaster
Computer Infrastructure Hardware failure, program errors
Delayed Processing reduced productivity, delayed collections processing

A nnualized Loss Expectancy (A LE)

Risk analysis should contain the following:
V aluation of Critical A ssets
Detailed listing of significant threats
Each threats likelihood
Loss potential by threat
Recommended remedial safeguards

Remedies
Risk Reduction - implementation of controls to alter risk position
Risk Transference get insurance, transfer cost of a loss to insurance
Risk A cceptance A ccept the risk, absorb loss

Qualitative Scenario Procedure

Scenario Oriented
List the threat and the frequency
Create exposure rating scale for each scenario
Scenario written that address each major threat
Scenario reviewed by business users for reality check
Risk A nalysis team evaluates and recommends safeguards
Work through each finalized scenario
Submit findings to management

V alue A ssessment
A sset valuation necessary to perform cost/ benefit analysis

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 Necessary for insurance
Supports safeguard choices

Safeguard Selection
Perform cost/ benefit analysis
Costs of safeguards need to be considered including
Purchase, development and licensing costs
Installation costs
Disruption to production
Normal operating costs

Cost Benefit A nalysis

A LE (PreControl) A LE (PostControl) = A nnualized value of the control

Level of manual operations

The amount of manual intervention required to operate the safeguard
Should not be too difficult to operate

A uditability and A ccountability

Safeguard must allow for auditability and accountability

Recovery A bility
During and after the reset condition
No asset destruction during activation or reset
No covert channel access to or through the control during reset
No security loss after activation or reset
Defaults to a state that does not allow access until control are fully operational

Security A wareness Training

Benefits of A wareness
Measurable reduction in unauthorized access attempts
Increase effectiveness of control
Help to avoid fraud and abuse

Periodic awareness sessions for new employees and refresh other

Methods of awareness improvement

Live interactive presentations
CBTs
Publishing of posters and newsletters
Incentives and awards
Reminders, login banners

Training & Education

Security training for Operators
Technical training
Infosec training
Manager training

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Domain 2 A ccess Control Systems

C - Confidentiality
I - Integrity
A - A vailability

Confidentiality
Not disclosed to unauthorized person

Integrity
Prevention of modification by unauthorized users
Prevention of unauthorized changes by otherwise authorized users
Internal and External Consistency
Internal Consistency within the system (i.e. within a database the sum of subtotals is equal to
the sum of all units)
External Consistency database with the real world (i.e. database total is equal to the actual
inventory in the warehouse)

A vailability
Timely access

Three things to consider

Threats potential to cause harm
V ulnerabilities weakness that can be exploited
Risk potential for harm

Controls
Preventative prevent harmful occurrence
Detective detect after harmful occurrence
Corrective restore after harmful occurrence

Controls can be:

A dministrative polices and procedures
Logical or Technical - restricted access
Physical locked doors

Three types of access rules:

1. Mandatory access control (MA C): A uthorization of subjects access to an object depends on
labels (sensitivity levels), which indicate subjects clearance, and the classification or sensitivity of
the object
Every Object is assigned a sensitivity level/ label and only users authorized up to that
particular level can access the object
A ccess depends on rules and not by the identity of the subjects or objects alone
Only administrator (not owners) may change category of a resource Orange book B-
level
Output is labeled as to sensitivity level
Unlike permission bits or A CLs, labels cannot ordinarily be changed
Cant copy a labeled file into another file with a different label
Rule based A C

2. Discretionary A ccess Control (DA C): Subject has authority, within certain limits, to specify
what objects can be accessible (e.g., use of A CL)
User-directed means a user has discretion
Identity-based means discretionary access control is based on the subjects identity

7
 V ery common in commercial context because of flexibility
Orange book C level
Relies on object owner to control access
Identity Based A C
3. Non-Discretionary A ccess Control: Central authority determines what subjects can have access
to certain objects based on organization s security policy (good for high turnover)
May be based on individual s role in the organization ( Role-Based) or the subjects
responsibilities or duties (task-based)

Lattice based provides least access privileges of the access pair

Greatest lower bound
Lowest upper bound

Preventative Detective
A dministrative Policies and procedures, pre- Polices and procedures, job
employment background checks, rotation, sharing of
strict hiring practices, responsibilities
employment agreements,
friendly and unfriendly employee
termination procedures, vacation
scheduling, labeling of sensitive
materials, increased supervision,
security awareness training,
behavior awareness, and sign-up
procedures to obtain access to
information systems and
networks.
Technical Logical system controls, smart IDS, logging, monitoring,
cards, bio-metrics, menu shell clipping levels
Physical Restrict physical access, guards, Motion detectors, cameras,
man trap, gates thermal detectors

Identification and A uthentication

Identification establishes accountability

Three Factor A uthentication

Something you know (password)
Something you have (token)
Something you are (biometrics)
Sometimes - something you do

Passwords
Static same each time
Dynamic changes each time you logon

Tokens Smartcards
Static Password (like software with pin)
Owner A uthenticates to the token
Token authenticates to the system

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Synchronous Dynamic Password
Token generates passcode value
Pin user knows
Token and Pin entered into PC
Must fit in valid time window

A synchronous
Similar to synchronous, new password is generated asynchronously, No time window

Challenge Response
System generates challenge string
User enters into token
Token generates response entered into workstation
Mechanism in the workstation determines authentication

Biometrics something you are

Identify one to many
A uthenticate one to one

False Rejection Rate (FRR) Type I error

False A cceptance Rate (FA R) Type II error

Crossover Error Rate (CER) CER = % when FRR = FA R

Biometric Issues
Enrollment Time A cceptable rate is 2 minutes per person
Throughput Time acceptable rate is 10 people per minute

A cceptability Issues privacy, physical, psychological

Types of Biometrics
Fingerprints: A re made up of ridge endings and bifurcations exhibited by the friction ridges and
other detailed characteristics that are called minutiae.
Retina Scans: Scans the blood-vessel pattern of the retina on the backside of the eyeball.
Iris Scans: Scan the colored portion of the eye that surrounds the pupil.
Facial Scans: Takes attributes and characteristics like bone structures, nose ridges, eye widths,
forehead sizes and chin shapes into account.
Palm Scans: The palm has creases, ridges and grooves throughout it that are unique to a specific
person.
Hand Geometry: The shape of a persons hand (the length and width of the hand and fingers)
measures hand geometry.
V oice Print: Distinguishing differences in peoples speech sounds and patterns.
Signature Dynamics: Electrical signals of speed and time that can be captured when a person
writes a signature.
Keyboard Dynamics: Captures the electrical signals when a person types a certain phrase.
Hand Topology: Looks at the size and width of an individuals hand and fingers.

Single Sign On
Kerberos
Symmetric key encryption
KDC Kerberos-trusted Key Distribution Center
TGS Ticket Granting Service
A S A uthentication Server

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Kerberos
1. KDC knows secret keys of Client and Server
2. KDC exchanges info with the Client and the Server using symmetric keys
3. Using TGS grants temporary symmetric key
4. Client and Server communicate using the temporary session key

Initial Exchange
Client sends Hash Password to the TGS Server, TGS verifies with the A uth. Server
TGS Server responds with:
1) Key for Client and TGS server encrypted with Client Key [ K(c,tgs)] Kc
2) Ticket Granting Ticket (TGT) = [ K(c, tgs), c,a,v] K(tgs)

Request for Service

Client sends request for service to TGS with
1) TGT = [ K(c, tgs), c,a,v] K(tgs)
2) A uthenticator K(c, tgs)

TGS Issues Ticket for Service

TGS sends Client back ticket for server and authenticator for server
1) Ticket T(c,s) = [ s,c,a,v,K(c,s)] Ks
2) [ K(c,s)] K(c,tgs)

Receive Service from Server

Client sends Server
1) Ticket T(c,s) = [ s,c,a,v,K(c,s)] Ks
2) authenticator = [ c,t,key] K(c,s)

Kerberos weaknesses
Replay is possible within time frame
TGS and A uth server are vulnerable as they know everything
Initial exchange passed on password authentication
Keys are vulnerable

SESA ME Secure European System for A pplications in a Multi-vendor Environment

Uses Needham-Schroeder protocol
Uses public key cryptography
Supports MD5 and CRC32 Hashing
Uses two tickets
1) One contains authentication
2) One contains the access rights to the client

SESA ME weaknesses
Only authenticates by using first block of message
Initial exchange passed on password authentication
SESA ME incorporates two certificates or tickets: One certificate provides authentication as in
Kerberos and the other certificate defines the access privileges that are assigned to a client.

KryptoKnight
Peer to peer relationship between KDC Key Distribution Center and parties (Client and
Server)
NetSP is based on KryptoKnight
Supported by RA CF
A uthentication

10
 Key Distribution
Data Privacy
Data Integrity
Single Sign-On
A dministration

A ccess Control - Centralized and Decentralized

Centralized
RA DIUS - Remote A ccess Dial-In User Service (incorporates an A S and dynamic password)
TA CA CS Terminal A ccess Controller A ccess Control System (for network applications, static
pwd)
TA CA CS+ Terminal A ccess Controller A ccess Control System Plus, supports token
authentication

CHA P Challenge Handshake A uthentication Protocol

Supports encryption, protects password

Decentralized
Relational Database Security
Relational Databases support queries
Object oriented databases do not support queries

Relational Database
Data structures called tables (relations)
Integrity Rules on allowable values
Operators on the data in tables

Persistency preservation of integrity through the use of nonvolatile storage media

Schema
Description of the database
Defined by Data Description Layer (DDL)

Database Management System (DBMS)

provides access to the database
A llows restriction of access

Relational Database
Relation (table) is the basis of a relational database relation is represented by a table
Rows = Records (tuples)
Column = A ttributes

A ttribute-1 A ttribute-2 A ttribute-3

Record-1
Record-2

Primary Key
Unambiguously identifies a record. Points to a record (tuple)
Every row (record, tuple) must contain the primary key of the relation (table)

Cardinality - # of rows in a relationship (table)

Degree - # of columns in a relationship (table)

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Candidate key - any identifier that is a unique to the record

Foreign Key any value that matches the primary key of another relation (table)

Relational Database best suited for text

Relational Database Operations

Select based on criteria i.e. all items with value > $300.00
Join - join tables based on a common value
Union forms a new relation (table) from two other relations
V iew (virtual table) uses join, project, select - V iews can be used to restrict access (least
privileges)
Query plan
Comprised of implementation procedures, lowest cost plan based on cost
Costs are CPU time, Disk A ccess
Bind used to create plan

Data Normalization
Ensures that attributes in a table rely only on the primary key
Eliminates repeating groups
Eliminates redundant data
Eliminates attributes not dependent on the primary key

SQL Structured Query Language

Select
Update
Delete
Insert
Grant A ccess Privileges
Revoke A ccess Privileges

Object Oriented Databases - OODB

Best suited for multi-media, graphics
Steep learning curve
High overhead

Intrusion Detection
Network Based
Real Time
Passive

Host Based
System and event logs
Limited by log capabilities

Signature Based (Knowledge Based)

Signatures of an attack are stored and referenced
Failure to recognize slow attacks
Must have signature stored to identify

Statistical A nomaly Based (Behavior Based)

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 IDS determines normal usage profile using statistical samples
Detects anomaly from the normal profile

A ccess Control Issues

Confidentiality
Integrity
A vailability
A ccountability of users

Measures for compensating for both internal and external access violations
Backups
RA ID Redundant A rray of Inexpensive Disks
Fault Tolerance
Business Continuity Planning
Insurance

13
Domain 3 Telecom and N etwork Security

Management Concepts
Technology Concepts

Confidentiality no disclosure of data

Integrity no alteration of data
A vailability no destruction of data

Remote A ccess Security Management

Remote Connections
xDSL Digital Subscriber Line
Cable modem
Wireless (PDA s)
ISDN Integrated Services Digital Network

Securing External Remote Connections

V PN V irtual Private Network
SSL Secure Socket Layer
SSH Secure Shell

Remote A ccess A uthentication

RA DIUS Remote A ccess Dial-In User Server
TA CA CS Terminal A ccess Controller A ccess Control Server

Remote Node A uthentication

PA P Password A uthentication Protocol clear text
CHA P Challenge Handshake A uthentication Protocol protects password

Remote User Management

Justification of remote access
Support Issues
Hardware and software distribution

Intrusion Detection
Notification
Remediation

Creation of:
Host and networked based monitoring
Event Notification
CIRT Computer Incident Response Team
CIRT Performs
A nalysis of event
Response to incident
Escalation path procedures
Resolution post implementation follow up

Intrusion Detection Systems

Network Based Commonly reside on a discrete network segment and monitor the traffic on
that network segment.
Host Based Use small programs, which reside on a host computer. Detect inappropriate
activity only on the host computer, not the network segment.

14
 Knowledge Based Signature based
Behavioral Based Statistical A nomaly

Knowledge Based
Pros Cons
Low false alarms Resource Intensive
A larms Standardized New or unique attacks
not found

Behavior Based less common

Pros Cons
Dynamically adapts High False A larm rates
Not as operating User activity may not
system specific be static enough to
implement

CIRT (CERT) Computer Incident Response Team

Responsibilities:
Manage the companys response to events that pose a risk
Coordinating information
Mitigating risk, minimize interruptions
A ssembling technical response teams
Management of logs
Management of resolution

Network A vailability
RA ID Redundant A rray of Inexpensive Disks
Back Up Concepts
Manage single points of failure

RA ID Redundant A rray of Inexpensive Disks

Fault tolerance against server crashes
Secondary improve system performance
Striping Caching and distributing on multiple disks
RA ID employs the technique of striping, which involves partitioning each drive' s storage space
into units ranging from a sector (512 bytes) up to several megabytes. The stripes of all the disks
are interleaved and addressed in order.
Hardware and software implementation

RA ID A dvisory Board
Three types Failure Resistant Disk Systems (FRDS) - the only current standard, Failure
Tolerant Disk Systems, and Disaster Tolerant Disk Systems.
FRDS: provides the ability to reconstruct the contents of a failed disk onto a replacement disk.
Enables the continuous monitoring of these parts and the alerting of their failure
FRDS+
Protect from disk failure can reconstruct disks by automatically hot swapping while server
is running
Includes environmental
FRDS+ adds hazard warnings

RA ID Levels
RA ID 0 (STRIPPING)
Creates one large disk by using multiple disks striping

15
 No redundancy
No fault tolerance (1 fail = all fail)
Read/ Write performance is increased

RA ID 1 (MIRRORING)
Mirroring
Duplicates data on other disks (usually one to one ratio)
Expensive (doubles cost of storage)

RA ID 2 (HA MMING CODE PA RITY)

Multiple disks
Parity information created using a hamming code
Can be used in 39 disk array 32 Data and 7 recovery
Not used, replaced by more flexible levels

RA ID 3 (BYTE LEV EL PA RITY) RA ID 4 (BLOCK LEV EL PA RITY)

RA ID 3 Byte level
RA ID 4 Block level
Stripe across multiple drives
Parity information on a parity drive
Provides redundancy
Can affect performance with single parity drive

RA ID 5 (INTERLEA V E PA RITY)
Most popular
Stripes data and parity information across all drives
Uses interleave parity
Reads and writes performed concurrently
Usually 3-5 drives. If one drive fails, can reconstruct the failed drive by using the information
from the other 2.

RA ID 7 (SINGLE V IRTUA L DISK)

Functions as a single virtual disk
Usually software over Level 5 hardware
Enables the drive array to continue to operate if any disk or any path to any disk fails.

RA ID Summary
0 Striping
1 Mirroring
2 Hamming code parity
3 Byte level parity
4 Block level parity
5 Interleave parity
7 Single V irtual Disk

Other Types of Fault Tolerance

Redundant Servers
Primary Server mirrors to secondary server
Fail-over or rollover to secondary in the event of a failure
Server fault tolerance can be warm or hot

Server Cluster
Group of independent servers managed as a single system
Load Balancing

16
 Improves performance
Server Farm
Microsoft Cluster Server

17
Backup Methodologies

Full Back Up every file

Incremental
Only files that have been changed or added recently
Only files with their archive bit set are backed up.
This method is fast and uses less tape space but has some inherent vulnerabilities, one being that
all incremental backups need to be available and restored from the date of the last full backup to
the desired date should a restore be needed.
Restore = last full backup plus each incremental

Differential
Only files that have changed since the last backup
A ll files to the full backup (additive)
Restore = full backup plus the last differential

Types of Tape
DA T Digital A udio Tape
QIC Quarter Inch Cartridge Small and slow
8mm Tape Superceded by DLT
DLT Digital Linear Tape 4mm tape large and fast

Other media
CD permanent backups, longer shelf life than tape
ZIP JA ZZ Common
Tape A rray 32 to 63 Tape A rray using RA ID technology
HSM Hierarchical. Provides a continuous on-line backup by using optical or tape jukeboxes,
similar to WO RMs.

Common Backup Problems

Slow transfer of data to backup
Retrieval time to restore
Off hour processing and monitoring
Server disk space expands over time
Loss of data between last back up
Physical security of tapes

Single Points of Failure

Cabling Failures
Coaxial: many workstations or servers attached to the same segment of cable, which creates a
single point of failure if it is broken (similar to cable TV cabling). Exceeding cable length is a
source of failure.
Twisted Pair: (CA T3 and CA T 5) The difference between the two has to do with the tightness
the copper wires are wound. Tightness determines its resistance to interference. CA T3 is older.
Cable length is a common failure
Fiber Optic: Immune to EMI. Longer usable length (upto 2kms). Drawback is costs.

Technology Failures
Ethernet
Most Popular
Extremely resistance to failure, especially in a star-wired config.

18
Token Ring
Since token is passed by every station on the ring
NIC set at wrong speed or in error state can bring the network down

FDDI Fiber Distributed Data Interface

Dual rings fault tolerance (if first ring fails, the secondary ring begins working)
Sometimes uses second ring for improved performance

Leased Lines
T1 and ISDN go with multiple vendors to reduce failures

Frame Relay
Public switched WA N
Highly Fault Tolerant
Bad segment diverts packets
Can use multiple vendors for high availability

Other Single Points of Failure

Can be any device where all traffic goes through a single device - Router, firewall, hub, switch
Power failure surges, spikes install UPS

Note: Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) is good tool for router configuration

Classes of Network A buse

Class A unauthorized access through circumvention of security access controls. Masquerading,
logon abuse (primarily internal attacks)
Class B non-business use of systems
Class C Eavesdropping
A ctive: Tampering with a transmission to create a covert signaling channel or probing the
network
Passive: Covertly monitoring or listening to transmissions that is unauthorized.
Covert Channel: using a hidden unauthorized communication
Tapping: refers to the physical interception of a transmission medium (like splicing of cable).
Class D Denial of Service Saturation of network services
Class E Network Intrusion penetration (externally)
Spoofing A spoofing attack involves nothing more than forging one' s source address. It is
the act of using one machine to impersonate another.
Piggy Backing attack using another users connection
Back Door attack via dial up or external connection
Class F Probing
Gives an intruder a road map of the network for DoS attack
Gives a list of available services
Traffic analysis via sniffers which scans the host for available services
Like a telephone wiretap allows the FBI to listen in on other people' s conversations, a
" sniffing" program lets someone listen in on computer conversations.
Tools: Telnet (manual), vulnerability scanners (automatic).

