Instructor's Manual

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INSTRUCTOR'S MANUAL
English for Science
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INSTRUcrOR'S MANUAL

English
For
Science

FRAN ZIMMERMAN

Prentice Hall Regent., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632

 it
1989 by PRENTICE HALL, INC.
A Division of Simon & Schuster
Englewood Clifts, NJ. 07632

English for Science

by Fran ZinUllCrlllan
Original American Edition Published by Prcntkc-Hall, Inc.,
Englewood CIiITs, New Jersey, U.S.A.
Copyright" 1989 by Prentice Hall. Inc.
All rights reserved.
This edition is authorized forsak only in Bulgaria

ISBN 0-13-014572-6

This edition is published ill Bulgaria by

The Open Society Fund-Soria, 1992
Sofia 1463, POB 114, I Bulgaria Sq.,
NDK Ofilce Bldg., 11th Fl.

ISBN 954520-009X
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1 Clas.<;ifying: The Composition of Maller

Answer Key . 7
Lecture . 9
Chapler 2 Comparing: The Elements
Answer Key. . . . 11
Lecture . . .. . . 13
Chapter 3 Cause anti Effect: Color, Light, anti Sound
Answer Key. 14
Leclllre .. 16
Chaptcr4 Hypolhesizing: MOlion and Gr.lvity
Answer Key . 17
Lecture . 18
Chaptcr 5 Defining: Energy
Answer Key . .20
Lecture . .23
Chapter 6 Exemplifying: Heal
Answer Key . .24
Lecture . .26
Chapter'7 Giving Evidence: Smoking, Drugs, and Alcohol
Answer Key. . . . . . . .. . . .27
Lecture . .30
Chapter 8 Experimenting: Electricity and Magnetism
Answer Kcy . 31
Lecture . .32
Chapler9 Calculating: Liquids lind Gases
An<;wer Key . .34
Lecture . .35
Chapter 10 Reporting: The Origin of Life
Answer Key. . . . .37
Lecture . .39
Chapter II De!;cribillg: The Universe
Answer Key . .41
Lecture . .43
Chapler 12 Predicting: The Weather
Answer Key. .45
Lecture . .47

5
 CHAPTER 1
ANSWER KEY
Identifying General and Spcclnc Idens
1. ~ lead, mercury. silver: nonferrous substances
2. steel;!.!!21
3. cm;;-poUllCJS; acids,~, salls, metallic oxides
4. deer; manum]
5. Carbon; graphite, diamond amorphous
6. ~ igneous, metamorphic, sedimenlary
7. Coffee, ~ paint; colloids
8. ?tl. -rood,~; fuels
9. a Is; Inorganiccompounds
10. ~ic acids; deoxyribonucleic acid, ribonucleic acid
Transferring Information

COll(Jllclo~ mallcr SCm icomJuctors

SH{!~OW
insu]nlo!S
/' ""'-
copper aluminium
';'iv,ss
wood plastic
carbon silicon

gcnllaniulll

Completlng Sentences (Answers will "nry)

1. categories 5. grouped, classifications
2. divided, classes 6. classified
3. type 7. categorized
4. classed 8. kind
Chnnglng Active VolcC! to Posslye Voice
1. Sulfur is extracted from volcanic rock.
2 The electric battery was invented by Luigi Galvani ill 1786.
3. The American space shutlle program was temporarily suspended after tbe
accident in 1986.
4. The Panallla Canal was completed in 1914.
5. MHlIY people were killed by tbe 1986 earthquake in Mexico City.
6. Nitrogen t';lll be extracted from the air by liqueficatioll.
7. Bacteria is destroyed by the white corpuscles inlhe blood.
8 The craters On the ilIoon were probably caused by meleors.
9. Simple, one-celled planLs a nd animals are sometimes classified together.
10. Artificial intelligence maybe defined as t be capacity of 8 computer 10 imita te
human reasoning.