Common DoS A ttacks

Filling hard drive space with email attachments
Sending a message that resets a targets host subnet mask causing routing disruption
Using up all of the targets resources to accept network connections

19
A dditional DoS A ttacks:
Buffer Overflow A ttack
When a process receives much more data than expected.
Since buffers are created to contain a finite amount of data, the extra information - which has to
go somewhere - can overflow into adjacent buffers, corrupting or overwriting the valid data held
in them.
PING Packet Internet Groper uses ICMP Internet Control Message Protocol
PING of Death- Intruder sends a PING that consists of an illegally modified and very large IP
datagram, thus overfilling the system buffers and causing the system to reboot or hang.
SYN A ttack
A ttacks the buffer space during a Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
A ttacker floods the target systems in-process queue with connection requests causing the
system to time-out.
Teardrop A ttack
Modifying the length of the fragmentation fields in the IP Packet
When a machine receives this attack, it is unable to handle the data and can exhibit behavior
ranging from a lost Internet connection to the infamous blue screen of death. Becomes confuse
and crashes.
Smurf A ttack
(Source Site) Sends spoofed network request to large network (bounce site) all machines
respond to the (target site). IP broadcast addressing.
Fraggle A ttack
The " smurf" attack' s cousin is called " fraggle" , which uses UDP echo packets in the same fashion
as the ICMP echo packet.

Common Session Hijacking A ttacks

IP Spoofing IP spoofing is used to convince a system that it is communicating with a known
entity that gives an intruder access. IP spoofing involves altering the packet at the TCP level. The
attacker sends a packet with an IP source address of a known, trusted source. E-mail spoofing is
the forgery of an e-mail header so that the message appears to have originated from someone or
somewhere other than the actual source.
TCP Sequence number tricks the target in believing that its connected to a trusted host and
then hijacks the session by predicting the targets choice of an initial TCP Sequence number.
Then its used to launch various other attacks on other hosts.

Salami A ttack: A series of minor computer crimes that are part of a larger crime.

Rainbow Series
Redbook TNI - Trusted Network Interpretation
Time and technological changes lessen the relevancy of the TNI to contemporary networking.
Deals with technical issues outside the scope of the Orange Book wrt to networks
Redbook interprets the Orange Book
Orange Book Trusted Computer Security Evaluation Criteria

TNI Evaluation Classes

D Minimal protection
C Discretionary protection
C1 Discretionary Security Protection
C2 Controlled A ccess protection
B Mandatory
B1 Labeled Security
B2 Structured
B3- Security Domains

20
Technology Concepts
Protocols: is a standard set of rules that determines how computers communicate with each other
across networks despite their differences (PC, UNIC, Mac..)
Layered architecture: shows how communication should take place
Clarify the general functions of a communication process
To break down complex networking processes into more manageable sublayers
Using industry-standard interfaces enables interoperability
To change the features of one layer without changing all of the code in every layer
Easier troubleshooting

21
OSI Open Systems Interconnect Model
Security: Confidentiality, Responsible for all application-to-
authentication, data integrity, non- application communications. User
repudiation information maintained at this
Technology: gateways layer is user data.
Layer 7 A pplication
Protocols: FTP, SMB, TELNET,
TFTP, SMTP, HTTP, NNTP, CDP,
GOPHER, SNMP, NDS, A FP, SA P,
NCP, SET
Security: confidentiality, Responsible for the formatting of
authentication, encryption the data so that it is suitable for
Technology: gateway presentation. Responsible for
Protocols: A SCII, EBCDIC, character conversion
POSTSCRIPT, JPEG, MPEG, GIF (A SCII/ EBCDIC),
Layer 6 Presentation
Encryption/ Decryption,
Compression, and V irtual
Terminal Emulation. User
information maintained at this
layer is called messages.
Security: None Responsible for the setup of the
Technology: gateways links, maintaining of the link, and
Layer 5 Session Protocols: Remote Procedure Calls the link tear-down between
(RPC) and SQL, RA DIUS, DNS, A SP applications.

Security: Confidentiality, Responsible for the guaranteed

authentication, integrity delivery of user information. It is
Technology: gateways also responsible for error
Layer 4 Transport
Protocols: TCP, UDP, SSL, SSH-2, detection, correction, and flow
SPX, NetBios, A TP control. User information at this
layer is called datagrams.
Security: confidentiality, Responsible for the routing of user
authentication, data integrity data from one node to another
Technology: virtual circuits (A TM), through the network including the
Layer 3 Network routers path selection. Logical addresses
Protocols: IP, IPX, ICMP, O SPF, are used at this layer. User
IGRP, EIGRP, RIP, BOO TP, DHCP, information maintained at this
ISIS, ZIP, DDP, X.25 layer is called packets.
Security: confidentiality, Responsible for the physical
Technology: bridges, switch addressing of the network via
Protocols: L2F, PPTP, L2TP, PPP, MA C addresses. Ther are two
SLIP, A RP, RA RP, SLA RP, IA RP, sublevels to the Data-Link layer.
Layer 2 Data Link SNA P, BA P, CHA P, LCP, LZS, MLP, MA C and LLC. The Data-Link
Frame Relay, A nnex A , A nnex D, layer has error detection, frame
HDLC, BPDU, LA PD, ISL, MA C, ordering, and flow control. User
Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI information maintained at this
layer is called frames.
Security: confidentiality Responsible for the physical
Technology: ISDN, Hubs, Repeaters, transmission of the binary digits
Cables through the physical medium. This
Layer 1 Physical
Protocols: 10BaseT, 100BaseT, layer includes things such as the
1000BaseT, 10Base2, 10Base5, OC- physical cables, interfaces, and
3, OC-12, DS1, DS3, E1, E3, data rate specifications. User

22
 A TM, BRI, PRI, X.23 information maintained at this
layer is called bits (the 1s and 0s).

Data encapsulation is the process in which information from one packet is wrapped around or
attached to the data of another packet. In OSI model each layer encapsulates the layer immediately
above it.

23
OSI Layers
Process down the stack and up the stack
Each layer communicates with corresponding layer through the stack.

OSI Security - 6 Security Services. A security service is a collection of security mechanisms, files,
and procedures that help protect the network.
A uthentication
A ccess control
Data confidentiality
Data integrity
Non-repudiation
Logging and monitoring

OSI Security - 8 Security Mechanisms. A security mechanism is a control that is implemented in

order to provide the 6 basic security services.
Encipherment
Digital signature
A ccess Control
Data Integrity
A uthentication
Traffic Padding
Routing Control
Notarization

TCP/ IP Suite of Protocols

OSI TCP/ IP Protocols Description

A pplication Consists of the applications and
A pplication Layer
Presentation processes that use the network.
Session
TCP and Provides end-to-end data delivery
Transport Host to Host
UDP service to the A pplication Layer.
IP, A RP, Defines the IP datagram and handles
Network Internet Layer RA RP, the routing of data across networks.
ICMP
Data link Consists of routines for accessing
physical networks and the electrical
Network A ccess
Physical connection.

Host-to-Host Transport Layer Protocols:

TCP Transmission Control Protocol
Connection Oriented
Sequenced Packets
A cknowledgment is sent back for received packets
If no acknowledgement then packet is resent
Packets are re-sequenced
Manageable data flow is maintained

NOTE: TCP and UDP use port numbers greater than 1023

24
UDP
Best effort
Doesnt care about sequence order
Connectionless
Less overhead and faster than TCP

Internet Layer Protocols

IP Internet Protocol
A ll hosts on a network have an IP address
Each data packet is assigned the IP address of the sender and receiver
It provides an unreliable datagram service. Provides:
No guarantees that the packet will be delivered
No guarantee that the packet will be delivered only once
No guarantee that it will be delivered in the order which it was sent

A RP A ddress Resolution Protocol

Use the IP A ddress to get the MA C A ddress
MA C address is 48 bit
IP address is 32 bit
Only broadcast to network first time, otherwise stores IP and MA C info in table

RA RP Reverse A ddress Resolution Protocol

Use the M A C A ddress to get the IP A ddress
RA RP Server tells diskless machines IP A ddress

ICMP Internet Control Message Protocol

Management Protocol and messaging service provider for IP.
Sends messages between network devices regarding the health of the network.
Ping is ICMP packet
Ping checks if a host is up and operational

TCP/ IP Does not define Physical Standards it uses existing ones

Other TCP/ IP Protocols

Telnet Terminal Emulation (No File Transfer)
FTP File Transfer Protocol (Can not execute files)
TFTP Trivial FTP no directory browsing capabilities, no authentication (it is unsecure), can
only send and receive files.
Some sites choose not to implement TFTP due to the inherent security risks.
TFTP is an UDP-based file transfer program that provides no security.
NFS Network File Sharing
SMTP Delivers emails
LDP Line Printer Daemon with LPR enables print spooling
X-Windows for writing graphical interface application
SNMP Simple Network Management Protocol
Provides for the collection of network information by polling the devices on the network
from a management station.
Sends SNMP traps (notification) to MIBS Management Information Bases
Bootstrap (BootP) protocol Diskless boot up. BootP server hears the request and looks up the
clients MA C address in its BootP file. Its an internet layer protocol.

Security Enhanced Protocols (Two types)

Security enhancements to telnet such as remote terminal access and secure telnet
Security enhancements to Remote Procedure Call such as Secure RPC A uthentication

25
Following Security Protocols:
A t the A pplication Layer (OSI Model)
SET Secure Electronic Transaction
Originated by V isa and MasterCard
Being overtaken by SSL

SHTTP - Secure HTTP

Early standard for encrypting HTTP documents
A lso being overtaken by SSL

A t the Transport Layer (OSI Model)

SSH-2
SSH has RSA Certificates
Supports authentication, compression, confidentiality, and integrity
DES Encryption
Because Secure Shell (SSH-2) supports authentication, compression, confidentiality, and
integrity, SSH is used frequently for Encrypted File Transfer

SSL Secure Socket Layer

Contains SSL record protocol and SSL Handshake Protocol
Uses symmetric encryption and public key for authentication
MA C Message A uthentication Code for Integrity

SKIP Simple Key Management for Internet Protocol

Similar to SSL no prior communication required

Firewalls
Packet Filtering Firewall - First Generation
Screening Router
Operates at Network and Transport level
Examines Source and Destination IP A ddress
Can deny based on A CLs
Can specify Port

A pplication Level Firewall - Second Generation

Proxy Server
Copies each packet from one network to the other
Masks the origin of the data
Operates at layer 7 (A pplication Layer)
Reduces Network performance since it has do analyze each packet and decide what to do with
it.
A lso Called A pplication Layer Gateway

Stateful Inspection Firewalls Third Generation

Packets A nalyzed at all OSI layers
Queued at the network level
Faster than A pplication level Gateway

Dynamic Packet Filtering Firewalls Fourth Generation

A llows modification of security rules
Mostly used for UDP
Remembers all of the UDP packets that have crossed the networks perimeter, and it decides
whether to enable packets to pass through the firewall.

26
Kernel Proxy Fifth Generation
Runs in NT Kernel
Uses dynamic and custom TCP/ IP-based stacks to inspect the network packets and to enforce
security policies.

27
Firewall A rchitectures:

Packet Filtering Routers: External Router

Sits between trusted and untrusted networks
Uses A CLs
A CLs can be manually intensive to maintain
Lacks strong user authentication
A CLs can degrade performance Untrusted
Minimal A uditing network Trusted
Bastion host network
Screened Host Firewall:
Employs packet filtering and Bastion Host External Router
Provides network layer (packet filtering) and
application layer (proxy) services
Penetration requires getting by external router
(packet filtering) and Bastion Host (proxy).
Untrusted
Dual Homed Host Firewall network Trusted
Contains two NICs Multi-homed network
One connected to the local trusted network Bastion host
One connected to the external untrusted network Internal
Blocks or filters traffic between the two. Router
External Router
IP forwarding is disabled

Untrusted
network Trusted
network

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 DMZ Multi-homed
Screened Subnet Firewall Bastion host
One of the most secure Internal
Two packet filtering routers and a Bastion Host Router
External Router
Provides network layer (packet filtering) and
application layer (proxy) services
Provides DMZ
Complex configuration

SOCKS Server Untrusted

network Trusted
Circuit level proxy server
network
Requires SOCKS client on all machines
Used to manage outbound Internet access
IT Overhead intensive

NA T Network A ddress Translation

3 Private IP A ddress Ranges Global Nonroutable A ddresses

10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255
172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255
192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255
Class A addresses are for large networks with many devices. 1 -127
Class B addresses are for medium-sized networks. 128-191
Class C addresses are for small networks (fewer than 256 devices). 192-223
Class D addresses are multicast addresses.

V irtual Private Networks:

Secure connection between two nodes using secret encapsulation method.
Secure Encrypted Tunnel encapsulated tunnel (encryption may or may not be used)
Tunnel can be created by the following three methods:
Installing software or agents on client or network gateway.
Implementing user or node authentication systems.
Implementing key and certificate exchange systems.

V PN Protocol Standards:

PPTP Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol

Works at the Data Link Layer
Single point to point connection from client to server
Common with asynchronous connections with NT and Win 95

L2TP - Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol

Combination of PPTP and earlier Layer 2 Forwarding Protocol (L2F)
Multiple protocols can be encapsulated within the L2TP
Single point to point connection from client to server
Common with Dial up V PNs

IPSec
Operates at the network layer
A llows multiple and simultaneous tunnels
Encrypt and authenticate IP data
Focuses more on Network to Network Connectivity

V PN Devices
Hardware and Software devices that utilize V PN Standards

29
 Two types: IPSec Compatible and Non-IPSec Compatible

IPSec Compatible
Installed on a networks perimeter and encrypt traffic between the two
Because IPSec only work with IP
Operate at Network Layer
Two Modes:
Tunnel Mode entire packet is encrypted and encases in IPSec packet
Transport Mode Only datagram is encrypted leaving IP address visible.
Datagram: A self-contained, independent entity of data carrying sufficient information to be
routed from the source to the destination.

Non-IPSec Compatible
Common non-IPSec compatible include SOCKS, PPTP and SSH
SOCKS is not traditional V PN protocol but is robust and operates at A pplication Layer.
PTP implemented in Win95 and NT
Multiprotocol and uses PA P and CHA P user authentication.
Compresses Data
End-to-End encryption
Secure Shell SSH-2
Not strictly V PN but can be used as one with Terminal Session

Firewall Based V PNs

Frequently available with Third Generation (Stateful Inspection) Firewalls
Operate at the A pplication layer
Performance degradation is often a problem

Data Networking Basics

Data Network Types:

Local A rea Network (LA N)
Wide A rea Network (WA N )
Internet, Intranet, and Extranet

Local A rea Networks LA N

Discrete network for limited geographical area like a building or a single floor
Two most popular LA Ns are:
CA N - Campus A rea Network connects multiple buildings with each other over switched
backbone
MA N Metropolitan A rea Network LA N over a city wide metropolitan area.
Both CA N and MA N can have a connection to WA N

Wide A rea Networks - WA N

Network of sub networks that interconnect LA Ns over large geographic areas.
WA N is basically everything outside of LA N

Internet
The Internet is a WA N originally funded by the DOD
Uses TCP/ IP

Intranet
Internet like logical network that uses a companies internal physical network structure
More security and control than Internet
Uses Internet tools like browsers.

30
Extranet
Extranet can be accessed by users outside of the company, (i.e. vendors and partners) but not
the general public.
Includes some type of authentication or encryption

A synchronous vs. Synchronous Communications

A synchronous is basis of modems and dial up remote access. Must operate at same speed.
Start and stop bits mark the beginning and the end of each transfer.
Synchronous is very high speed, governed by electronic clock timing signals.

Common Data Network Services:

Files Services Share data files and subdirectories on file server

Mail Services send and receive mail internally and externally

Print Services Print documents to shared printers

Client/ Server Services A llocate computing resources among workstations

Domain Name Service Matches Internet Uniform Resource Locator (URL) with the actual IP
address of the server providing the URL. Maps host names to IP A ddresses. The Domain Name
System (DNS) is a global network of servers that provide this service.

Data Networking Technologies:

LA N Cabling Types:

Twisted Pair Cable

Relatively slow speed
Two insulated wires can be shielded (STP) or unshielded (UTP)
UTP is a four-pair medium comes in several categories
UTP can be easily tapped by eavesdroppers than the other cable types.
Category based on how tightly wound the wires are, tighter the wind the higher the rating and
resistance to interference.
Cat 1 UTP was used for telephone lines not good for data.
Cat 2 UTP up to 4 MBps
Cat 3 UTP Used for 10BaseT networks up to 10 MBps
Cat 4 UTP Used in Token Ring Networks up to 16 MBps
Cat 5 UTP - Current UTP standard for new installations up to 100 MBps
Cat 6 UTP up to 155 MBps
Cat 7 UTP up to 1 GBps

Coaxial Cable
Hollow outer conductor surrounds inner wire conductor. Currently two types in LA N s
50-ohm Cable for digital signaling
75-ohm Cable for analog signaling and high speed digital signaling
Coax is more expensive but is more resistant to Electromagnetic Interference (EMI).
Used rarely except in Broadband communications
Comes in two types:
Thinnet (RG58)
Thicknet (RG8 or RG11)
Two common types of coaxial transmission methods:

31
 Baseband The cable carries a single channel
Broadband cable carries several channels such as data, voice, audio, and video

Fiber Optic Cable

Conducts modulated light transmission
Light waves are faster and travel greater distances
Difficult to tap
Resistant to EMI
Usually connects backbones in larger networks
Can be used to connect workstations to the network.
Expensive to install and to terminate.

LA N Transmission Protocols:
Rules for communication between computers on a LA N
Formatting of the data frame, the timing and sequencing of packet delivery, and resolution of
error states.

Carrier Sense Multiple A ccess (CSMA )

Foundation of Ethernet Protocol.
Workstation continuously monitors the line waiting until it thinks it is free.
If the workstation doesnt receive an acknowledgement from the destination to which it sent the
packet, it assumes a collision has occurred and it resends the packet.
Persistent Carrier Sense - Unless receives acknowledgement it will resend.
Nonpersistent Carrier Sense waits random amount of time and resends.

CSMA / CA - Carrier Sense Multiple A ccess Collision A voidance Workstations connected to two
coax cables, one to send and one to receive data.

CSMA / CD - Carrier Sense Multiple A ccess Collision Detection Ethernet

If the host detects another signal while transmitting it will send a jam signal causing all nodes to stop
sending data. Nodes wait to resend. Designed to avoid collisions.

Polling a primary workstation polls another at a predetermined time to determine if it has data to
transmit. Primary must give permission to others to transmit.

Token passing
Token Ring and FDDI and A RCnet
Cannot transmit without the token
Each station can hold token for maximum predetermined amount of time

LA N Transmission Methods: refer to the way packets are sent on the network
Unicast from single source to single destination
Multicast - source copied and sent to multiple destinations
Broadcast - source copied and sent to all nodes on the network

LA N Topologies Five common topologies: defines the manner in which the network devices are
organized to facilitate communications.
Bus
A ll transmissions travel full length of the cable and received by all other stations.
Single point of failure in the cable.
If one of the links between any of the computers is broken, the network is down.
Primarily Ethernet.
These networks were originally designed to work with more sporadic traffic.

32
Ring
Unidirectional transmission links form closed loop.
Token Ring and FDDI.
Similar to the Star topology, however theres a device called a Multistation A ccess Unit (MA U).
MA U works the same as a hub, but with Token Ring networks instead of Ethernet networks.
These networks were originally designed to serve large, bandwidth-consuming applications.

Star
Nodes connected to a central LA N or a junction box called a hub or a concentrator at the
center of the network.
A ds: reliability
Ring and Bus often use Star as physical connection.

Tree branches can have multiple nodes.

Mesh all nodes connected to every other node.

LA N Media A ccess Methods (Physical and Data Link Layers): control the use of a network.
Ethernet 802.3
Ethernet uses CSMA / CD Designed for sporadic traffic
Ethernet defines a bus topology with three different cabling standards
Thinnet 10Base2 coax with segments up to 185 meters.
Thicknet 10BaseS coax with segments up to 500 meters.
UTP Unshielded Twisted Pair all devices connected to a hub or switch 10BaseT 10
Mbps, 100BaseT 100 Mbps and 1000BaseT 1 GBps

A RCnet 802.5
Early LA N technologies
Uses token passing in a Star topology on coax cable.

Token Ring
Second to Ethernet
A ll end stations connected to a Multistation A ccess Unit (MSA U)
One station is designated as the A ctive Monitor
If a transmitting station fails, the A ctive monitor will remove the token and generate a new one.

Fiber Distributed Data Interface FDDI

Dual token ring LA N at 100 MBps on Fiber
Dual counter rotating rings only one active at a time
Operates over long distances with minimal interference
Predictable delays, deterministic
Permits several tokens to be present at a time
Expensive and requires expertise
Copper Distributed Data Interface (CDDI) can be used with UTP cable but subject to
interference and length issues associated with Copper.

LA N Devices
Repeaters amplify signal, no added intelligence, no filtering Physical Layer (1)
Hubs used to connect multiple LA N devices, no added intelligence Physical Layer (1)
Bridges A mplify signal, add some intelligence. A bridge forwards the data to all other network
segments if the Media A ccess Control (MA C) or hardware address of the destination computer is

33
not on the local network segment. A utomatically forwards all broadcast traffic. Does not use IP
address because IP is contained in the Network Layer (3) Data Link Layer (2)
Switches Will only send data to the port where the destination MA C address is, not to all ports.
Primarily operate at the Data Link Layer (2), although extremely fast layer 3 devices combining
switching and routing are being used.
Routers router opens packet and looks at either the MA C or IP address only forwards to the
network that it is destined. Operates at Network Layer (3)
Gateways primarily software, can be multi-protocol, can examine entire packet.
A synchronous Transfer Mode (A TM) Switches Used in WA Ns and CA Ns. Use cell relay
technology.
LA N Extenders remote access multi layer switch connected to host router, filters based on MA C
address or Network Layer protocol, not capable of firewalling.

WA N Technologies
Rules for communicating between computers on a WA N
Communications between large disparate networks.

Private Circuit Technologies

Evolved before packet switching networks. Dedicated analog or digital point-to-point connection.
Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP), Point-to Point protocol (PPP), ISDN, xDSL.

Dedicated Line indefinitely and continuously reserve for transmissions.

Leased Line Type of dedicated line leased from carrier.

Types and Speeds of Leased Lines:

Digital Signal Level 0 DS-0 single channel at 64KBps on a T1
Digital Signal Level 1 DS-1 1.544 MBps in US on a T1 and 2.108 MBps in Europe on a E1
Digital Signal Level 3 DS-3 44.736 MBps on a T3

T1 Transmits DS-1 data at 1.544 MBps on telephone switching network

T3 Transmits DS-3 data at 44.736 MBps on telephone switching network

E1 predominately used in Europe carries data at 2.108 MBps

E3 - predominately used in Europe carries data at 34.368 MBps

SLIP - Serial Line Internet Protocol developed in 1984 to support TCP/ IP over low speed serial
interfaces. Using Windows NT RA S, NT computers can use TCP/ IP and SLIP to communicate to
remote hosts.

PPP - Point-to Point protocol over dial up and dedicated links, includes login, password, and error
correction. Operates at the Data Link Layer (2) and uses CHA P and PA P.

ISDN - Integrated Services Digital Network - integration of digital telephony and data transport.
Digitization of the telephone network, allowing voice, data, etc. Overtaken by DSL.

xDSL - Digital Subscriber Line uses existing twisted pair telephone lines.
A DSL A symmetric Digital Subscriber Line more bandwidth downstream from 1.5 to
9 MBps with upstream 16 to 640 KBps. A DSL works at 18,000 feet lengths,
theoretical and 14,400 practical over single copper twisted pair.
SDSL - Single-line (Symmetric) Digital Subscriber Line provides from 144 KBps up to
1.544 MBps both down and up, depending on distance, over single copper twisted pair,
works at 10,000 feet lengths.

34
 HDSL High-Rate Digital Subscriber Line - 1.544 MBps both down and up over two
copper twisted pair. Provides T1 speeds. Can do 2.048 MBps on three copper twisted
pair.
V DSL V ery-high Rate Digital Subscriber Line 13-52 MBps down and 1.5 MB to
2.3 MBps upstream over single copper twisted pair operating range 1,000 4,500
feet

Circuit Switched vs. Packet Switched

Circuit Switched
Defined as a switching system in which a physical circuit path must exist for the duration of the
transmission
Physical permanent connections from one point to another
Older technology than Packet Switching
Phone companies use this a lot

Packet Switched
Create virtual circuits used as needed and reduce cost.
Defined as a switching system where nodes share bandwidth by sending small packets.
Each packet sent to the next destination by the router.
Packets reassembled based on original sequence

Message switching Message sent from node to node and stored at each node until forwarding path
is available

Packet Switching Technologies X.25, Link A ccess Procedure Balance (LA BP), Frame Relay,
Switched Multimegabit Data Service (SMDS), A synchronous Transfer Mode (A TM), V oice over IP
(V oIP)

X.25
First packet switching network
Supports Switched V irtual Circuits (SV Cs) and Permanent V irtual Circuits (PV Cs)
Designed to operate effectively regardless of the type of systems connected to
Currently much more predominant overseas than in the US

Link A ccess Procedure Balance (LA PB)

Designed for use with X.25
Defines frame types
Can retransmit, exchange and detect out of sequence frames or missing frames.

Frame Relay
High performance WA N protocol
Operates at Physical and Data Link Layers (1 and 2)
Originally designed for ISDN
Replaces X.25 and LA PB
Simple and fast, no error correcting
Supports Switched V irtual Circuits (SV Cs) and Permanent V irtual Circuits (PV Cs)
Not available everywhere

Switched Multimegabit Data Service (SMDS)

High Speed over public switched networks
Connectionless bandwidth on demand

35
A synchronous Transfer Mode (A TM)
High bandwidth, low delay
Uses switching and multiplexing
Uses 53 byte fixed size cells instead of frames
Can allocate bandwidth on demand
Taking place of FDDI in Campus Backbone

V oice Over IP
Combines media types (voice, video, data, audio) into one IP packet
Provides benefits in cost, performance and interoperability
V ery new but far reaching potential

Other Important WA N Protocols

Synchronous Data Link Control (SDLC)

Uses polling access method for mainframes
Based on dedicated leased line
Evolved into HDLC and LA PB
Operates at Data Link Layer (2)

High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC)

Derived from SDLC
Specifies data encapsulation method on synchronous serial links
Operates at Data Link Layer (2)

High Speed Serial Interface

Defines the electrical and physical interfaces to be used by DTE/ DCE
Operates and the Physical Layer (1)

WA N Devices

Routers router opens packet and looks at either the MA C or IP address only forwards to the
network that it is destined. Operates at Network Layer (3)

Multiplexors - MUX enables more than one signal to be sent out over one physical circuit

WA N Switches multi-port network devices operate at the Data Link Layer (2). Typically swit ch
Frame Relay, X.25 and SM DS

A ccess Servers provides dial in and dial out access connections to a network. Typically
asynchronous.

Modems interprets digital and analog signals, transmits over voice grade telephone lines.

Channel Service Unit (CSU)/ Data Service Unit (DSU) used to terminate the physical interface on
a DTE device such as a terminal.

Remote A ccess Technologies

Provide remote user (employee, vendor, partner) access into the network while maintaining C.I.A .
(Confidentiality, Integrity, A vailability)

Benefits of Remote A ccess:

Reducing costs by replacing dedicated network lines
Providing employees flexible work styles, Telecommuting

36
 Building efficient ties with vendors, partners, suppliers and employees.

Remote A ccess Types Many common with WA N protocols.

A synchronous Dial up A ccess

How most people access Internet
Use existing public switched phone network to access ISP

ISDN - Integrated Services Digital Network

Carries voice, data over telephone networks
Two Interface Types
BRI Basic Rate Interface composed of two B channels and one D Channel
PRI Primary Rate Interface composed of a single 64 KBps D channel plus 23(T1) or 30 (E1)
channels

xDSL - Digital Subscriber Line

Uses existing twisted pair telephone lines.

Cable Modems
High speed access from the cable company
Users share the Coax connection
Throughput varies depending on number of users
Considered insecure because local segment is not filtered or firewalled (Says Who?)

Wireless Technology
Fastest Growing area of connectivity
Encryption is being developed
802.11a 5 Ghz wireless - very soon
802.11b 2.4 Ghz currently most popular up to 11 M Bps
802.11g 2.4 Ghz but faster than 802.11b
WEP Wired Equivalency Protocol up to 128-bit WEP
WA P - Wireless A ccess Point
SSID Service Set Identifier Network Name
Use encryption, V PN, treat as external connection, directional antenna

Secure Remote A ccess Methods:

Restricted A ddress
Filtering by source IP address
Node authentication not user authentication

Caller ID
Caller ID checks incoming number against approved list
V ery commonly used, hard to defeat
Hard to administer for traveling users

Call Back
Caller supplies password or identifier and hangs up
System dials back number listed for the user
Hard to administer for traveling users

Remote Identification and A uthentication

V erify who is remotely communication.
Identification - Who

37
 A uthentication V erify and Trust

Remote Node Security Protocols:

Password A uthentication Protocol (PA P)
Remote security protocol. Provides Identification and A uthentication.
Uses static replayable password for authentication (now considered weak)
Does not encrypt the User ID or Password

Challenge Handshake Protocol (CHA P)

Next evolution of PA P uses stronger authentication
Nonreplayable Challenge/ Response
V erifies Identity of the node
Often used to enable network-to-network communication
Commonly used by remote access servers and xDSL, ISDN, and cable modems

Remote A ccess A uthentication Systems:

TA CA CS Terminal A ccess Controller A ccess Control System (TCP)
TA CA CS+ includes the use of two factor authentication
RA DIUS Remote A ccess Dial-In User Service (UDP)

TA CA CS Terminal A ccess Controller A ccess Control System

Provides remote authentication and related services
User password administered in a central database rather than in individual routers
TA CA CS enabled network device prompts for user name and static password
TA CA CS enabled network device queries TA CA CA server to verify password
Does not support prompting for password change or use of dynamic tokens

TA CA CS+ Terminal A ccess Controller A ccess Control System Plus

Proprietary CISCO enhancement
Two factor A uthentication
User can change password
A bility to use secure tokens
Better A udit Trails

RA DIUS Remote A ccess Dial-In User Service

Offers similar benefits to TA CA CS+
Often used as a stepping stone to TA CA CS+
Radius Server contains dynamic password and network service access information (Network
A CLS)
Radius is a fully open protocol, can be customized for almost any security system
Can be used with Kerberos and provides CHA P remote node authentication
Except does not work with:
A pple Talk Remote A ccess Resolution Protocol
NetBios Frame Protocol Control Protocol
Netware A synchronous Services Interface
X.25 PA D Connection

Does not provide two-way authentication and is not used for router-to-router authentication.

38
Domain 4 Cryptography

Purpose of Cryptography is to protect information from being read and understood by anyone
except the intended recipient.

In practice encryption can be a function of time, the effort and time required for an unauthorized
person is so large it is impractical. By the time it is decrypted it is of little value.

Block Cipher Breaks the plaintext into blocks and encrypts each with the same algorithm

Cipher Cryptographic transformation operates on the characters or bites

Ciphertext or Cryptogram unintelligible message

Clustering plaintext message generates identical ciphertext using the same algorithm but different
keys

Codes A cryptographic transformation that operates at the word or phrase level

Cryptanalysis act of obtaining plaintext or key from ciphertext

Cryptographic A lgorithm Step-by-step procedure used to encipher plaintext and decipher

ciphertext

Cryptography A rt and Science of hiding the meaning of communication

Cryptology encompasses cryptography and cryptanalysis

Cryptosystem set of transformations from message space to ciphertext space

Decipher - to undo cipherment process

Encipher to make a message unintelligible to all except recipient

End-to-end encryption Encrypted information that is sent from sender to receiver

Exclusive Or
Boolean Operation
Indicated by XOR
Indicated by symbol
Easily implemented in hardware
0+ 0= 0, 0+ 1= 1, 1+ 1= 0, 1+ 1= 0

Input A Input B Output T

0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

XOR operated on the bit level

XOR the plain text (byte level) with the keystream source
Can be reversed by simple XOR of output plus keystream.
A XOR B = T

39
 T XOR B = A

Key cryptovariable
Information or sequence that controls enciphering and deciphering of message

Link Encryption
Each entity has key in common with two neighboring nodes.
Node 1 Encrypts with key A
Node 2 Decrypts with key A and encrypts with key B
Node 3 Decrypts with Key B and encrypts with Key C

One time pad

Encryption with key K with components k1, k2,kn, the encipherment uses each component of
k to encrypt message M with components m1, m2,mn.
The Key is the same length as the Message
Key only used once and never again
Key must be completely random
Not very practical
Used
Invented 1917 by the US A rmy Signal Corps and A T& T

Plaintext a message in clear text

Steganogrophy
Secret communication of a message where communication is hidden
Example last bit of each pixel in an image file contains bit of a message.

Work Function (Factor)

Difficulty in recovering plain text from ciphertext as a factor of time and cost
Systems security is directly proportional to the work function
Work function should be commensurate with the value of the data

History of Cryptography
Traced back to the Egyptians in 3000B.C.

Scytale
used by Spartans in 400B.C. wrap message around wooden dowel
diameter and length are the keys to the cipher.

Caesar cipher
Monoalphabetic substitution only used one alphabet
Specifically - Involved shifting the alphabet three letters
Known as C3 (Caesar shift 3 places)

Cipher Disks
Two concentric disks with letters on the edge
Can be used to match up letters

A rabs invented cryptanalysis

A rab philosopher al-Kindi wrote Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages

Thomas Jefferson - disks

1790 developed device with 26 disks that could be rotated individually

40
 Message would assembled by lining up the disks to the alignment bar
Then the bar was rotated a given angle and the resulting letters were the cipher text
The angle of rotation of the alignment bar was the key

Disks used extensively during the civil war

UNIX ROT13 shift the alphabet 13 places

Hagelin Machine
Developed in 1920 by Boris Hagelin Stockholm Sweden
Known as the M -209 in the US

1920a Herbert O. Yardley was in charge of U.S. MI-8 (a.k.a. the Black Chamber)
Cracked codes of a number of Nations
Gave U.S edge in Japanese negotiations in 1921-1922
U.S. State Department shut down MI-8
Upset, Yardley published book The A merican Black Chamber 1931
Japanese got new codes
Yardley is father of A merican Cryptology

Japanese Purple Machine

A fter Yardley William Friedman resumed cryptanalysis for U.S. A rmy
Broke the new Japanese cipher.
U.S. Navy broke the Purple Machine naval codes during World War II

German Enigma Machine

Polyalphabetic substitution cipher - using mechanical rotors
Developed in 1919 by Dutchman A rthur Scherbius obtained US Patent for Berlin firm
Polish cryptanalyst broke the three-ring system with card file of all 6 x 17,576 possible rotor
positions
1938 German went to six rings
In 1938 Poles and French developed the Bombe there own Enigma machine
British took over in 1940 and by 1943 British and US had high speed bombe
Disks have 26 contacts on each side, to communicate with each neighboring disk one of them
makes contact with the other disk
A lso rotates the disks after encryption of each letter
Rotates next highest rotor like a gas pump polyalphabetic
Other rotor machines German Enigma, Japanese Red, Japanese Purple and A merican
SIGA BA Big Machine

Cryptographic Technologies
Symmetric Key - (Private Key or Secret Key)
A symmetric Key (Public Key)

Public Key cannot derive the private Key

Private Key Cryptography is 1,000 times faster than public key cryptography

V igenere Polyalphabetic Cipher

Caesar is a subset of the V igenere Polyalphabetic Cipher
V igenere used 26 alphabets
Each letter of the message corresponds to a different alphabet
Subject to guessing the period, when the alphabet changes

Modulo returns the remainder over the modulo value

41
C= (M+ b) mod N
Where
C = Cipher Text
M= Message
B = fixed integer
N = size of alphabet

Transposition Permutation
Columnar Transposition write the message vertically and read horizontally
Can be attacked through frequency analysis

V ernam Cipher - One time pad, random set of non-repeating characters

Book or Running Key Cipher
Using text from a book as the key and performing modulo26 addition on it.
Would use specific line and page number

Codes - Deal with words and phrases and represent them with other numbers or letter
Concealment cipher: Every X number of words within a text, is a part of the real message.

Steganogrophy
Hiding the existence of the message.
A digital watermark would be used to detect copying of digital images

Secret Key Cryptography Symmetric Key

Sender and receiver both know the key
Encrypt and decrypt with the same key
Secret key should be changed frequently
Requires secure distribution of keys by alternate channel
Ideally only used once
Secret Key Cryptosystem does have both public and private information
Public
A lgorithm for enciphering plaintext
Possibly some plaintext and cipher text
Possibly encipherment of chosen plaintext
Private
The KEY
One cryptographic transformation out of many possible transformations
Large keys like > 128 bit are very hard to break
V ery fast
Sender requires different key for each receiver
Time stamps can be associated to the key so valid only during time window (counters replay)
No A uthentication or repudiation
Best known is DES developed by IBM in 1970s for commercial use

DES Data Encryption Standard

Derived in 1972 as derivation of Lucifer algorithm developed by Horst Fiestel at IBM
Patented in 1974 - Block Cipher Cryptographic System
Commercial and non-classified systems
DES describes the Data Encryption A lgorithm DEA
Federal Information Processing Standard FIPS adopted DES in 1977
Re-certified in 1993 by N ational Institute of Standards and Technology but will be replaced by
A ES A dvanced Encryption Standard by Rijndael.

42
 DES uses 64 bit block size and 56 bit key, begins with 64 bit key and strips 8 parity bits
DEA is 16 round cryptosystem designed for implementation in hardware
56 bit key = 2 56 or 70 quadrillion possible keys
Distributed systems can break it. U.S. Government no longer uses it
Triple DES three encryptions using DEA are now being used until A ES is adopted

DES uses confusion and diffusion as suggested by Claude Shannon

Confusion conceals statistical connection
A ccomplished through s-boxes
Diffusion spread the influence of plaintext character over many ciphertext characters
A ccomplished through p-boxes

DES Operates in four modes

Electronic Code Book (ECB)
Cipher Block Chaining (CBC)
Cipher Feedback (CFB)
Output Feedback (OFB)

Electronic Code Book

Native encryption mode
Provides the recipe of substitutions and permutations that will be performed on the block of
plaintext.
Data within a file does not have to be encrypted in a certain order.
Used for small amounts of data, like challenge-response, key management tasks.
A lso used to encrypt PINs in A TM machines.