7
Using the Passive Voice
1. are expelled 5. is manufactured
2. were calculated 6. is called, are needed
3. was discovered 7. is controlled
4. was produced 8. was proposed
Vocabulary In Context (reading skills)
1. , 7. b
2. , 8. ,
3. a 9. a
4. h to. h
5. 11 11. b
6. a 12. a
UndCI'stllndlng the Reading (Answers wJII VlL.Y)
1. Aloms are even smaller th'l1Illlolcculcs.
2. Tile concept ortbe alom originated in andent Greece.
3. In ancicnl Grecce, many people believed in Aristolle's Iheory Ihat m:tller is
composed of four c lelllcnts.
4. During the Middle Ages, Ihe alomic lhcol)' WilS considcred 100 abstract and was
rejected.
5. John Dallonlhought that atoms werc solid.
6. The size of the nucleus inside <III atolll is cOlllpilf,tble to the size of an ani 011 a
foolball field.
7. Atoms consist mainJy of space wilh a densely par..:ked nucleus.
8. Neutrons hHve no clectric charge.
9. Each atom is neutrnl because thc number orits pro Ions equ,ds the number of its
electrons.
to. Niels Bohr proposed ,I model orlhe atolll with the c!cr..:lrons revolving around
the nucleus.
I J. Electrons are kcpt in their 1l.1ths by the forcc ofaltraction betwccnthe protons
and the elcctrons.
12. TIle aIOlllic lIumbcr of a \I elemcnt is the lIumbe r of e leetrOllS.
13. All the aloms of an clement arc thc samc.
14. The aloms of each clement arc unique.
15. Thc hydrogen atom is the 1lI0st common alom in the universc.
Vocabulary In Context (listening skills)
1. a 6. b 10. b
2. a 7. b 11. a
3. a 8. a 12. a
4. b 9. b 13. a
5. ,

8
I Using Yuur 1'iotes to Classify
l.M 7. M
2. C 8. E
3. C 9. C
4. E 10. E
5. C 11. C
6. M 12. E

LECTURE:
The Chemistry of Matl~r

We read earlier in Ihis chapler lliat mailer may be clas,<;ificd according 10 its physical
slale liS solid, liquid, or gas. But there is another way 10 dlSSify maUer. Scientists classify
mailer on (be basis of chemica I composition as clements, compounds, and mixtures.
Elements are the basic substances Ihal cannot be decomposed or broken down into
simpler subslltllCCS by ordinary chemical mC3 liS. \Vba t a rc these basic sun-lances?
Some of the earlier Greek philosophers. including Aristolle, believed that the four
basic c1cmcnL.. thlllal] tllings arc made orare carth, fire, lIit, and \valet. But these ancient
Greeks were philosophers, not scientists, and OlS such Ihey spccUI<lICd but did nol
experiment. During the Middle Ages, the alchcmists secretly experimented with mclals.
Fin:dly in the 181h century, thc early chcmists disproved the thcory of the four clcmcnts
whcn they dt;tcrminoo that wllter WIIS composcd of hydrogen find oxygcn, nnd air
composed of nitrogen and oxygcn. After that, many other substances were dclcnnincd to
be c1emcnts, lllld tbey were categorized as melals MId nonmctal". Mellils include copper,
silver. gold, iron. and lead. Nonmctals include solids. such as carbon and su lfur, a lid gases,
such as oxygcn, hydrogen. nitrogen, and heliulll.
The Jist of clements grew a nd scientists looked for a patlen! in order 10 undclSla ntltheir
behavior. In 1869, Ihe Rus.<;ian ,hemist Dmitri Mendelccv org.1nizcd all the k.nown
clements. according 10 their weighls a lid properties, into a table ca lied the periodic 1.1 ble of
the clcmenlS. To dalc. 92 natural clemcnls havc becn idcnlirlCd. Severnl othcrs, such as
plutonium, havc becn produced artificially. Many of these are cxtremely rare. Onc oflhe
interesling facts of science is Ihal almost alllllaller including the seas, people, plants, Ihe
earth - is created from about 20 COllllllon c1emcnlS.
Most COllllllon su~tallces are not c klllents, but ('OlllpOU nds of clemcnts. A compound
is a substance that is made up of two or morc c1cmcnts that cannot be scparnlcd by
meeha nic:!l mcans. For CXlllllplc, wn ler ca II only be scp:lrntcd inlo hydrogen and oxygcn by
:rproccss known a.<; electrolysis. &lIt, sugar, alcohol, benzcnc, and sulfuric acid are olher
examples of compounds. Each compound has 1Il0re than one Iype of atom within each
molecule, 3nd 3 compound hilS Chal1lClerislics thilt are dislinct fromlhe charn('lcristics of
its constituents. For example, whcn Iwo aloms of hydrogcll l'OlIlhine with one atom of
oxygen, 3n entirely new substance is fOnlled - H::!O, or waler! Salt is a compound of sodium
which is an a{tive metal, arxl chlorine, which is a poisonous g,1S. Yel Slllt has nonc of the