Cipher Block Chaining

Each block of text, the key, and the value based on the previous block is processed in the
algorithm and applied to the next block of text.

Cipher Feedback
The previously generated ciphertext from the last encrypted block of data is inputted into the
algorithm to generate random values.
These random values are processed with the current block of plaintext to create ciphertext.
This mode is used when encrypting individual characters is required.

Output Feedback
Functioning like a stream cipher by generating a stream of random binary bits to be combined
with the plaintext to create ciphertext.
The ciphertext is fed back to the algorithm to form a portion of the next input to encrypt the
next stream of bits.

DES has been broken with Internet network of PCs

DES is considered vulnerable by brute force search of the key replaced by triple DES and A ES

Triple DES
Double encryption is subject to meet in the middle attack
Encrypt on one end decrypt on the other and compare the values
So Triple DES is used
Can be done several different ways:
DES EDE2 (encrypt key 1, decrypt key 2, encrypt key 1)
DES EE2 (encrypt key 1, encrypt key 2, encrypt key 1)

43
 DES EE3 (encrypt key 1, encrypt key 2, encrypt key 3) - most secure

A dvanced Encryption Standard

Block Cipher that will replace DES
A nticipated that Triple DES will remain approved for Government Use
A ES announced by NIST in January 1997 to find replacement for DES
5 Finalists
MA RS
RC6
Rijndael
Serpent
Blowfish

October 2, 2000 NIST Selected Rijndael

2 Belgian Cryptographers Dr. Daeman and Dr. Rijmen
Will be used by government for sensitive but unclassified documents

Rijndael Block Cipher

Resistance to all known attacks
Design Simplicity
Code compactness and speed on wide variety of platforms
Iterative block cipher with variable block length and key lengths that can be independently
chosen as 128, 192 or 256 bits.
3.4 x 10 38 possible 128 bit key combinations
6.2 x 10 57 possible 192 bit key combinations
1.1 x 10 77 possible 256 bit key combinations
Intermediate cipher result is called state that transformations operate on
Does not use Feistel transposition structure from DES
Uses round transformation of 3 layers
Non-linear layer
Linear mixing layer
Key addition layer
Suitable for High Speed Chips and compact co-processor on smart cards

Twofish
128 bit blocks in 16 rounds, up to 256 bit keys
Developed by Counterpane based on Blowfish (also by Counterpane) - Bruce Schnier
Employs whitening before first round and after second round
Need to break whitening keys in addition to Twofish key
Transposition

IDEA Cipher - International Data Encryption A lgorithm

64 bit block, 8 rounds, and 128 bit keys
Used in PGP
Much more difficult than DES

RC5 Family of algorithms

Developed by Ronald Rivest in 1994
32, 64 or 128 bit blocks, up to 0 to 255 rounds, 0 to 2048 bit keys
RSA patented in 1997

44
Public Key Cryptography
Employee private and public key
Public made available to anyone wanting to encrypt a message
Private key is used to decrypt
Public Key cannot decrypt the message it encrypted
Ideally private key cannot be derived from the public key
The other can decrypt a message encrypted by one of the keys
Private key is kept private

Possible through the application of one-way functions. Easy to compute in one direction but
difficult to compute the other way
In order to be useful should have a trap door, a secret mechanism that enables you to
accomplish the reverse function in a one way function
1,000 to 10,000 times slower than secret key encryption
Hybrids use public key to encrypt the symmetric key
Important algorithms Diffie-Helllman RSA , El Gamal, Knapsack, Elliptic Curve

RSA
Rivest, Shamir and A ddleman
Based on difficulty of factoring a number which is the product of two large prime numbers, may
be 200 digits each.
Can be used for Encryption, key exchange, and digital signatures

Diffie-Hellman
Exchange secret keys over insecure medium without exposing keys
Without additional session key
Primarily key exchange

El Gamal
Extended Diffie-Hellman to include signatures and encryption

Merkle-Hellman Knapsack
Having set of items with fixed weights
Determining which items can be added in order to obtain a given total weight
Illustrated using Super increasing weights (all weights greater than sum of previous)

Elliptic Curve
Elliptic curve discrete logarithm are hard to compute than general discrete logarithm
Smaller key size same level of security
Elliptic curve key of 160 bits = RSA of 1024 bits
Suited to smart cards and wireless devices (less memory and processing)
Digital signatures, encryption and key management

Public Key Cryptosystem A lgorithms

Factoring of Large Prime Numbers
RSA
Finding the discrete logarithm in a finite field
El Gamal
Diffie-Hellman
Shnorrs signature A lgorithm
Elliptic Curve
Nybergrueppels signature algorithm

A symmetric and Symmetric Key Comparisons

45
A symmetric Key Symmetric Key
512 bits 64 bits
1792 bits 112 bits
2304 bits 128 bits

Purpose of Digital Signatures

To detect unauthorized modifications and to authenticate identity and non-repudiation.
Generates block of data smaller than the original data
One way hash functions
One way has produces fixed size output (digest)
No two messages will have same digest
One way no getting original file from hash
Message digest should be calculated using all of original files data

A fter message digest is calculated it is encrypted with senders private key

Receiver decrypts using senders public key, if it opens then it is from the sender.
Then receiver computes message digest of sent file if hash is the same it has not been modified

Digital Signal Standard (DSS) and Secure Hash Standard (SHS)

Enables use of RSA digital signature algorithm or DSA Digital Signature A lgorithm (based on El
Gamal)
Both use The Secure Hash A lgorithm to compute message digest then processed by DSA to
verify the signature. Message digest is used instead of the longer message because faster.

SHA -1 - Secure Hash A lgorithm produces 160 bit digest if message is less than 2^64 bits.
It is computationally infeasible to find message from message digest
It is computationally infeasible to find to different messages with same message digest
Padding bits are added to message to make it a multiple of 512

MD5
Developed by Ronald Rivest in 1991
Produces 128 bit message digest

Hashed Message A uthentication Code (HMA C)

Uses key to generate a Message A uthentication Code which is used as a checksum

Birthday A ttack
You in a room with better than 50/ 50 chance of another person having your birthday? Need
253 people
You in a room with better than 50/ 50 chance of two people having the same birthday? Need
23 people

Cryptographic A ttack

Brute Force A ttack - try every possible combination

Known Plain Text attacker has copy of plain text and the associated ciphertext of several messages
Chosen Plain Text chosen plain text is encrypted. The attacker has the plaintext and ciphertext
and can choose the plaintext that gets encrypted.
A daptive Chosen Plain Text selection of plain text is altered based on previous results
Ciphertext Only only ciphertext is known. The attacker has the ciphertext of several messages.
Each of the messages has been encrypted using the same encryption algorithm.

46
Chosen Ciphertext Portions of the cipher text are selected for trial decryption while having access
to plain text. The attacker can choose the ciphertext to be decrypted and has access to the resulting
decrypted plaintext.
A daptive Chosen Ciphertext - Chosen cipher text are selected for trial decryption where selection is
based on previous results
Birthday A ttack the probability of two different messages having same message digest or finding
two different messages that have the same message digest
Meet in the Middle For attacking double encryption from each end and comparing in the middle
Man in the Middle intercepting messages and forwarding on modified versions
Differential Cryptanalysis Private key cryptography looking at text pairs after encryption looking
for differences
Linear Cryptanalysis using plain text and cipher text to generate a linear approximation of a
portion of the key
Differential Linear Cryptanalysis using both linear and differential approaches
Factoring using mathematics to determine the prime factors of large numbers
Statistical exploiting the lack of randomness in key generation

Public Key Certification Systems

A source could post a public key under the name of another individual
Digital certificates counter this attack, a certificate can bind individuals to their key
A Certificate A uthority (CA ) acts as a notary to bind the key to the person
CA must be cross-certified by another CA

Public Key Infrastructure - (PKI)

Integration of digital signatures and certificates.
Digital Certificates
Certificate A uthorities (CA )
Registrations A uthorities
Policies and procedures
Certificate Revocation
Non-repudiation support
Timestamping
Lightweight Directory A ccess Protocol
Security Enabled A pplications
Cross Certification

A pproaches to Escrowed Encryption

A llowing law enforcement to obtain the keys to view peoples encrypted data
Escrow the key in two pieces with two trusted escrow agents
Court order to get both pieces
Clipper Chip implemented in tamper proof hardware

Key Escrow using Public Key Cryptography

Fair Cryptosystems Sylvio Micali, MIT
Private key is split and distributed
Can verify each portion of the key without joining

Key Management

47
 Key control
Key recovery
Key storage
Key retirement/ destruction
Key Change
Key Generation
Key theft
Frequency of key use

E-mail Security
Non-repudiation
Confidentiality of messages
A uthentication of Source
V erification of delivery
Labeling of sensitive material
Control A ccess

Secure Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (S/ MIME)

A dds secure services to messages in MIME format
Provides authentication through digital signatures
Follows Public Key Cryptography Standards (PKCS)
Uses X.509 Signatures

MIME Object Security Services (MOSS)

Provides flexibility by supporting different trust models
Uses MD5, RSA Public Key and DES
Permits identification outside of the X.509 Standard

Privacy Enhanced M ail (PEM)

Compliant with Public Key Cryptography Standards (PKCS)
Developed by consortium of Microsoft, Sun, and Novell
Triple DES-EDE Symmetric Encryption
MD2 and MD5 Message Digest
RSA Public Key signatures and key distribution
X.509 Certificates and formal CA

Pretty Good Privacy - PGP

Phil Zimmerman
Symmetric Cipher using IDEA
RSA is used for signatures and key distribution
No CA , uses web of trust
Users can certify each other

Message A uthentication Code

Check value derived from message contents

SET Secure Electronic Transaction

V isa and Mastercard developed in 1997
Encrypts the payment information
DES Symmetric Encryption
RSA Public Key signatures and key distribution

48
Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) - HTTPS
Developed by Netscape in 1994
Uses public key to authenticate server to the client
A lso provides option client to sever authentication
Supports RSA public Key A lgorithms, IDEA , DES, and 3DES
Supports MD5 Hashing
HTTPS header
Resides between the application and TCP layer
Can be used by telnet, FTP, HTTP and e-mail protocols.
Based on X.509

Transaction Layer Security

Successor to SSL

Internet Open Trading Protocol (IO TP)

A imed at consumer to business transaction
Flexible and future focused

MONDEX
Smart cash card application
Proprietary encryption algorithm
Card is same as cash

IPSec
Provides encryption, access control, and non-repudiation over IP.
Two Main Protocols are
A uthentication Header integrity, authentication and non-repudiation
Encapsulating Security Payload encryption, limited authentication
Security A ssociation is required between two parties one way connection - Comprised of
Security Parameter Index (SPI) 32 bit identifier
Bi-directional communication requires two Security A ssociations

In V PN implementation IPSec can operate in transport or tunnel mode

Tunnel mode data and original IP header encrypted, new header is added
Transport mode data encrypted, header not
New header has address of V PN gateway
MD5 and SHA are used for integrity
Security A ssociations can be combined into bundles using either
Transport A djacency
Iterated Tunneling
IKE Internet Key Exchange is used for key management with IPSEC
IKE is set of three protocols:
Internet Security and Key Management Protocol (ISA KMP) phases for establishing
relationship
Secure Key Exchange Mechanism SKEME secure exchange mechanism
Oakley modes of operation needed to establish secure connection
S/ WA N Secure WA N defines IPSec based widespread use of V PNs on the internet

S-HTTP A lternative to SSL

Can be used to secure individual WWW Documents
SSL is session based

Secure Shell SSH-2

49
 Remote access via encrypted tunnel
Client to server authentication
Comprised of:
Transport Layer protocol
User A uthentication protocol
Connection Protocol

Wireless Security
WA P Wireless A pplication Protocol
Designed for mobile devices (PDA , Phones)
Set of protocols covering layers 7 to 3 of the OSI model
Less overhead than TCP/ IP
Wireless Markup language (WML)
Wireless A pplication Environment (WA E)
Wireless Session Protocol (WSP)
Wireless Transport Security Protocol (WTLS)
Wireless Datagram Protocol (WDP)

For security WA P uses Wireless Transport Security Protocol (WTLS)

Three classes of security
Class 1 A nonymous A uthentication
Class 2- Sever A uthentication
Class 3 Two way client and server authentication

Security vulnerability of WA P
WA P GA P where WTLS is decrypted and re-encrypted to SSL at the WA P gateway

C-HTML is competing with WML from Japan

C-HTML is stripped down HTML, C-HTML can be displayed on standard browser

IEEE 802.11 Standards

Interface between clients and base station
802.11 Layers
The physical layer PHY can use:
DSSS - Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
FH Frequency Hoping Spread Spectrum
IR Infrared pulse modulation
MA C Layer Medium A ccess Control
Specifies CSMA / CA Carrier Sense Multiple A ccess Collision A voidance
Provides:
Data Transfer
A ssociation
Re-association
A uthentication - WEP
Privacy - WEP
Power Management

50
Domain 5 Security A rchitecture and Models

Computer A rchitecture - Organization of the fundamental elements comprising the computer

Main components
CPU Central Processing Unit
Memory
Input / Output devices

A rithmetic Logic Unit - CPU contains A LU performs arithmetic and logical operations on binary

Computer elements connected via a group of conductors called the BUS

A ddress Bus
Data Bus
Control Bus

Memory

Cache Memory
Small amount of very high speed RA M
Holds instruction and data from primary memory that is likely to be used in the current
operation, increases apparent RA M access time

Random A ccess Memory

Memory where locations can be directly addressed and the data that is stored can be altered.
RA M is volatile lose power = lose data
DRA M Dynamic RA M
data is stored in parasitic capacitance and needs to be refreshed read and rewritten every
few milliseconds
Multi-phase clock signals used
SRA M Static RA M
Uses latches to store the bits does not need refreshing
Single-phase clock signals used

Programmable Logic Device

Integrated circuit with connections or internal logic gates that can be changed through
programming
Examples of PLD
ROM Read Only Memory
PA L Programmable A rray Logic

ROM - Read Only Memory

Non-volatile storage where locations can be directly addressed
Data can not be altered dynamically
Data remains when power is lost
Some ROMs can not be altered
Other Flash type memories can be altered but slow data transfer compared to other types of
memory
EPROMS Erasable Programmable Read Only Memories
EEPROMS Electrically Erasable Programmable Read O nly Memories
Infrequent changes
A KA - firmware

Real or Primary Memory

51
 Directly addressable by the CPU
Usually RA M

Secondary Memory
Non-volatile
Slower
Example Magnetic Disks

Sequential Memory
Must be searched from beginning
Example M agnetic Tape Drive

V irtual Memory
Uses secondary memory in conjunction with primary memory to present the CPU with more
virtual primary memory

A ddressing Modules CPU uses to address memory

Register A ddressing A ddressing registers within the CPU or registers in the primary memory
Direct A ddressing A ddressing a portion of primary memory with actual address of the
memory
A bsolute A ddressing addressing all of the primary memory space
Indexed A ddressing adding the memory address to and index register to then address memory
location
Implied A ddressing Internal register no need to supply the address
Indirect A ddressing address specified in the instruction contains final desired location

Memory protection means to prevent one program from modifying the memory contents of
another. Implemented by the Operating System or the Hardware.

Instruction Execution Cycle

Two Phases
Fetch
CPU presents address of the instruction to memory
Retrieves instructions located at that address
Execute
Instruction is decoded and executed
Controlled by the CPU clock signals
Multi-Phase clock signals used for DRA M
Single Phase clock signals used for SRA M
Some instructions require more than one machine cycle to execute
Different States of Operation:
Run or operating state
A pplication or problem state
Non-privileged instruction subset of instructions for user
Supervisory State
Privileged instructions System A dministrator may execute
Wait State - accessing slow memory

Modern Computer Enhancements

Pipelining increases performance by overlapping the steps of instructions

Three Phases - Fetch Decode Execute

52
 Complex Instruction Set instructions perform many operations per instruction, based on taking
advantage of longer fetch times
Reduced Instruction Set - simpler instruction that require less clock cycles to complete
Result of faster processors that enabled the fetch process to be done as quickly as decode
and Execute
Scalar Processor processor that executes one instruction at a time
Superscalar Processor processor that enables concurrent execution of multiple instructions in
the same pipeline
V ery Long Instruction Word Processor V LIW processor in which a single instruction specifies
more than one concurrent operation
Multiprogramming Executes two or more programs simultaneously on a single processor
Multitasking Executes two or more subprograms at the same time on a single processor
Multiprocessor Executes two or more programs at the same time on multiple processors

Input / Output Structures

A processor communicates with outside devices through (I/ O) interface adapters
Complex provide
Data buffering
Timing and interrupt controls
A dapters have addresses on the computer bus
If the adapter has address in the memory space it is known on memory-mapped (I/ O)
Benefit is that CPU sees adapter as any other memory device

Types of I/ O:
Block devices (write blocks of data; hard disk)
Character devices (not addressable; keyboard and printer)

CPU operating states: ready state, problem state, supervisory state, and wait state

Direct Memory A ccess DMA

Data is transferred directly to and from the memory bypassing the CPU

Interrupt Processing an external signal interrupts the normal program flow and requests service,
when the service is complete the CPU restores the state of the original program, CPU can turn off
interrupts

Software Binary codes is machine language instructions

A ssembly Language - Mnemonics for basic instruction set specific to the computer
One to one relationship for each assembly instruction to each machine instruction
Source code - assembly goes through assembler to become object (machine) code
Disassembler will reverse machine code into assembly
MA CROs can be used to represent several functions in assembly

High level languages English like statements, C, Java, Pascal FORTA N, BA SIC

High level code is compiled in compiler or interpreter into machine code

Compiler FORTA N, C, Java
Interpreter Java, BA SIC

Generation Language (GL) 1GL (machine), 2GL (assembly), 3 -5 GL (High level)

1 GL machine language: A ssembler translates from assembly language to machine language.
2 GL assembly language: Disassembler translates machine language to assembly.
3 GL Fortran, BA SIC, C languages: Compiler translates high-level language to machine
code.

53
 4 GL NA TURA L, FOCUS, and database query languages: Decompiler translates machine
language into high-level language.
5GL Prolog, LISP and other A rtificial Intelligence languages: Interpreter translates high-level
language one command at time to machine code.

Operating System (OS) program or set of programs that controls the resources and operations of
the computer

Controller - OS communicates with I/ O through controller (i.e. disk controller)

Open systems published specifications, subject to open review and evaluation, vulnerabilities
exposed during review.

Closed systems vendor proprietary usually not compatible with other systems, no open review,
may have unexposed vulnerabilities

Distributed Computing
Migration from central computing to the client server model, including desktops.
Major concerns:
Desktops can contain sensitive information but are at risk
Users lack general security awareness
Desktop can provide an avenue of access into other critical systems
Modems can make the network vulnerable
Downloading data from the Internet increases risk of infection with malicious code
Desktop may not be physically secure
Lack of backups on desktop

Security Mechanisms
E-mail and download policies
Robust A ccess control, including biometrics at the desktop
GUI access to restrict access to critical information
File encryption
Separation of the processes that run in privileged mode
Protection of domains
Protection of sensitive disks with physical security
Distinct labeling according tom classification
Centralized backup of desktop files
Regular security awareness training
Control of software installed on desktops
Encryption and hash totals for use in sending information
Logging of transactions and transmissions
A pplication of other physical, logical and administrative access controls
DBMS systems that restrict access to data
Protection against environmental damage
Formal change management and development and implementations
Desktops included in DR and BCP plans

Protection Mechanisms
Protection Domain - Execution of memory space assigned to each process
Protects from unauthorized modification and executional interference

Trusted Computing Base Total Combination of protection mechanisms

Hardware
Software

54
 Firmware
Security perimeter - separates TCB from the rest of the system

Trusted Path - must exist for user to gain protected access to the TCB

Protection Rings
Ring 0 - Most privileged domain is in the middle ring 0, usually the OS Kernel
Security Kernel - is hardware, firmware and software (TCB) that implements the Reference
Monitor
Reference Monitor a system component that enforces access control of an object
Reference Monitor Concept - an abstract machine that mediates all access of subjects to objects
Security Kernel must
Mediate all access
Be protected from modification
Be verified as correct
A ccess rights decrease as rings increase, according to least privilege
Ring system implemented by MIT in MULTICS designed 64 rings, in practice 8 rings were used

Other A pproaches
Using separate hardware
Using virtual machines on the same machine with different levels of security
Using a software security kernel that has its own hardware protection domain

Security Labels
A ssigned to a resource to indicate classification level
Usually not changed
Effective access control mechanism
Require additional overhead for verification

Security Modes
Systems operate in different modes based on the level of classification and clearance of the users
High Mode of Operation all users have a security clearance or authorization to access the
information but not necessarily a need-to-know for all the information processed on the system
(only some of the data).
Multi Level Operation - Permits two or more classification levels of information to be processed
at the same time when all the users do not have the clearance of formal approval to access all
the information being processed by the system
Dedicated all users have the clearance or authorization and need-to-know to all data processed
within the system.
Compartmented all users have the clearance to access all the information processed by the
system, but might not have the need-to-know and formal access approval.
Controlled type of multilevel security limited level of trust in the systems hardware/ software
Limited A ccess minimum level of clearance is uncleared (no clearance) and sensitive but
unclassified data

A dditional Considerations
Covert Channel Unintended communication path between two resources that allows transfer
of information in violation of security policy
Lack of Parameter Checking Failure to check the size of input streams, Can allow Buffer
Overflow
Maintenance Hook (trapdoor) allows maintenance of system bypassing security
Time of Check to Time of Use attack that exploits the difference in time between time
security applied and time that service is used

55
Recovery Procedures
Failure must not compromise the security of the system
If system restart is required it must re-start in safe mode (maintenance mode)
Maintenance Mode - allows access only by privileged users
Fault Tolerance allows component of system to fail and recover
Fail Safe System processing is halted if component of system fails
Fail Soft (resilient) non critical processing is halted if component of system fails
Failover switching to duplicate or hot backup
Cold Start when the TCB and software may be inconsistent and outside intervention is
required

A ssurance
Degree of confidence in satisfaction of security needs

Evaluation Criteria
Trusted Computer Security Evaluation Criteria (TCSEC) was developed in 1985 by National
Computer Security Center (NCSC)
TCSEC Provides the following:
Basis for establishing security requirements in the acquisition specifications
Standard of security services that should be provided by the vendor
Means to measure trustworthiness of an information system
TCSEC is the Orange Book part of rainbow series
Basic control objectives of O range Book:
Security Policy
A ssurance
A ccountability

Orange Book A ddresses:

Confidentiality
NOT Integrity
It looks specifically at the operating system and not other issues

Levels
D Minimal Protection
C Discretionary Protection (C1 and C2)
B Mandatory Protection (B1, B2, and B3)
A V erified protection, formal methods (A 1)

Trusted Network Interpretation (TNI) Red Book

A ddresses confidentiality and integrity in trusted computer/ communications network systems

Trusted Database Management System Interpretation (TDI)

A ddresses trusted database management systems

European Information Technology Security Evaluation Criteria (ITSEC)

A ddresses confidentiality and integrity and availability
Target of Evaluation (TOE) system to be evaluated
TOE must have a security target including security enforcing mechanisms and security
policy
Separately evaluates functionality and assurance
Ten Functionality Classes - F
Eight A ssurance Levels - Q
Seven Levels of Correctness E
Eight basic security functions

56
 Listed as F-X, E

European ITSEC TCSEC

F-C1, E1 C1
F-C2, E2 C2
F-B1, E3 B1
F-B2, E4 B2
F-B3, E5 B3
F-B3, E6 A1

Other Classes of ITSEC address high integrity and high availability

Common Criteria
TCSEC, ITSEC and Canadian Trusted Computer Product Evaluation Criteria (CTCPEC) have
evolved into one common criteria
Common Criteria defines Protection Profile that specifies the security requirements and
protections of the product to be evaluated.
Organized around TCB entities
Physical and logical controls
Start up and recovery
Reference mediation
Privileged States

Certification and A ccreditation

Formal methods to ensure that appropriate safeguards are in place and functioning per the
specifications
Must be regularly checked after a defined period of time

Certification evaluation of technical and non-technical security features to establish how the design
meets the security requirements

A ccreditation A formal declaration by a Designated A pproving A uthority (DA A ) where a system

is approved to operate in a security mode

US Defense and Government A ccreditation and Certification Standards

DITSCA P Defense Information Technology Security Certification A ccreditation Process
NIA CA P - National Information A ssurance Certification A ccreditation Process

DITSCA P Defense Information Technology Security Certification A ccreditation Process

Establishes a standard process, a set activities, general task descriptions and a management structure
to certify and accredit system will maintain its required security posture.
Four Phases of DITSCA P
Definition understanding of environment and architecture
V erification V erify compliance with System Security A uthorization (While evolving)
V alidation - V alidate compliance with System Security A uthorization (final)
Post A ccreditation continuing operation

NIA CA P - National Information A ssurance Certification A ccreditation Process

Minimum national standards for accrediting national security system
Establishes a standard process, a set activities, general task descriptions and a management
structure to certify and accredit system will maintain its required security posture.
Three types of NIA CA P accreditation

57
 Site accreditation evaluates application at self contained location
Type accreditation evaluates application at number of locations
System accreditation - evaluates a major application or support system

Information Security Models

A ccess control models
Integrity Models
Information Flow Models

A ccess Control Models

A ccess M atrix
Take-Grant
Bell-Lapadula Confidentiality
State Machine

A ccess M atrix
Straight Forward provides access rights to subjects for objects.
A ccess Rights Read, write and execute
Subject can be a person or a program
Objects file or storage device
Columns - are called A ccess Control Lists
Rows - are capability lists
Supports Discretionary A ccess Control
Triple - Subjects capability is defined by a triple (object, rights, random#)
The random number prevents spoofing

Take-Grant Model
Uses a directed graph to specify the rights a subject can transfer to an object or take from another
subject.

Bell-Lapadula confidentiality model

Developed to formalize the US Department of Defense multilevel security policy
Only deals with confidentiality does not deal with integrity or availability
Based on Government Classification Unclassified, Sensitive But Unclassified (SBU),
Confidential, Secret, Top Secret
Must have need to know
A Trusted Subject can violate the * property
Does not address client/ server model
Based on State Machine Concept
Starts at secure state and transitions from one state to another.
The initial state must be secure and the transitions result in a secure state
Bell-Lapadula Security State Defined by three properties:
1. Simple Security Property (ss Property) no reading from lower subject to higher object (No
Read Up)
2. The * (star) security Property No writing from higher subject to lower object (No write
Down)
Trusted Subject can violate the star property but not its intent
Strong * property no reading or writing to another level
3. Discretionary Security Property Uses A ccess M atrix to specify discretionary access control

Discretionary access can be:

Content Dependent access decisions based on data contained in the object data.
Context Dependent access based on subject or object attributes to make these decisions (i.e.
job role, earlier accesses, and file creation dates and times).

58
Weaknesses of Bell-Lapadula
Does not address covert channels
Does not address modern systems that use file sharing and server
Does not define secure state transition
Based on multilevel security does not address other policy types

Integrity Models

Biba Integrity Model

Integrity defined by three goals
Data protected from modification by unauthorized users
Data protected from unauthorized modification by authorized users
Data is internally and externally consistent.

Biba Integrity Model

Developed in 1977 as an integrity add on to Bell-Lapadula
Lattice Based uses less than or equal to relation
A lattice structure is a set with a least upper bound (LUB) and a greatest lower bound (GLB)
Lattice represents a set of integrity classes (IC) and an ordered relationship
Lattice = (IC, , LUB, GUB)

Integrity A xioms
1 The Simple Integrity A xiom - no reading of lower object from higher subject (No Read
Down)
2 The * (star) Integrity A xiom No writing from lower subject to higher object (No write
Up)
3 A subject at a lower level of integrity can not invoke a subject at a higher level of integrity

Clark-Wilson Integrity Model

Two elements: well formed transaction and separation of duties.
Developed in 1987 for use in real-world commercial environment
A ddresses the three integrity goals
Constrained Data Item (CDI) A data Item whose integrity is to be preserved
Integrity V erification Procedure (IV P) confirms that all CDIs have integrity
Transformation Procedure (TP) transforms a CDI from one integrity state to another integrity
state
Unconstrained Data Item data items outside of the control area of the modeled environment
Requires Integrity Labels

Information Flow Models

Each object and subject is assigned security class and value; info is constrained to flow in
directions that are permitted by the security policy.
Based on state machine and consists of objects, state transitions and lattice (flow policy) states.
Object can be a user
Each object is assigned a security class and value
Information is constrained to flow in the directions permitted by the policy

Non-interference Model
A ctions of group A using commands C are not seen by users in Group B using commands D

Composition Theories
When smaller systems are combined they must maintain the component system security properties

59
McClean defined internal and external compositional constructions
External Constructs
Cascading one systems input is the output of another
Feedback one systems output is input to another system and returned as input to the first
system
Hookup a system that communicates with another system and external entities
Internal Constructs:
Intersection, Union and Difference
Conclusion security maintained in cascading constructs but subject to other system variables for
other constructs

Orange Book Trusted Computer Security Evaluation Criteria

(TCSEC) was developed in 1985 by National Computer Security Center (NCSC)

D Minimal protection
Evaluated but fail to meet requirements

C Discretionary A ccess Control

C1 Discretionary Security Protection
Nominally satisfies discretionary controls
C2 Controlled A ccess protection
Users accountability - through login and auditing

B Mandatory A ccess Control

B1 Labeled Security
Data labeling
Informal security policy model
B2 Structured
Trusted Facility Management - Support Operator and Security A dministrator
Covert Channel Covert Storage Channels
Configuration Change Management Development and Maintenance
B3- Security Domains
Trusted Facility Management Identify Security A dministrator Functions
Covert Channel Covert Storage and Covert Timing Channels
Trusted Recovery Required
Configuration Change Management Development and Maintenance

A V erified Design
A 1 V erified Design
Trusted Facility Management Identify Security A dministrator Functions
Covert Channel Covert Storage and Covert Timing Channels
Trusted Recovery Required
Configuration Change Management Entire System Lifecycle

European ITSEC TCSEC Common Criteria

E0 D EA L1
F-C1, E1 C1 EA L2
F-C2, E2 C2 EA L3
F-B1, E3 B1 EA L4
F-B2, E4 B2 EA L5
F-B3, E5 B3 EA L6

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F-B3, E6 A1 EA L7

61
Domain 6 Operations Security

Triples
Threat an event that could cause harm by violating the security ( i.e. Operator abuse of
privileges)
V ulnerability weakness in a system that enables security to be violated (i.e. Weak Segregation
of duties)
A sset anything that is a computer resource (i.e. software data)

C.I.A .
Confidentiality operations controls affect confidentiality of data.
Integrity how well operations controls are implemented affects data integrity
A vailability fault tolerance and ability to recover

Controls and protections

Controls to protect hardware, software and media from:
Threats in an operating environment
Internal and external intruders
Operators inappropriately accessing resources

Categories of Controls
Preventative prevent harmful occurrence
Lower amount and impact of errors entering the system
Prevent unauthorized intruders from accessing the system
Detective detect after harmful occurrence
Track unauthorized transactions
Corrective restore after harmful occurrence
Data recovery

A dditional Control Categories

Deterrent Control encourage compliance with external controls
A pplication Controls designed into software applications
Transaction Controls control over the various stages of a transaction
Input Controls ensure transactions properly input
Processing Controls guarantee transactions are proper and valid
Output Controls protect the confidentiality and integrity of output
Change Controls preserve integrity when configuration changes are made
Test Controls ensure data integrity and confidentiality of data during testing

Orange Book Controls TCSEC Trusted Computer Security Evaluation Criteria

A ssurance level of confidence that security policies have been implemented correctly

Operational A ssurance focuses on basic features and architecture of a system

System A rchitecture
System Integrity
Covert Channel A nalysis
Trusted Facility Management
Trusted Recovery

Life Cycle A ssurance controls and standards required for building and maintaining a system
Security Testing
Design Specification and testing
Configuration Management
Trusted Distribution

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Covert Channel A nalysis
A n information path that is not normally within a system and is therefore not protected by the
systems normal security mechanism.
Secret ways to convey information to another program or person
Covert Storage Channels - convey information by changing stored data (B2)

Covert Timing Channels convey information by altering the performance of or modifying

the timing of system resources in measurable way. (B3, A 1= Storage and Timing)

Combat Covert Channel A nalysis - with noise and traffic generation

Trusted Facility Management - Required for B2, B3, and A 1

Defined as assignment of a specific individual to administer the security of a system. (Security
A dministrator)

Separation of Duties
A ssign different tasks to different personnel
No single person can completely compromise a system
Related to the concept of least privileges least privileges required to do ones job

Secure Systems - System A dministrator and Security A dministrator must be different roles.
Highly Secure Systems - System A dministrator, Security A dministrator, and Enhanced Operator
must be different roles.
If same person roles must be controlled and audited.

System A dmin Enhanced Operator Functions

Installing software
Start up and shut down of system
A dding removing users
Performing back up and recovery
Handling printers and queues

Security A dministrator Functions

Setting user clearances, initial passwords and other security characteristics for new users
Changing security profiles for users
Setting file sensitivity labels
Setting security of devices
Renewing audit data

B2 security level requires that systems must support separate operator and system administrator
roles.
B3 and A 1, systems must clearly identify the functions of the security administrator to perform
the security-related functions.

Rotation of duties
Limiting the length of time a person performs duties before being moved

Trusted Recovery - Required for B3 and A 1 levels

Ensures Security is not breached when a system crashes or fails
System must be restarted without compromising security
Two primary activities

63
 Failure Preparation
Backups on a regular basis
System Recovery -
Rebooting in single user mode no other users allowed on the system
Recovering all file systems
Restoring files
Recovering security
Checking security critical files

Three hierarchical recovery types:

Manual Recovery Sys A dmin must be involved
A utomated Recovery no intervention for single failure
A utomated Recovery without Undue Loss similar to A utomated Recovery, higher level pf
recovery no undue loss of protected object

Configuration Change Management Required B2, B3 and A 1

Process of tracking and approving changes
Identify, control and audit changes
Changes to the system must not diminish security
Includes roll back procedures
Documentation updates to reflect changes
Recommended for systems below the required B2, B3 and A 1
Change Control Functions:
Orderly manner and formalized testing
Users informed of changes
A nalyze effects of changes
Reduce negative impact of changes
Configuration Management required for Development and Implementation stages for B2 and B3
Configuration Management required for life cycle of system for A 1

A dministrative Controls
HR and personnel controls
Personnel Security
Employment screening
Mandatory V acation
Warnings and Termination for violating security policy
Separation of Duties
Least Privileges
Need to Know
Change Control/ Configuration Control
Record Retention and Documentation

Least privilege
No access beyond job requirements
Group level privileges for Operators
Read Only
Read / Write - usually copies of original data
A ccess Change make changes to original data

Operations Jobs
Computer Operator backups, system console, mounting tapes, hardware, software
Operations A nalyst works with application developers, maintenance programmers and
computer operators

64
 Job Control A nalyst responsible for overall job control quality
Production Scheduler planning and timing of processing
Production Control A nalyst printing and distribution of reports
Tape Librarian collects tapes, manages off-site storage

Record Retention - Records should be maintained according to management, legal, audit and tax
requirements

Data Remanence Data left on media after it has been erased

Due care and Due Diligence Security A wareness, Signed A cceptance of Employee Computer Use
Policy

Documentation procedures for operations, contingency plans, security polices and procedures

Operation Controls

Resource Protection
Protecting Resources from disclosure alteration or misuse
Hardware routers, firewalls, computers, printers
Software libraries, vendor software, OS software
Data Resource backup data, user data, logs

Hardware Controls
Hardware Maintenance
Requires physical and logical access by support and vendors
Supervision of vendors and maintenance, background checks
Maintenance A ccounts
Disable maintenance accounts when not needed
Rename default passwords
Diagnostic Port Control
Specific ports for maintenance
Should be blocked from external access
Hardware Physical Controls require locks and alarms
Sensitive operator terminals
Media storage rooms
Server and communications equipment
Modem pools and circuit rooms

Software Controls
A nti-virus Management prevent download of viruses
Software Testing formal rigid software testing process
Software Utilities control of powerful utilities
Safe software Storage prevent modification of software and copies of backups
Back up Controls test and restore backups

Privileged Entity Controls privileged operations functions

Extended special access to system commands
A ccess to special parameters
A ccess to system control program some only run in particular state

Media Resource Protection

65
Media Security Controls prevent the loss of sensitive information when the media is stored outside
the system
Logging log the use of the media, provides accountability
A ccess Control physical access control
Proper Disposal sanitization of data rewriting, degaussing, destruction

Media V iability Controls protect during handling, shipping and storage

Marking label and mark media, bar codes
Handling physical protection of data
Storage security and environmental protection from heat, humidity, liquids, dust, smoke,
magnetism

Physical Protection
Protection from physical access
Hardware routers, firewalls, computers, printers
Software libraries, vendor software, OS software

Physical piggybacking following an authorized person through a door

Monitoring and A uditing

Monitoring problem identification and resolution
Monitor for:
Illegal Software Installation
Hardware Faults
Error States
Operational Events

Penetration Testing Testing a networks defenses by using the same techniques as external intruders
Scanning and Probing port scanners
Demon Dialing war dialing for modems
Sniffing capture data packets
Dumpster Diving searching paper disposal areas
Social Engineering most common, get information by asking

V iolation A nalysis
Clipping levels must be established to be effective
Clipping Level baseline of normal activity, used to ignore normal user errors
Profile Based A nomaly Detection
Looking for:
Repetitive Mistakes
Individuals who exceed authority
Too many people with unrestricted access
Patterns indication serious intrusion attempts

A uditing
IT A uditors A udit:
Backup Controls
System and Transaction Controls
Data Library Controls
Systems Development Standards
Data Center Security
Contingency Plans

66
A udit Trails
Enables tracking of history of modifications, deletions, additions.
A llow for accountability
A udit logs should record:
Transaction time and date
Who processed transaction
Which terminal was used
V arious security events relating to transaction

A lso should look at:

A mendment to production jobs
Production job reruns
Computer Operator practices

Other issues with audit logs:

Retention and Protection of audit media and reports
Protection against alteration

Problem Management
Goals of problem management:
Reduce failures to a manageable level
Prevent occurrence of a problem
Mitigate the impact of problems

Potential Problems:
Performance and availability of computing resources
The system and networking infrastructure
Procedures and transactions
Safety and security of personnel

A bnormal Events - that can be discovered by an audit

Degraded resource availability
Deviations from the standard transaction procedures
Unexplained occurrences in a processing chain

Objective of problem management is resolution of the problem

Threats and V ulnerabilities

Threat - if realized can cause damage to a system or create a loss of C.I.A .
V ulnerability a weakness in a system that can be exploited by a threat

Threats:
A ccidental loss
Operator input error and omissions - manual input errors
Transaction processing errors programming errors

Inappropriate A ctivities:
Can be grounds for job action or dismissal
Inappropriate content storing inappropriate content like porn
Waste of Corporate Resources personal use of hardware and software
Sexual or Racial Harassment Using e-mail or other resources to distribute inappropriate
material

67
 A buse of privileges or rights using unauthorized access levels to violate confidentiality of
company data

Illegal Computer Operations

Eavesdropping sniffing, dumpster diving, social engineering
Fraud collusion, falsified transactions
Theft information or trade secrets, physical hardware and software theft
Sabotage Denial of Service (DoS), production delays
External A ttacks malicious cracking, scanning, war dialing

V ulnerabilities
Traffic/ Trend A nalysis analyzing data characteristics
Countermeasures include:
Padding Messages making messages uniform size
Sending Noise transmitting non-informational data elements to disguise real data
Covert Channel A nalysis unintended channel

Data Scavenging
Piecing together information from bits of data
Keyboard A ttacks sitting at the keyboard using normal utilities to gain information
Laboratory A ttack using very precise electronic equipment

IPL V ulnerabilities Initial Program Load

A bility to put the system in single user mode at boot up
Grants Operator powerful features

Network A ddress Hijacking

Enables intruder to capture traffic for analysis or password theft
Intruder can reroute the data output, obtain supervisory terminal function and bypass system
logs.