9
cbaracteri:.lil'S of either of thc:.c two clements, fortul\iI tt'ly. Compound:. have 01 consla nt or
invariable composition. For example, any sample of water contains tbe sallie proportion of
hydrogen and oxygen. This is called lbe law of definition composition.
Substances which are nOl homogeneous, or unifonn in composition, are called
mixtures. Nr is cssenlia lIy a Illhctu re of nilrogen and oxygelL Soil, cemenl, wood, rocks,
and food products are categorized as mixtures. The consliluenls of a mixture may exist in
difrerenl proportions. For example, a cake may be prepared with diITcrent proportions of
11ouc, buttec, eggs, and sug:lc. Also, each ingredient in a mixIure retai ns its idelltity. If there
is sug:lc in the cake, the cake willlasle sweet.

10
 CHAPTER 2
ANSWER KEY
Understanding Comparisons
1. chromium 5. zinc
2. platinum 6. sodium
3. copper 7. mercury
4. gold
Using II Tllble
l. b 5. ,

1 2. b
3. 11
6. ,
7. ,
4. b 8. b
Creating Sentences (Answers will vury)
1. The surface temperature of Mercury is lower than lhal of Venus.
2. The life span of kangaroo is less tban thlll of Clli.
3. An egg has ltlmosl the slime amount ofcalorics as an apple.
4. The dinmctcrorthc carlh is about four limes the diameter of the mooll.
5. Elephants have 11 longer gestation period than giraffes.
6. The Pacific Ocean has more Iblll\ twice as much water as tbe Atlantic Ocenn.
Crclllillg Comparisons (Answers will vary)
1. Telescopes and microscopes arc i1t<;lrumcnt<; that lIrc used to sec objects not
visible 10 the naked eye. Telescopes arc used for distance and microscopes
1'0 r thi ngs too smn 11 10 scc.
2. Submarines and dolphins both function underwatcr. Submarincs MC ships and
IllUst bc controlled by human beings; dolphins arc living things.
3. Computers and calculalors are bolh elcctronic devices lhal proccs.s inlbnmtion. Computers
ran be progmn\lucd; ca1eulators rannol. Cllcu~llors pcrlbnn aritbnx:tical proccs.~C'i.
Computers are lIlore complex and process all kinds of infonnHtion.
4. Dcscrts ,Iud junglc.'> arc both found in hoi clinllltcs. Descrt,> arc arid regiolls with
few living thinw;. Jungles arc wet, tropic-al regiolls 'hat flrC dense with
plants, anima!.,>, birds, and inscct,>.
5. Photocopiers ,llld x-ray machincs both reproduce images. Photocopiers
reproduce the su rface of somcthing; x-ra ys pcnctrate a solid subsla lice lind
reproduce the inside.
Like and As
1. like 5. like
2. 6. as, as
"
3. liS, liS 7. as
4. like

11
Vocabulary in Context (reading skills)
1. b 6. b 11. a 16. a
2. a 7. b 12. a 17. a
3. a 8. b 13. b 18. a
4. a 9. a 14. a 19. a
5. b 10. b 15. a 20. b
Skimming
I. c 2. d
Undt'rstilnding lhe Reading (Answers will vary)
I. Oxygen, nitrogen, a lid hydrogen have simila r properties and all three are
essential to life.
2. The substance tuat causes wood 10 rot is the SlIme as Ibe one that eauses apples
to turn brown.
3. The decaying of food is llli example of slow oxidation.
4. [I is possible for the fire to slart spOlllllllcously.
5. HUlIWll bcing; CllllllOtlivc morc Ihan live minutes without oxygen.
6. Nitrogen converts 10 a free slntc by a process called nilrogcn fixation.
7. In contrast 10 oxygcn, nitrogcn is comp;Halively inactivc.
8. If thc air were pure oxygen, sllIoking would be impossible.
9. Nitrogen is used in explosives becausc it is unstablc.
10. Hydrogen is the llIost abundant c1cmcnt in the universe.
II. The sun is almosl pure hydrogen.
12. Hydrogen is the 1Il0st abundant clement in our bodies because our bodies are
mostly WateT.
13. In COlltn1st to hydrogen, helium is nonflallllllable.
14. The essential ingredicnl in ferlilizers is nitrogen.
Vocabulary in Context (listenilll;skills)
1. a 6. a 10. b
2. a 7. b 11. a
3. a 8. b 12. b
4. b 9. b 13. b
5. b
Understanding the Lecture
I. T 6. T 10. F
2. F 7. T 11. F
3. F 8. T 12. T
4. F 9. T 13. F
5. F