68
Domain 7 A pplications and System Development

Software Development Lifecycle

Goals:
Produce Quality product that meets users needs
Stay within budget and time schedule

Simplistic M odel
Took into account each stage but did not take into account any rework that may be required by later
stages

Waterfall Model
A llows developer to go back and work on the previous stage
Limited to one stage back
Fundamental problem:
A ssumes that a stage will finish at a specific time
Usually not the case in the real world
If an ending phase is forcibly tied to a milestone, the milestone can not be considered met
until the rework is concluded
In 1976 Barry Boehm, reworked waterfall model to have all phases end with a Milestone
and the back references represents verification and validation against baselines

V erification evaluates the product against the specification

V alidation evaluates the product against the real world requirements

Waterfall Model: System RequirementsSoftware RequirementsA nalysisProgram

DesignCodingTestingOperations & Maintenance

The Spiral Model

Developed in 1988 by Barry Boehm
Incorporates the various phases of software development
Broken out into Quadrants
Cost is on the radial dimension (Y A xis)
Quadrants:
Lower Left Developing Plans
Upper Left Defines Objectives
Upper Right Prototyping to identify risks
Lower Right Final Development
Left Horizontal A xis represents major review to complete each full cycle

Information Security and the Life Cycle Model

Information Security: controls conception, development, implementation, testing, and
maintenance should be conducted concurrently with the system software life cycle phases

Testing Issues
Unit testing should be addressed when modules are designed
Personnel separate from the developers should test
Should include out of range situations
Test cases should be used with known expected values

Software Maintenance Phase

Request Control manage user requests
Establish priorities

69
 Estimate Costs
Determine interface presented to user

Change Control
Recreating and analyzing the problem
Developing changes and tests
Performing quality control
Tools to be used for changes
Documentation of changes
Restriction of changes effect on other parts of code
Recertification and accreditation

Release Control
Issuing the latest release of the software

Configuration Management
BS 7799 The discipline of identifying components of a continually evolving system for the
purposes of controlling changes to those components maintaining integrity and traceability
throughout the lifecycle.

Configuration Item component which is to be changed

V ersion recorded state of the configuration item
Configuration collection of component configuration
Building process of assembling a version
Build List set of version used to build configuration item
Software Library controlled area

Configuration Identification identify and document the functional characteristics of configuration

item

Configuration Control control changes to configuration items from software library, issuing
versions

Configuration Status A ccounting record the processing of changes

Configuration A udit - Control of the quality of configuration management

The Software Capability M aturity Model

Quality of finished product is a component of the quality of the development process
CMM developed by the Software Engineering Group (SEI) in 1986
Defines Five Maturity Levels
Level 1 Initiating competent people, processes are informal and ad hoc
Phase 1
Level 2 Repeatable has project management processes INITIATE
Level 3 Defined technical practices are integrated with management practices Being formal SPI effort
Level 4 Managed product and processes are quantitatively controlled
Level 5 Optimizing Continuous process improvement Phase 2
DIAGNOSE
The Software CMM supports the concept of continuous improvement Perform Assessment

Process Improvement IDEA L Model Phase 3

Phase 1 Initiate begin formal process improvement effort ESTABLISH
Dev. Prioritized action plan
Phase 2 Diagnose Perform A ssessment
Continuous Process
Phase 3 Establish Develop prioritized action plan Improvement
Phase 4 A ction implement process improvement Phase 4
ACTION
Imp. process improvement

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Phase 5
LEVERAGE
Reassess & continuously improve
processes
Phase 5 Leverage reassess and continuously improve

Benefits:
Improved Software Quality
Reduced Lifecycle
More accurate scheduling
Management visibility
Proactive Planning and tracking

Software Development Life Cycle:

1. System Feasibility
Information Security Policy Legal Issues
Standards Early V alidation of
concepts

2. Software Plans & Requirements

Threats Legal Liabilities
V ulnerabilities Cost/ Benefit A nalysis
Security Requirements Level of Protection Desired
Reasonable Care Develop Test Plans
Due Diligence V alidation

3. Product Design
Incorporate Security Design Documentation
Specifications
A djust Test Plans and Data Evaluate Encryption
Options
Determine A ccess Controls V erification

4. Detailed Design
Design Security Controls Commensurate with legal Detailed Documentation Design
requirements
Design A ccess Controls Consider Business Continuity Issues
Employ Encryption Finalize User GUI
A dapt Security Test Plans V erification

5. Coding
Develop information security-related Support business continuity
code plan
Implement unit testing Develop documentation
Incorporate other modules or units

6. Integration Product
Integrate Security Refine Documentation
Components
Test Integrated Modules Conduct Security Related product
verification

7.Implementation
Install Security Software Test Security Software
Run Systems Complete Documentation, certification, and
accreditation

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Conduct A cceptance
Testing

8. Operations & Maintenance

Revalidate Security controls Deliver changes
Conduct Penetration testing and vulnerability Evaluate conformance to SLA and
analysis validations
Manage Request for Changes Update documentation, recertification
Implement change control

Object Oriented Systems

Group of independent objects, cooperate to provide systems functionality
Objects are encapsulated can be viewed as a black box
A ccording to Booch, each object has a State, Behaviour, and Identity

Fundamentals of Object Oriented Systems

Message communication to an object to carry out an operation
Method the code that defines the action of the object in response to a message
Behavior results exhibited by an object in response to a message
Class collection of common objects
Instance objects are instances of classes that contain their methods
Inheritance method and class are inherited by a subclass
Delegation forwarding a request by an object to another object, no method to service the
request itself
Polymorphism is objects of many different classes that are related by some common superclass;
thus any object denoted by this name is able to respond to some common set of operations in a
different way
Polyinstantiation is the development of a new version of an object from another object
replacing variables with other values.
For example, relational database, the name of a military unit may be classified in the
database and may have an ID # as the primary key. If another user at a lower classification
level attempts to create a confidential entry for another unit using the same id# as a primary
key, a rejection of the attempt would infer to the lower level user the same ID exists at a
higher classification.
To avoid inference, systems will allow same id# for lower class and the DBMS would manage
to permit same primary key for two different units
Prevents inference violations

Phases of development for object orientation:

Object Oriented Requirements A nalysis (OORA ) defines classes of objects and interaction
Object Oriented A nalysis (OOA ) understanding and modeling a problem
Domain A nalysis (DA ) identify objects and classes common to all application
Object Oriented Design (OOD) object is the basic unit of modularity
Object Oriented Programming (OOP) emphasizes employment of objects in programming

Reusing tested objects reduces time and testing for development

Object Request Brokers:

Objects made available to users across networks.
ORBs are middleware because they reside between two other entities
Establishes client/ server relationship between objects

72
Common Object Request Broker (CORBA ) A rchitecture:
Developed by Object Management Group (OMG)
Defines industry standard enabling different programs on different platforms to communicate

Common Object Model (COM)

Formerly known as Object Linking and Embedding (OLE)
Support exchange of objects between programs

Distributed Common Object Model (DCOM)

Support exchange of objects across networks

Object Oriented Languages:

Simula 67 first Object Oriented Language
C+ +
Smalltalk

A rtificial Intelligence Systems

Using software and hardware to solve problems
Two Types of A I: (Expert Systems, and Neural Networks)
Expert Systems exhibits reasoning similar to that of a human
Builds knowledge base (in the form of If-Then statements) of the domain to be addressed in the
form of rules and an inference mechanism to determine if the rules have been satisfied by system
input
Expert System = Inference engine + knowledge base
Knowledge Base - contains facts and rules
Inference Engine compares information acquired to the knowledge base
If there is a match the rule fires
Certain rules have a higher priority Salience

Expert Systems Operate in two modes:

Forward Chaining acquires information and comes to a conclusion
Backward Chaining backtracks to determine if a hypothesis is correct

Uncertainty
Bayesian Theory or fuzzy logic

Fuzzy Logic (addresses uncertainties)

Degrees of uncertainty whether something is true or false
Fuzzification apply membership function to input variable to determine degree of truth
Inference truth value applied to conclusion of each rule
Composition all subsets combined
Defuzzification convert fuzzy subset to a number

Spiral Model
Can be used to build expert system
A cquisition of Knowledge is key
Is a meta-model that incorporates a number of the software development models.
Stages
A nalysis
Specification
Development
Deployment
V erification and validation concerned with inconsistencies and conflicting rules

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Neural Networks based on functioning of biological neurons
Neurons, signals are exchanged among neurons through electrical pulses traveling along an axon
Electrical pulse arrives at a neuron at points called synapses
Output = Input1* Weight1 + Input2* Weight2
Summation of inputs with dynamic weights assigned to them
One summing node is called a single-layer network
Multiple summing nodes is a multi-layer network
Training develops the weights
Neural networks can be trained to give the correct response for each input.

Database Systems
Can be used to define, store and manipulate data without writing specific programs to perform these
functions.

Different Types of Databases

Hierarchical
Mesh
Object-Oriented
Relational

Database Security Issues

Security is provided in relational databases through views.
V irtual relation that combines information from other relations.
The DBMS can be compromised by circumventing the normal security controls.
A ggregation A ct of obtaining information of higher sensitivity by combining information from
lower levels of sensitivity.
Inference is ability of users to infer or deduce info about data at sensitivity levels for which
they do not have access. A link that enables an inference to occur is called an inference channel.
Open Database Connectivity (O DBC) developed by M icrosoft must be controlled.

Data Warehouse and Data Mining

Data Warehouse repository of information from heterogeneous databases that is available for users
to make queries.
Data is normalized and redundant data is removed.
Data warehouse and mining can be applied to audit logs and other info to find system anomalies.

Data mining: Objective is to find relationships that were unknown up until now among data in
warehouse. Searching for correlations
Metadata: Correlations or data about data
Data mart: Metadata is not stored in data warehouse. Metadata usually stored in a separate
system.

Data Dictionary
Database system for developers
Records all data structures used by an application

A pplication Controls

A pplication Control Type A ccuracy Security Consistency

Preventative Data Checks, custom Firewalls, reference Data Dictionary,
screens, validity monitors, sensitivity programming
checks, contingency labels, traffic standards, DBMS
planning and padding, encryption,

74
 backups data classification,
one-time passwords,
separate test and
development
environments
Detective Cyclic redundancy IDS, and audit trails Comparison tools,
checks, structured relationship tests,
walk throughs, hash reconciliation
totals, controls
reasonableness
checks
Corrective Backups, control Emergency response, Programs comments,
reports, before and and reference database controls
after imaging monitor
reports, checkpoint
restarts

Service Level A greements

Guarantees the level and quality of service
Metrics in SLA s
Turn around times
A verage response times
Number of on-line users
System utilization rates
System up times
V olume of transactions
Production problems

Distributed Systems
Pose special challenges to security
Security for distributed systems should include:
A ccess control
Identification
A uthentication
Intrusion detection
Emergency response
Logs
A udit trails

Client/ Server is a type of distributed system

A gent surrogate program performs services on behalf of another
Proxy acts on behalf of principal but may hide the principal
A pplets small applications in Java or C+ + , mobile code
A pplets can be downloaded from the web into a web browser. A pplet can execute in the
network browser
Java
Designed to run on constrained space
Java is an object-oriented, distributed, interpreted (not compiled), architecture-neutral,
multithreaded, general purpose programming language
Thread lightweight process
Interpreted language executes one line at a time, run-time biding
Compiled language is translated into machine code, binding at compile time

75
 A ctive X can download mobile code in BA SIC and C+ +
Establishes trust between client and server with digital certificates

Malicious Mobile Code Defenses

Ie : Java and A ctiveX code downloaded into a Web browser from the WWW.
Configure firewall to screen applets
Configure Web Browser to restrict or prevent applets
Configure Web Browser to restrict or prevent applets from trusted servers
Provide user awareness training on mobile code threats

Centralized A rchitecture
Centralized is easier to protect than distributed.

Real Time Systems

Operate by acquiring data from sensors and transducers in real time and make real time
decisions
Example: Fly by wire control of supersonic aircraft
A vailability is crucial
A ddressed through RA ID disk mirroring
Fault Tolerant Systems has to detect and take action to recover from faults

Others:
Black-box testing observes the system external behavior.
White-box testing is a detailed exam of a logical path, checking the possible conditions.
Compiled code poses more risk than interpreted code because malicious code can be embedded
in the compiled code and can be difficult to detect.
Regression testing is the verification that what is being installed does not affect any portion of the
application system already installed. It generally requires the support of automated process to
repeat tests previously undertaken.
Code comparison is normally used to identify the parts of the source code that have changed.
Integration testing is aimed at finding bugs in the relationship and interfaces between pairs of
components. It does not normally test all functions.
Unit testing is the testing of a piece of code. It will only detect errors in the piece of code being
tested.

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Domain 8 Business Continuity and Disaster Recovery Planning

Making the plans for recovery and putting them into action to recover with as little impact on the
business as possible.

Business Continuity ensuring the business can continue in an emergency

Disaster Recovery recover as quickly as possible

BCP Process includes:

Scope and Plan Initiation
Business Impact A nalysis (BIA )
Business Continuity Plan development

DRP Process includes:

DRP planning process
Testing the DRP
Disaster Recovery Procedures

Key difference between BCP and DRP - DRP addresses the procedures to be followed during and
after the loss

Business Continuity Planning

Created to prevent interruptions to normal business activity
Protect critical business process from man made and natural disasters
Minimize the effect and all resumption of business process

BCP Should A ddress:

Local and Wide A rea Networks and servers
Telecommunications and data links
Workstations and workspaces
A pplications software and data
Media and records storage
Staff duties

Number One priority is always People First!

Continuity Disruptive Events

Natural Events:
Fires, Explosions, hazardous material spills of environmental toxins
Earthquakes, storms, floods, and fires from nature
Power outages and utility failures

Man Made Events:

Bombings Sabotage
Strikes, job actions
Employee or O perator unavailability due to emergency evacuation
Communications infrastructure failures

Four Prime Elements of BCP

Scope and Plan Initiation marks the beginning of BCP process
Business Impact A nalysis used to help business understand the impact of a disruptive event
Business Continuity Plan Development using information from the BIA to develop the actual
BCP Plan, includes testing

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 Plan A pproval and Implementation This involves getting final management approval, creating
awareness, updating as needed

Scope and Plan Initiation

Creating the scope
Creating detailed account of work required
Listing the resources to be used
Defining management practices

Roles and Responsibilities

BCP is enterprise wide, requires involvement from many personnel enterprise wide

BCP Committee Responsible to create, implement and test the plan

Made up of
Senior Management
Business Units
Information Systems
Security A dministrator

Senior Managements Role

Has ultimate responsibility for all phases of the plan
Senior Management support is critical

Due Diligence - Stock Holders may hold Senior Management responsible as well as the Board of
Directors if a disruptive event causes losses that could have been prevented with base standards of
care

BCP Involvement
Who Does What
Executive Management Initiates project, gives final
approval, gives ongoing
support
Senior Business Unit Identifies and prioritizes time
Management critical systems
BCP Committee Directs the planning,
implementation and test
processes
Functional Business Units Participate in implementation
and testing

Business Impact A ssessment

Helps to document what impact a disruptive event will have on the business

V ulnerability A ssessment
Three Elements:
Criticality Prioritization every business unit process is identified and prioritized
Downtime Estimation Determine Maximum Tolerable Downtime (MTD), often much
shorter than expected
Resource Requirements resource requirements for critical processes

Business Impact A nalysis

Four Steps
Gathering assessment material

78
 Perform the assessment
A nalyze the compiled information
Document the results

Gathering assessment material

Org Chart to determine functional relationships
Examine Business Success Factors, priorities and alternate processing

The V ulnerability A ssessment

Often part of the BIA , similar to risk assessment, smaller than full risk assessment
Both quantitative and qualitative approaches
Conduct a loss impact analysis.
Necessary to define loss criteria quantitatively and qualitatively

Quantitative Loss Criteria

Incurring financial loss from loss of revenue or capital expenditure
A dditional operational expenses incurred due to disruptive event
Incurring financial loss from resolution of violated contract
Incurring financial loss from regulatory compliance

Qualitative Loss Criteria

Loss of competitive edge
Loss of public confidence
Incurring public embarrassment

Critical Support A reas must be defined:

Telecommunications, data communications, Information Technology A reas
Physical Infrastructure or plant facilities, transportation
A ccounting, Payroll, transaction processing, customer service, purchasing

A nalyze The Compiled Information

Documenting the process
Identify Interdependencies
Determine acceptable interruption period

Documentation and Recommendation

Full documentation of all processes, procedures, analysis and results

Business Continuity Plan Development

Use of information from BIA to create recovery strategy plan
Map out strategy:
Defining the continuity strategy
Document the continuity strategy

Criticality Survey helps to identify the most critical business functions

IT Department
Ensures adequate backup and restoration process
Ensures physical security of vital network and hardware components
Ensuring sufficient logical security
Ensuring adequate system administration

Defining the Continuity Strategy

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Elements of Continuity Strategy
Computing needs to preserve hardware and software, communication lines, applications and
data
Facilities needs to address use of buildings
People defined roles in implementing the strategy
Supplies and equipment paper, forms, HV A C, security equipment

Documenting the Continuity Strategy

Creation of documentation

Plan A pproval and Implementation

Last step plan is implemented
A pproval by Senior Management must be able to make informed decisions in the event of a
disaster
Creating awareness training and awareness enterprise wide
Maintenance of the plan plans get outdated quickly

Disaster Recovery Planning

Comprehensive statement of actions to be taken before, during and after a disruptive event
causes loss of Information Systems.
Primary objective is to provide an alternate site and return to primary site in a minimal time
frame

Goals and Objectives of DRP

Provide an organized way to make decisions if a disruptive event occurs
Reduce confusion and enhance the ability to deal with crisis
Planning and development must occur before the disaster
Objectives:
Protect the company from major computer services failure
Minimize the risk from delays in providing services
Guarantee reliability of standby systems through testing
Minimize decision making required by personnel during a disaster

DRP assumes BIA has been done, now focusing on the steps needed to protect the business.

Data Processing Continuity Planning planning for disaster and creating plans to cope with it
Data Recovery plan Maintenance keeping plans up to date

Data Processing Continuity Planning

Mutual A id A greements reciprocal agreement
A rrangement with another company with similar hardware or software configurations
A greement by both parties, assumes sufficient capacity in time of need (Big A ssumption)
Should only be considered if no other options, or perfect partner (i.e. subsidiary)
A dvantages:
V ery little or no cost
If processing requirements are similar it may be workable
Disadvantages:
Highly unlikely the capacity will exist
Severely limits responsiveness and support

Subscription Service
Third party commercial services provide alternate backup and processing facilities
Most common of the implementations.
Three Basic Forms:

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 Hot Site
Warm Site
Cold Site

Hot Site
Requires:
Fully configured facility with electrical power, Heating V entilation and A ir Conditioning
(HV A C)
File and print servers and workstations
A pplications are installed on the servers
Workstations are kept up to date

A llows walk in with a data restoration and begin full operations in short time
Remote journaling mirroring transaction processing over high-speed connections may eliminate
back up time.
A dvantages:
24/ 7 availability
Exclusivity of use
Immediately available
Supports short and long term outages
Disadvantages:
Most expensive
Requires constant maintenance of hardware, software, data and applications
A dds administrative overhead and can be a strain on resources
Service provider may oversell processing capabilities
Security of hot site, primary site security must be duplicated

Warm Site
Cross between hot and cold sites
Facility with electrical power, Heating V entilation and A ir Conditioning (HV A C)
File and print servers may not have workstations, software may not be installed
External communications should be installed

A dvantages:
Cost much less than hot
Location since less control required sites can be more flexible
Resources resource drain is much lower than hot site
Disadvantages:
Difference in time required to be up and running

Cold Site
Least ready of all three, but most common
Facility with electrical power, Heating V entilation and A ir Conditioning (HV A C)
Ready for equipment but no computer hardware on site.
Communications links may or may not be ready
Not considered adequate because of length of time for recovery
A dvantages:
Cost
Disadvantages:
False sense of security

Multiple Centers
Processing spread over multiple centers, creating distributed redundancy. Can be in-house or
through reciprocal agreement.

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 Cost is contained, but same issues as Mutual A id A greements (reciprocal agreement)

Service Bureaus
Contract with service bureau to provide all alternate backup processing.
A dvantage quick response
Disadvantage cost, resource contention during disaster

Other alternatives:

Rolling mobile backup sites

V endor provides mobile services, mobile homes or flatbed trucks with power and HV A C
sufficient for alternate processing. Considered Cold Site variation.

In-house or external supply of hardware replacements

V endors resupply hardware or internal stockpiling of critical components.
Subscription service with vendor for overnight shipping
May be OK for Warm site but not Hot site

Prefabricated Buildings
Use of prefabricated (mobile homes). V ery cold site.

Transaction Redundancy Implementations

Fault tolerance and redundancy in Transaction processing

Electronic V aulting transfer of backup date to off-site location. Batch process through
communication lines
Remote Journaling parallel processing of transactions at remote site. Live data is posted as it
occurs
Database Shadowing live processing of remote journaling but creates more redundancy by
duplicating the database sets

Disaster Recovery Plan Maintenance

Disaster Recovery Plans often get out of date
Changes in technical infrastructure and company structure
Plan maintenance must be employed from the outset
A udit procedures should report regularly on the plan
V ersion control on all plan copies

Testing of the Disaster Recovery Plan

Testing must be conducted in an orderly, standardized fashion, executed on a regular basis
No demonstrated recovery ability exists until it is tested
Testing verifies the accuracy of the recovery procedures
Testing prepares and trains personnel to execute during emergency
Testing verifies the processing capability of the alternate backup site

Creating the Test Document

Test document should include:
Test scenarios
Reasons for the test
Objectives of the test
Type of tests
Testing schedule
Duration of the test
Specific test steps

82
 Who will be the participants
The task assignments of the test
Resources and services required

Test must not disrupt normal business functions

Testing should start with easy areas to build skills and confidence
Purpose is to find weaknesses, update and retest

The Five Disaster Recovery Plan Types

Checklist
Structured walk through
Simulation
Parallel
Full-interruption

Checklist
Preliminary step to real test, distribute plan for review by business unit managers

Structured Walk Through

Business Unit Managers walk through the test plan. Each step is walked through and marked as
performed.

Simulation
A ll personnel with DR responsibilities will meet and go through a practice session
Enacts recovery procedures but no alternate processing

Parallel
Full test of recovery plan using all personnel. Primary processing does not stop. Ensures
processing will run at alternate site. Most common type of recovery plan testing.

Full-interruption
Disaster is replicated to the point of ceasing normal operations. Plan is implemented as if it were
a disaster.
Scary and can cause its own disaster, but best way to test completely

Disaster Recovery Procedures

Primary elements of the disaster recovery process
Recovery team
Salvage Team
Normal Operations Team
Other Recovery Issues

Recovery Team
Implement the recovery procedures in a disaster
Get critical functions operating at backup site
Retrieval of materials from off-site storage, backups, workstations
Installs critical systems and applications

Salvage Team
Separate from recovery team
Returns the primary site to normal operating conditions
Safely clean, repair, salvage the primary processing facility

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Normal Operations Team
Task of Recovery Team, or another separate team
Returning production from the alternate site to the primary site
Disaster is not over until all operations have returned to their normal location and function.

Other Recovery Issues

Interfacing with external groups
Municipal Emergency Groups, fire, police, ambulances, EMS.
Escalation and interaction should be included in the plan
Employee Relations
Inherent responsibility to employees and their families
Salaries must continue
Insurance must be adequate
Fraud and crime
Fraudsters try to capitalize on the disaster
V andalism and looting may occur
Financial Disbursement
Expense disbursement
Signed and authorized checks will be needed

Media Relations
Unified response
Credible, trained, informed, spokesperson
Company should be accessible
Control dissemination of information

Under " Named Perils" form of Property Insurance: Burden of proof that particular loss is covered is
on Insured

Maximum Tolerable Downtime (MTD): It is maximum delay businesses can tolerate and still remain
viable

System reliability is increased by: A higher MTBF and a lower MTTR.

V aluable paper insurance coverage does not cover damage to: Money and Securities

A business continuity plan is an example of which of the following? : Corrective control

Under " A ll Risk" form of Property Insurance: Burden of proof that particular loss is not covered is
on Insurer

A contingency plan should address: Residual risks

Business Continuity and Disaster Recovery Planning (Primarily) addresses the: A vailability of the
CIA triad

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Domain 9 Law, Investigation and Ethics
Covers computer crimes, preserving evidence and conducting basic investigations.

Many computer crimes go unreported difficult to estimate.

Two Categories:
Crimes against the computer
Crimes using a computer

Most Common Crimes:

Denial of Service (DoS)- hogging system resources to point of degraded service
Theft or passwords
Network Intrusions unauthorized penetrations
Emanation Eavesdropping interception of computer terminal images through use of Radio
Frequency (RF) Signals. U.S. Government developed Tempest to defeat this by shielding RF.
Social Engineering social skills to gain information
Illegal Content of Material - porn
Fraud using computer to perpetuate crimes, i.e. auctions of non-existent merchandise
Software Piracy illegal copying
Dumpster Diving paper trails
Malicious Code viruses and Trojan Horses
Spoofing of IP A ddresses inserting false IP to disguise original location
Information Warfare attacking infrastructure of a Nation, including military and power grid
Espionage
Destruction or alteration of information
Use of readily available A ttack Scripts Script Kiddies, unskilled users
Masquerading pretending to be someone else
Embezzlement Illegally acquiring funds
Data-Diddling modification of data
Terrorism

Examples of Crime
DDoS of Yahoo, A mazon and ZDNet in Feb. 2000
Love Letter Worm in May of 2000
Kaiser transmissions of personal client information to unintended recipients in A ug. 2000
Penetration of Microsoft, access to source code in Oct. 2000
Mitnik' s attacks against telephone companies 1989, broke into Tsutomo Shimomurs Corp in
1995 and was arrested
Wisconsin medical records in 1982
Morris internet worm DDoS Cornell Student in 1988
Germans working for the KGB accessed US Classified Systems The Cuckoos Egg

Laws have been passed in many countries. International boundaries cause issues. Being addressed by
United Nations, Interpol, European Union and the G8.

Technology outpaces Law

Law enforcement relies on traditional laws against embezzlement, fraud, Denial of Service,
wiretapping and digital currency to prosecute.

Many types of legal systems in the world

Common Law United States, United Kingdom, A ustralia and Canada
Islamic Law
Religious Law
Civil Law France, Germany, Quebec

85
Common Law United States
Three Branches of Government
Legislative makes the statutory laws
A dministrative administrative laws
Judicial common laws found in court decisions

Compilation of Statutory Law

A rranged in order of enactment or as statutory codes
In the U.S. held in Statutes at Large in the United States Code (U.S.C.)
Usually quoted 18 U.S.C 1001 (1992)
The Code Title Number
A bbreviation of the Code (U.S.C.)
Statutory section
Date of the edition

Title 18 of the 1992 Edition of the U.S.C. - contains Crimes and Criminal Procedures. Many
computer crimes are prosecuted under this title.

US Computer Fraud and A buse A ct addresses fraud using government computers can be found at
18 U.S.C. 1030 (1986)

Other Titles A re:

Title 12 Banks and Banking
Title 15 Commerce and Trade
Title 26 Internal Revenue Code
Title 49 - Transportation

Compilation of A dministrative Law

Chronologically listed in administrative registers or by subject mat ter in administrative codes.
Federal Register (Fed. Reg.) and Code of the Federal Register (C.F.R.)
Referenced 12 C.F.R. 100.4 (1992)
The Title Number Federal Register (C.F.R.)
A bbreviation of the Code (C.F.R.)
Section number
Year of publication

Compilation of Common Law - common law from court decisions

Common law is compiled as Case Reporters in chronological order and Case Digests by Subject
matter

Common Law System Categories not to be confused with common law from court decisions
Criminal Law V iolates government laws for the protection of the people. Financial penalties
and imprisonment
Civil Law wrong inflicted upon an individual or organization results in damage or loss, no
prison
A dministrative Law standards of performance and conduct, financial penalties and
imprisonment

Intellectual Property Law

Patent Provides owner legally enforceable right to exclude others for specified time (U.S. 17
years)
Copyright Protects original works of authorship, can be used for software and databases
Trade Secret Secures confidentiality of proprietary technical and business related information

86
 Company must meet requirements:
Invested resources to develop the information
V aluable to the business
V aluable to competitor
Non-obvious information
Trademark establishes word, name, symbol, color or sounds used to identify and distinguish
goods

Information Privacy Laws

Intent varies widely from country to country
European Union - has developed more protective laws for individual privacy
Transfer of data from EU to US is prohibited unless equivalent protections are in place
EU Principles Include:
Data collected in accordance with law
Information cannot be disclosed without consent
Records should be accurate and up to date
Data should be used for the purpose it was collected
Individuals entitled to report of information kept about them
Transfer of data is prohibited unless equivalent protections are in place

Health Care Issues:

A ccess controls do not provide sufficient granularity to implement least privilege rule
Most off the shelf systems do not have adequate controls
Systems must be accessible to outside parties
A ccess to Internet creates potential problems
Criminal and civil penalties can be imposed
Public perception of large organizations misusing data

Health Care Should follow: (based on E.U. principles)

Individual should have ability to monitor stored information about themselves, ability to correct
information
Data should be used for the purpose it was collected
Organization should provide safeguards to ensure data is used for the purpose it was collected
Existence of private information should not be kept secret

HIPA A
U.S. Kennedy-Kassenbaum Health Insurance portability and A ccountability A ct. HIPA A effective
A ugust 21, 1996.
A ddresses Health Care privacy in the U.S.
Still in draft form, required to be implemented soon.
A ddresses:
The rights of the individual has over information about them
Procedures for the execution of such rights
The uses and disclosures that should be authorized

Entity must have in place:

Standard Safe Guards - must have appropriate administrative, technical and physical safeguards
Implementation of Standard Safe Guards - A covered entity must protect health care
information from intentional or unintentional disclosure

Electronic Monitoring
Keystroke monitoring, e-mail monitoring, surveillance cameras, badges and magnetic card keys all
allow monitoring of individuals.
Key to monitoring: Must be done in a lawful manner in a consistent fashion

87
E-mail monitoring:
Inform users that all e-mail is being monitored by displaying log-on banner
Banner should state: logging on to system consents user to being monitored. Unauthorized
access is prohibited. Subject to prosecution.
Ensure monitoring is uniformly applied
Explain acceptable use
Explain who can read e-mail and how long it is backed up
No guarantee of privacy

Enticement vs. Entrapment

Enticement occurs after individual has gained unlawful access to a system, then lured to an
attractive area honey pot in order to provide time to identify the individual
Entrapment encourages the commitment of a crime that the individual had no intention of
committing

Computer Security, Privacy and Crime Laws:

1970 US Fair Credit Reporting A ct consumer reporting agencies
1970 - US Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organization A ce racketeers influencing business
1973 US Code of Fair Information Practices personal record keeping
1974 US Privacy A ct applies to federal agencies
1980 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) data collection
limitations
1984 US Medical Computer Crime A ct illegal alteration of computerized medical records
1984 (Strengthened in 1986 and 1994) First US Federal Computer Crime Law classified
defense, felony for classified information
1986 (A mended 1996) US Computer Fraud and A buse A ct clarified 1984 law, A dded
three laws:
use of federal interest computer to further intended fraud
altering or destroying information on federal interest computer that causes $1,000 in loss or
medical treatment
Trafficking in computer passwords if it affects commerce or allows access to government
computers
1986 Electronic Communications Privacy A ct prohibits eavesdropping
1987 Computer Security A ct requires federal government to:
Provide security-related training
Identify sensitive systems
Develop security plan for sensitive systems
Developed Sensitive But Unclassified (SBU) designation
Split responsibility between National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and
National Security A gency (NSA )
NIST commercial and SBU
NSA cryptography and classified government and military applications
1990 United Kingdom Misuse A ct defines computer related crimes
1991 US Federal Sentencing Guidelines
Unauthorized possession without the intent to profit is a crime
A ddress both individuals and organizations
Degree of punishment corresponds to level of due diligence
Invoke prudent man rule due care of Senior Officials Civil Law
Place responsibility on Senior Management for prevention and detection programs up to
$290 Million - Civil Law
1992 OECD Guidelines to serve as Total Security Framework laws, policies, procedures,
training

88
 1994 US Communications A ssistance for Law Enforcement A ct requires communications
carriers to make wiretaps possible
1994 - Computer A buse A mendments A ct
Changed federal interest computer to a computer used in interstate commerce or
communications
Covers viruses and worms
Includes intentional damage as well as reckless disregard
Limited imprisonment for unintentional damage to one year
Provides civil action for compensatory damages
1995 Council Directive Law on Data Protection for the European Union declares EU is similar
to OECD
1996 US Economic and Protection of Proprietary Information A ct industrial and corporate
espionage
1996 U.S. Kennedy-Kassenbaum Health Insurance portability and A ccountability A ct. HIPA A
1996 National Information Infrastructure Protection A ct amended the computer fraud and
abuse act patterned after the OECD.
GA A SSP Generally A ccepted Systems Security Principles (Not laws but accepted principles of
the OECD)
Computer security supports the business mission
Computer security is integral to sound management
Computer security should be cost effective
System Owners have responsibility outside of their organization
Computer security requires a comprehensive integrated approach
Computer security should be periodically reassessed
Computer security is constrained by societal factors

Pending Laws
Uniform Electronic Transactions A ct applies the Federal Electronic Signatures act to the state
level
Uniform Computer Information Transactions A ct licensing terms on shrink wrapped software

Gramm-Leach-Bliley
Gramm-Leach-Bliley (PL 106-102) was signed into law on 12 November 1999. Title V of the law
deals with Privacy. Title V Section 501 establishes policy for the protection of nonpublic personal
information.
Section 501 states, It is the policy of the Congress that each financial institution has an affirmative
and continuing obligation to respect the privacy of its customers and to protect the security and
confidentiality of those customers' nonpublic personal information.

The law further states, financial regulatory agencies/ authorities will establish appropriate standards
for the financial institutions subject to their jurisdiction relating to administrative, technical, and
physical safeguards:
(1) to insure (sic) the security and confidentiality of customer records and information;
(2) to protect against any anticipated threats or hazards to the security or integrity of such records;
and
(3) to protect against unauthorized access to or use of such records or information which could
result in substantial harm or inconvenience to any customer.

Investigation
A lso known as computer forensics collecting information from and about computer systems that is
admissible in a court of law.

Computer Forensic Issues

Compressed timeframe for investigation

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 Information is intangible
Investigation may interfere with normal business operations
May find difficulty in gathering evidence
Co-mingling of live production data and evidence
Experts are required
Locations may be geographically in different jurisdictions
Differences in law and attitude
Many jurisdictions have expanded definitions of property to include electronic information

Evidence
Gathering, control and preservation are critical
Subject to easy modification without a trace, must be carefully handled though its life cycle.
Chain of Command - must be followed
Chain of Command components:
Location of evidence
Time evidence obtained
Identification of individual who discovered evidence
Identification of individual who obtained evidence
Identification of individual who controlled/ maintained possession of evidence

Evidence Life Cycle

Discovery and recognition
Protection
Recording
Collection
Collect all relevant storage media
Make image of hard disk before removing power
Print out screen
A void degaussing equipment
Identification (tagging and marking)
Preservation
Protect from magnetic erasure
Store in proper environment
Transportation
Presentation in court
Return to evidence owner

Evidence A dmissibility
Evidence must meet stringent requirements.
Must be relevant, legally permissible, reliable, properly identified and preserved
Relevant must be related to the crime, shows crime has been committed
Legally Permissible obtained in lawful manner
Reliable not been tampered or modified
Properly Identified identified without changing or damaging evidence
Preservation not subject to damage or destruction
Make backups, write protect, take digital signatures of files or disk sectors

Types of Evidence
Best Evidence Original or primary evidence rather than a copy
Secondary evidence a copy of evidence, or description of contents
Direct Evidence proves or disproves a specific act based on witness testimony using five senses
Conclusive Evidence incontrovertible, overrides all evidence
Opinions Two Types:
Expert may offer opinion based on expertise and facts

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 Nonexpert may testify only to the facts
Circumstantial inference on other information
Hearsay not based on first hand knowledge, not admissible in court, often computer generated
reports fall under this rule.
Exceptions to Hearsay Rule:
Made during the regular conduct of business with witnesses
Made by a person with knowledge of records
Made by person with knowledge
Made at or near time of occurrence of act
In the custody of the witness on regular basis

Searching and Seizing Computers

U.S. D.O.J. Computer Crime and Intellectual Property Sections (CCIPS) has issued the publication
Searching and Seizing Computers and Obtaining Evidence in Criminal Investigations .
Sites the following US Codes:
18 U.S.C. 12510 - Definitions
18 U.S.C. 1251 interception and disclosure of wire, oral or electronic communications
18 U.S.C. 2701 unlawful access to stored communications
18 U.S.C. 2702 disclosure of contents
18 U.S.C. 2703 requirements for governmental access
18 U.S.C. 2705 delayed notice
18 U.S.C. 2711 definitions
18 U.S.C. 2000aa searches and seizures by government officers and employees in
connection with the investigation of a crime

Export Issues with Technology

In July of 2000 U.S. relaxed its encryption export policy to certain countries.
A merican companies can export encryption to any end user.
Eliminated third day of waiting period when exporting

Conducting the Investigation

Corporate investigation should include Management, corporate security, Human Resources, legal
department and other appropriate staff.
May prompt retaliatory acts from the investigate, important to plan ahead
Committee should be set up before hand to address the following issues:
Establishing liaison with law enforcement
Deciding when and if to bring in law enforcement (FBI and Secret Service)
Setting up means of reporting computer crimes
Establishing procedures for handling reports of computer crimes
Planning and conducting investigations
Involving senior management and corporate security, Human Resources, the legal dept.
Ensuring proper collection of evidence

U.S. Federal Requirements requires crimes to be reported.