12
 LECJ'URE,
The Precious Metals

Why arc some metals so much more valuable thall the others? Gold, silver, and copper
are metals Ibal have been valued for thousands of years for their beautiful Iusler, their
scarcity, and their usefulness. During the Middle Ages, alchemists searched for a way to
change base mclHls, like lead, inlo gold. They thought thai if Ihey could lind the right
fannula, they could, for example, add a certain alliount of lllercury 10 IC:ld and produce
gold. Even the great Sir IS;I,le NeWlon believed it could be done! Why is gold so valuable?
Gold is the most malleable of all I be metals. It can be hammered into sheets so thin thai
250 of them would equal tbe thickness of a sheet of paper. It is also the most ductile metal.
One gram of gold can be drawn into a wire 1.8 miles in length!
Gold is the least cbemically active ofallthc metals and docs not combine witb oxygen
to fonn rust. This ability to resist corrosion makes il very dumble, Le. it may 1asl for
centuries. Pure gold is too soft to be used in jewelry so it is usually alloyed with other
metals. The proportion of gold in an alloy i!: measured in kllmls. Pure gold is 24 karnK A
14 kllrals gold ring is an lllloy of aboui 58% gold and smull perccnlngcs of copper find
silver.
Silver is similar to gold in lllllny ways. Like gold, il is very malleable and ductile and
so it is a Iso used for jewelry. Silver differs frolll gold in that il is more reactive and tarnished
wben exposed to the traces of sulfur in the air. (Silver sulfide, a blaek deposit, fOntlS on its
surface.) Pure silver is too soft and so it is usually alloyed with copper to increase its
hardness a nd durability. Sterling silver L~ 92.5 percenl silver and 7.5 percent copper. Silver
is used for coins and for photographic film because certain compounds of silver, sueh as
silver bromide, reneetligbt. Silver is the best conduclor of elcctricity known.
COPI>cr WllS one of the first metals to be widely used. The properties of cOPI>cr
resemble those of silver and gold. Copper is used for eleclric wiring bec;1Use il i!: very
1113 lIeOl hie, extremely ducli Ie, aII excellent conductor, 11 ud less expensive tha n silver. One of
lhe principle uses, of copper is to produte alloys. Pure topper is inadequate for lools and
machine PllTts because it is too soft. When alloyed wilh till, however, it produces bronze
which is harder Ihan either copper or lin; when lliloyed wilh zinc il produces brass; and
when alloyed with sleel, it increases the re."ista nce of sleel 10 corrosion. o,ppcr, like gold
and silver, is a beautiful and precious metallhat has been used for ages 10 produce coins,
jewelry a nd omamenls.

13
 CHAPTER 3
ANSWER KEY
Identirylng Cause and Errect
1. copper is healed to 1083"C, it melts
2 Changes occur in plants, they absorb energy from the sun
3. The rotation of a compass needle, lhe earth's magnetic field
4. Ashes. the bumingorwood
5. Acids, lum litmus J?o1pcr rcd
6. Rubbing a comb wilh a cloth, a negative electric charge
7. Fasll110vingcbarged particles, the ionization of atOlliS
8. The ocean's tides, the gravitlltional pull ormool1
9. The more iron is exposed 10 llIoislllir, the morc it ru!ils
10. Color. the rcneclion of light.
Understanding Pllrnphrascs
I. b 4. a
2. b S. a
3. a 6. b
Recognlzl"" Subordination
J. No one was killed, because
2. When, iron becomes rust resistant
3. Even when, walcr will not decompose
4. The gils pressure increased, because
5. When, the Cllrth's IWlgncticncld may have been revcrsed
6. !Eihe ralc of a chemical reaclion increases
7. Neon givcs off [ighl, when
8. ,[. il condenses directiY'iOa solid
Using Subordination (Answers will vary)
1. When mereury is heated 10 _38.9C, it melts.
2 No sound can be heard if a bell is slruck in a vaCUUIII.
3. Chlorophyll disintegrates, clusing leaves to Iurn red, yellow, a nd ora nge.
4. An echo is heard when a sound wave reflects orr a mountain.
5. Ion." are formed as an acid is dissolved in waler.
6. If a lelL" is too thin oran eyeball is too sborl, a pCBOIl l>ccollles farsighted.
Recognizing Cause and Errect In n rurngrllph
1. Dissolving Ihe pellets in Willer cllused Ihemlo brellk up.
2. Stirring tbe pelleL.. speeded up the rellctiOIl.
3. The brea king of (he chemica I bonds of sodiu III byd roxide eauscr4tbe release of
energy.
4. The rise of the tem~rnture of the waler was brought about by the release of
energy.
5. They broke inlo sodium a nd hydrox.ide ions.
6. It speeded Ihe reaction.

14
 7. A rI'h'<lse of energy resulted.
R It I'lli,ed tbe WlIlerlempcralurc.

I. c 6. j
2. b 7. k
3. e 8. a
4. g 9. d
5. i
VQl."obulary In Context (reading skills)
1. a 8. a
2. a 9. a
3. R 10. b
4.b ll.b
5.8 12.b
G.b 13.8
7.8 14.8
Making Inrcrcnl."es
I. S 6. II. I
2. [ 7. N 12. N
3. N 8. S 13. S
4. [ 9. S 14. S
5. N 10. N 15. I
Voubulary In Context (listening skills)
I. b 7. b
2. 8.
3. 9. b
4. b 10. b
5. b II. a
6. , 12
Understanding the Lel."lure
I. T 7. T
2. F 8. F
3. T 9. T
4. T 10. F
5. F 11. T
6. F 12. F

15
 LEcrUR~
The Music of Sou nd

Why docs a guitar sound dirrerenl. from a clarinet? And why do both sound different
from a trumpet or a piano even when the nole is sounded on all four instruments? The
answer can be found in an explanation of bow sound is produced.
Sound is produced by vibr.lliolls in the air and illrnvels in waves. When a hanullcr
strikes a nail, Lhey both begin 10 vibrate. The vibmliolls push the molecules in the air and
prodUl'C waves. TI1CSC sound waves move in every di rcction i 1\ incrcasi ngly 13 rger circlc....
When the wave!) I"CHch the car, the c.lf drum vibmlcs 1l1ld nerves scnd a Illcs,';;tgc 10 the brain
that we lICHf as sound.
TIle speed Itt which sound travels is dctcnnincd by the mediulll through which it
passes. Sound trdvcls very fasl in a solid subslan<'C, slower in a liquid, and the slowest ill
tbe air. Sound travels in the air at 330 mctcrs per second, much slower 111.111 the speed of
light Thill is why we see lightning before we hcarlhunder. There is no sound in a vacuum
because there are no air molecules 10 vibrate. Next time you're in a vacuum, don't bolher
to tum on lhe radio! There is no sound without movement.
Sound is characterized by its pitch, volume, intensity, and quality. Pitch refers 10
wbelhertlle sound is high or low. Pitch is detenl1incd by the rrequencyofa sound wave (or
bow fast the wave vibratcs). For example, a violinist produces II high pitch by shortening
the violin string and ('a usi ng it to vihrn Ic rapidly. A cla rinctis( docs the sa me by sbortening
thc colu 1Il1l of a ir, A long string or colu mn of ai r vihmtes slowly, induci ns a low sound.
TIIC volumc ofa sound is detennincd by the amplitude, or size of thc sound waves. The .
grea tcr the a llIplilude, thc louder the sound. For exmllple, whcll the heHd of 1I Ia rgc drum is
struck, it produces In rge sound Wllves which create a loud sou nd.
TIle intensity of the sound refcr.; 10 the alllount of energy the sound WOIVC is carrying.
Intcnsity is rclatedto amplilude; tbe greater the intensity, thc louder it sccms.
The (lull1ity of the sound refer.; to differences in thc type of sound such liS the variatiOIl$
in the sounds of' musical illstrulllenl~. These arc delenuined by the mixtures of the
vibrntion.'i. Different instruments produce different COlllbi 1\01 tions of vi brat ions. The result
is that each instrument has its own lone quality. TIIC st ring on a violin produces a di rrerent
mixture of vibration.~ thai the coru mn of air on 3 c1arinct which, in tum, producc.~ di rrerent
vibrntions thllllthe head of a drum.
Today, computers arc being used, not only 10 recognize and simulate human voices,
but even to play lIlusic. To SYlllhe.~ize a human voice, the computer vibfllle.~ 3 speaker
cone to try to simulate the acoustical wave pattem.~ produc:ed by tbe hunmn voice. To play
a particular piece of music, tlie computer is progranulicd for the preci~c pitch and dUrlltion
of each nOle. TIlcre have even been al1ellipt~ to have a computer compose mclodies by
program millg it to rlllldomly sclel:t notes tb.11 follow rules of hllnnony and melody. So I'll r,
MO'Z.1 rt and Beethoven don'l have to worry.