U.S. government must obtain warrant to search for evidence under the 4 th amendment. Must
be probable cause.
Private individuals can conduct a search without a warrant.
Exigent Circumstances Doctrine (Probable Cause) then do not need a warrant.

Good sources of evidence include:

Telephone records
V ideo cameras
A udit trails
System logs

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 System backups
Witnesses
Results of surveillance
E-mails

MOM
Motive
Opportunity
Means

Interview:
If interviewing do not give information away to suspect
Questions should be scripted
Dont use original documents in the interview

Liability
1991 US Federal Sentencing Guidelines
Unauthorized possession without the intent to profit is a crime
A ddress both individuals and organizations
Degree of punishment corresponds to level of due diligence
Invoke prudent man rule due care of Senior Officials Civil Law
Place responsibility on Senior Management for prevention and detection programs up to $29 0
Million

Due Care Requirements:

Means to prevent computer resources from being used as a source of attack on another
organization
Relates to proximate causation part of a chain that results in negative consequence
Backups
Scans for malicious code
Business Continuity and Disaster Recovery
Local and remote access control
Elimination of unauthorized insecure modems
Security polices and procedures
Ensuing Confidentiality, Integrity and A vailability
A ssessing responsibilities to third parties
Established incident response capability

Downstream liabilities: When companies come together to work in an integrated manner, special
care must be taken to ensure that each party promises to provide the necessary level of protection,
liability and responsibility needed which should be clearly defined in the contracts that each party
signs.

Due Care: Steps that are taken to show that a company has taken responsibility for the activities that
take place within the corporation and have taken the necessary steps to help protect the company,
its resources and employees.

Due Diligence: Continual activities that make sure the protection mechanisms are continually
maintained and operational.

Prudent man rule: To perform duties that prudent people would exercise in similar circumstances.

Criteria for evaluating legal requirements:

C cost of implementing the control

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L estimated loss from exploitation
If C < L, then a legal liability exists.

Incident Handling should address:

What constitutes an incident
How should an incident be reported
To who should an incident be reported
When should management be informed of an incident
What action should be taken if an incident occurs
Who should handle the response to the incident
How much damage was caused by the incident
What data was damaged by the incident
A re recovery procedures required
What type of follow up or review is required
Should additional safeguards be implemented

Establish a CIRT Computer Incident Response Team

Ethics
Certified professionals are morally and legally held to a higher standard.
Should be included in organizational computing policy

ISC2 Code of Ethics:

CISSPs Shall:
1. Conduct themselves with highest standards of ethical, moral and legal behavior
2. Not commit any unlawful or unethical act that may impact the reputation of the profession
3. A ppropriately report unlawful behavior
4. Support efforts to promote prudent information security measures
5. Provide competent service to their employers and clients; avoid conflicts of interest
6. Execute responsibilities with highest standards
7. Not misuse information in which they come into contact with during their duties

The Computer Ethics Institute Top Ten: (What is this crap doing in here?)
1. Not use a computer to harm others
2. Interfere with others computer work
3. Snoop around other files
4. Use a computer to steal
5. Use a computer to bear false witness
6. Not copy or use proprietary software
7. Not use others computer without permission
8. Not appropriate others intellectual output
9. Think about social consequences of the programs you write
10. Ensure considerations and respect for others

Internet A ctivities Board (IA B)

Internet A ctivity Should be treated as a privilege
Unacceptable actions:
Seeks to gain unauthorized access to resources of the Internet
Disrupts intended use of the internet
Wastes resources
Compromises privacy of others
Involves negligence in conduct of Internet Experiments

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US Dept. Of Health, Education and Warfare
Fair information practices, individually identifiable information
No personal record keeping on systems that are secret
Way for person to find out what information is contained and how it is used
Way for person to prevent information from being used for other purposes than originally
intended
Organizations must ensure reliability of data

Phone Phreakers
Blue boxing - A device that simulates a tone that tricks the telephone companys system into
thinking the user is authorized for long distance service, which enables him to make the call.
Red boxes - Simulates the sound of coins being dropped into a payphone.
Black boxes - Manipulates the line voltage to receive a toll-free call.

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Domain 10 Physical Security

Threats, V ulnerabilities and Countermeasures

Goal is to protect resources including, personnel, the facility in which they work, data,
equipment, support systems, and media.

Threats to Physical Security

Risks to Physical Security
Interruptions in providing computer services A vailability
Physical Damage A vailability
Unauthorized disclosure of information Confidentiality
Loss of control over the system Integrity
Physical theft Confidentiality, A vailability, Integrity

Threats to Physical Security

Emergencies
Fire and smoke
Building collapse
Utility loss
Water Damage
Toxic Materials
Natural Disasters
Earth Quakes
Storm Damage
Human Intervention
Sabotage
V andalism
War
Strikes

Seven major sources of physical loss from Fighting Computer Crime

1. Temperature extreme variations in heat or cold
2. Gases war gases, commercial vapors, humidity, dry air, fuel vapors
3. Liquids -- water and chemicals
4. Organisms viruses, bacteria, people, animals, insects
5. Projectiles meteorites, falling objects, cars, truck, bullets, rockets
6. Movement collapse, shearing, shaking, vibration, slides
7. Energy A nomalies electric surges, magnetism, static electricity, radio waves, micro waves

Controls for Physical Security

Two areas:
A dministrative
Physical and Technical

A dministrative Controls
Benefits from the proper administrative steps
Emergency procedures, personnel control, proper planning, policy implementation

Facility Requirements Planning need for planning of security early on in construction

Choosing a Secure Site
V isibility what kind of neighbors, external markings, low visibility is the key
Local Considerations near hazards, high crime areas
Natural Disaster on a fault line, in a flood plain

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 Transportation excessive air or highway and road traffic
Joint Tenancy are environmental controls shared
External Services proximity of local emergency services

Designing a Secure Site

Walls acceptable fire rating, media rooms should have a high fire rating
Ceilings weight bearing and fire rating
Floors:
Slab Physical weight the concrete slab can bear and its fire rating
Raised fire rating, electrical conductivity, non conducting surface material
Windows not acceptable in the data center, if so translucent and shatterproof
Doors must resist forcible entry, clear emergency exits, doors should open in an emergency
(fail-soft)
Sprinkler System location and type of suppression system
Liquid and gas lines shutoff locations, water drains should be positive carry away from the
building
A ir Conditioning A C should have dedicated power circuits, Location of Emergency Power O ff
(EPO) switch, should provide outward positive air pressure to prevent contaminants
Electrical Requirements backup alternate power, dedicated circuits, access controls over panels

Facility Security Management

A udit Trails and Emergency Procedures

A udit Trails log of events, systems may have many audit logs each capturing specific information
A ccess logs should contain:
Date and Time A ccess attempted
Whether the attempt was successful or not
Where was access granted (which door)
Who attempted A ccess
Who modified access privileges at the supervisor level
Some trails can send alerts
A udit Trails are detective not preventative

Emergency Procedures
Clearly documented, readily accessible and updated periodically
Should include:
Emergency Shutdown procedures
Evacuation procedures
Employee training, awareness and periodic drills
Periodic System tests

A dministrative Personnel Controls

Implemented commonly by the HR department during hiring and firing
Pre-employment screening
Employment references, educational history
Background checks, credit
On going employee checks
Security clearances if required
Ongoing evaluations and reviews
Post-employment
Exit interview
Removal of network access
Return of computer inventory, laptops

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Environmental and Life Safety
Sustain computer and personnel operating environment
Three focus areas:
Electrical power
Fire detection and suppression
Heating V entilation and A ir Conditioning

Electrical power

Electrical Power Terminology Description

Fault Momentary loss of power
Blackout Complete loss of power
Sag Momentary low voltage
Brownout Prolonged low voltage
Spike Momentary high voltage
Surge Prolonged high voltage
Inrush Initial surge of power
Noise Steady interference
Transient Short duration of line noise
Clean Non-fluctuating power
Ground One wire is grounded

Clean steady power supply - Most common threats are noise, brown outs, and humidity

Noise - Presence of electrical radiation in the system interferes with distribution of clean power

Several Types of Noise:

Most common is Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) and Radio Frequency Interference (RFI)
EMI is caused by the generation of radiation due to charge differences between the hot, neutral
and ground wires.
Two common types of Electromagnetic Interference - EMI are:
Common Mode noise - the generation of radiation due to charge differences between the
hot and ground wires
Traverse Mode Noise: the generation of radiation due to charge differences between the hot
and neutral wires

Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) is generated by the components of an electrical system, can
damage equipment

Protective measures for noise:

Power Line Conditioning
Proper Grounding
Cable shielding
Limiting exposure to magnets, fluorescent lights, motors and space heaters

Brownouts
Brownout is a prolonged drop in supplied usable voltage; can do serious damage to sensitive
equipment
A merican National Standards Institute allows:
8% drop between building meter and the power source
3.5% drop from the meter to the wall
Surges and spikes as power comes back on line can also cause problems.
Surge suppressors should protect all equipment and critical components require UPS.

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Humidity
The ideal Operating Range is between 40 to 60 percent.
High humidity above 60% can cause condensation on parts. A lso can cause corrosion of
components
Silver plating goes to copper circuits impeding the electrical efficiency
Low humidity less than 40% increase static electricity
A static charge of 4,000 volts is possible under normal humidity on a hard wood floor
Charges up to 20,000 volts or more are possible under very low humidity with non-static free
carpeting

Static Charge V olts Damage

40 Sensitive circuits
1,000 Scramble monitor display
1,500 Disk drive data loss
2,000 System shutdown
4,000 Printer jam
17,000 Permanent chip damage

Control to prevent Static Electricity

A nti-static sprays where possible
A nti static flooring
Proper grounding
A nti-static tables
HV A C should maintain proper humidity levels

Fire Detection and Suppression

Three elements to sustain fire:

Oxygen
Heat - temperature
Fuel

Class Description Suppression Medium

A Common combustibles Water or soda acid
B Liquid CO2, soda acid, Halon
C Electrical CO2 or Halon
D Combustible metals Dry powder

Water suppresses temperature required to sustain fire

Soda A cid suppressed the fuel
CO2 Suppresses the oxygen
Halon suppresses through chemical reaction that kills the fire

Fire Detectors
Heat sensing detects one of two things:
Temperature reaches specified level (less false positives)
Temperature rises quickly
Flame A ctuated fairly expensive
Sense infrared energy of flame or pulsation of the flame
Smoke A ctuated two types
Photoelectric devices triggered by variation in light hitting photoelectric cells

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 Radioactive device goes off when ionization current is created by radioactive reaction to
smoke

Fire Extinguishing Systems

Wet Pipe
Sprinkler always contain water
A t 165 F - fusible link in nozzle melts
Most reliable
Subject to leaking and freezing

Dry Pipe
No water standing in the pipe
A ir is blown out and water is released
Time delay can allow systems to power down

Deluge
Dry pipe system
Large V olume of Water
Not good for computer equipment

Preaction
Most recommended for computer room
Combines wet and dry
Charges pipe when heat is detected
Releases water when - fusible link in nozzle melts

Gas Discharge
Pressurized inert gas released through raised floor
Carbon Dioxide CO2
Halon 1211 does not require sophisticated pressurization
Halon 1301 - requires sophisticated pressurization
FM 200 is now most common Halon replacement

Carbon Dioxide CO2

Colorless and odorless gas
Removes oxygen and can be lethal if all oxygen is removed
Used in unmanned facilities
If used in manned system alarm must allow adequate time to evacuate or cancel

Portable Extinguishers should be located:

Commonly located exits
Clearly marked with their fire types
Checked regularly

Halon at one time was considered perfect suppression medium

The two Types
Halon 1211 liquid streaming agent used in portable extinguishers
Halon 1301 gaseous agent used in fixed total flooding
Not harmful to equipment
Mixes thoroughly with air
Spreads extremely fast
Problems:
Can not be breathed safely in concentrations greater than 10%

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 Fires greater than 900 F it degrades to toxic chemicals Hydrogen Fluoride, Hydrogen
Bromide and Bromine
Must allow adequate time to evacuate or cancel
Ozone depleting due to use of CFCs. V ery high ozone depleting potential
No new Halon 1301 installations allowed
Existing encouraged to replace
Federal law prohibits production of Halon
Halon 1211 is being replaced
Halon 1301 is being banked for future use

Common EPA replacements:

FM-200
CEA -410
NA F-S-III
FE-13
A rgon
Inergen
Low Pressure Water Mists

Contamination and Damage

Smoke
Water
Heat
Suppression Medium

Temperature Damage Points

Computer Hardware - 175 F
Magnetic Storage - 100 F
Paper Products - 350 F

Heating V entilation and A ir Conditioning

Designate who is responsible
Clear escalation step in case of problems

Physical Technical Controls

Physical site security
Guards
Dogs
Fencing
Lighting
Locks
CCTV

Guards
Can make judgments and adjust to rapidly changing conditions
Provide deterrent capability
Response and control
Reception and escort
Especially useful in personnel safety issues
Drawbacks:
A vailability human intervention
Reliability pre-employment screening not foolproof
Training subject to social engineering, not always up to date
Cost expensive

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Dogs
Loyal and reliable
Keen senses
Especially useful in Perimeter control
Drawbacks:
Cost expensive
Insurance liability

Fencing
Primary means of boundary control

Height Protection
3 to 4 (1 meter) Deters casual trespasser
6 to 7 (2 meters) Too hard to climb easily
8 with 3 strands of barbed wire (2.4 Deters intruders
meters)

Mantrap physical access control routed though a set of double doors that may be monitored by a
guard

Lighting
Lighting types floodlights, street lights, and searchlights
8 feet high with 2 foot candle

Locks
Two Types Preset and Programmable
Preset Locks Typical Door Locks, must remove lock to change key
Programmable Mechanical or electronic, dial combination lock

Cipher lock - Keypad, numbers change randomly

Closed Circuit Television

V isual surveillance
Record for analysis
Photographic or Electronic
Monitoring - preventative control
Recording - detective control

Facility A ccess Control Devices

Security A ccess Cards
Two Types:
Photo image dumb
Digitally Encoded smart

Photo Image Cards

Simple ID cards
Require decision by guards

Digitally Encoded Cards

Contain chips or magnetic stripes
Card reader makes decisions as to access

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 Can provide logging of activity
Multi level access groupings
Smart Card - A TM Card may require PIN
Smart Card may be coupled with a token

Wireless Proximity Readers

Does not require physically inserting the card
Card reader senses the card
Two Types:
User A ctivated transmits keystroke sequence to a wireless keypad reader
System Sensing senses card
Passive Devices card contains no battery, senses electromagnetic field of reader and
transmits frequency using power of reader
Field Powered Devices contain active electronics on the card
Transponders - Both card and reader contain active electronics, transmitter, battery
Reader sends signal, card sends signal back

Card Types
Type of Card Description
Photo ID Facial photograph
Optical coded Laser burned lattice of digital dots
Electric circuit Printed chip on the card
Magnetic stripe Stripe of magnetic material
Magnetic strip Rows of copper strings
Passive electronic Electrically-tuned circuitry read by RF
A ctive electronic Badge transmits encoded electronics

Biometric Devices
A re physical access devices

Intrusion Detection A larms

Identifying attempts to access a building
Two most common types:
Photoelectric sensors
dry contact switches

Photoelectric sensors
Receive beam of light from tight emitter
Can be visible light, white light or infrared
A larm sounds if beam is broken
Can be avoided if seen
Invisible Infrared is often used
Employing substitute light source can fool sensor

Dry Contact Switches

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 Most common
Metallic foil tape on windows and doors
Easy and cheap

Motion Detectors
Wave Pattern
Generate frequency wave pattern
Sound alarm if disturbed
Can be low frequency, ultrasonic, or microwave

Capacitance
Monitor electrical field surrounding object
Spot protections within a few inches of the object
Not for entire room
Penetration of field changes capacitance

A udio Detectors
Passive, no generation of fields
Simply monitor room for abnormal noise
High number of false positives

A larm Systems
Local A larm Systems
Rings an audible signal
Must be protected from tampering
A udible for at least 400 ft
Requires guards to respond locally

Central A larm Systems

Private security firms
Central station
Offer CCTV monitoring
Reporting
Commonly 10 minutes or less travel time

Proprietary A larm Systems

Similar to central
The company owns monitoring
Like local but with features of the central system

A uxiliary Station Systems

A ny of the previous three may have auxiliary alarms ring at the fire or police station.
Need permission from local authorities

Other Requirements:
Line Supervision
Line is monitored to prevent tampering to subvert the alarm system.

Power Supplies
A larms should have backup power for a minimum of 24 hours

Computer Inventory Control

Control of equipment from theft
PC Control and laptop control

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PC Control
Cable locks anchor the PC to the desk
Port Controls secure data ports (i.e. floppy drive) or serial or data ports and prevent their use
Switch Controls cover for on/ off switch which prevent user from switching off file servers
Peripheral switch controls lockable switches prevent keyboard from being used
Electronic Security Boards inserted into a PC slot require password to boot, also included in
BIOS

Laptop Control
Encrypt the drive

Media Storage
Proper disposal

Require storage, destruction or reuse:

Data backups
CDs
Diskettes
Hard Drives
Paper printout

Common Storage areas:

On-Site areas within the facility
Off-site areas outside the facility, data backup service
Examine vendor security

Data Destruction and Reuse

Must reformat seven times according to TCSEC Orange Book standards
Shredders should crosscut
Military will burn reports

Object Reuse
Clearing overwriting data media to be reused in same environment
Purging degaussing or overwriting to be used in another environment
Destruction completely destroying

Common Problems
Erasing just deletes file header not data
Damaged sectors may not be over written
Rewriting may not write over all data areas, (slack space)
Degauser equipment failure
Inadequate number of formats

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