16
 CHAPTER 4
ANSWER KEY
ldcntlfyng Hypotheses In Sentences
1. b 5. b
2. b 6. b
3. a 7. II

4. ,
Identifying Hypotheses in Paragraphs
Time, like space and motion, is relative; there is no real or abso'\ule time.
ldenUfylng Probability
1. seems 5. appears
2. could be 6. as far as we know
3. arc thought ... to be 7. there is a theory
4. suggests 8. llIay
Using Models or ProbabilIty (Answers will vSlry)
1. The "greenhouse effect" may be wanning our carth.
2 The pandas in China may be becoming extinct.
3. The ocean's tides may be slowing the rotation oflhe earth.
4. QUllsa rs mil y be violently cxplod iug ga laxics.
5. The continents may be drifting or lllovingon the surface or the earth.
6. The radioactive fallout from nuclear lest explosions may be hannfullO tbe at
mosphere.
7. The pOpulRlion oftbe world mRy be increasingllt a dangerous rate.
8. Computers may be revolutionizing industry around the world.
Prl!fix: trnns
1. transplllen( s. transmitted
2. translate 6. transferred
3. transfusion 7. trllllsplants
4. transistor 8. transformed
Vocnbulary in Context (reading skIlls)
1. b 6. b 11. a 16. b
2. a 7. b 12. a 17. a
3. R 8. b 13. II 18. b
4. b 9. b 14. a 19. b
5. b 10. a 15. a

17

Understanding the Reading
1. F 8. F
2. F 9. T
3. F 10. T
4. T 11. T
5. T 12. F
6. F 13. T
7. F
Vocabulary In Context Olstenlng skills)
1. , 7. ,
2. , 8. ,
3. , 9. ,
4. b 10. a
5. " 11. a
6. ,
UnderstandIng the Lecture
1. F 6. T
2. T 7. T
3. F 8. F
4. F 9 T
5. T 10. T

LECCURE,
Obeying the Law of Gravity

Earlier in the chapler, we read aboul Newton's studies of horizonlal lIIol)on. But
Newton was also inlcresled in vcrticalmotion. He was looking for an explanalion fOfwhat
holds the moon in ils orbil. He reported Ihal one day, while silting in his gartlen, he nOliced
an apple fall [romlhe lree. He began to speculate about how the foreeof grnvily eXlends 10
the. topoftrces and evcn to the laps of mountains. If il extends tl~11 far, perhaps il eXlends
all the way 10 lhe moon.
Newton hnd already established that an object tcnds 10 move in a strnight line if no
outside force acts on it. Tbc moon does not move in a strnight line, however; the moon
revolves around the earth. Newton concluded that the grnvilal ional force of the earth holds
tbe moon in its orbit around the carth. This samc grnvilJltional pull ooids the sun and the
planets in their places.
Ncwton dclenllined thai weight is the grnvitat ional force Of pu II actillg 011 all objcct If
you travel to the mOOIl, the mass of your body will be precisely the same but yourwcight

18
\\ ill be less, due to the proportionally slllaller sin' of the mOOll. Simila rly, if you travelled
10 different planets, your weigbl would vary with tbe mass of each planet in our solar
system.
Newtoll was ablc to calculate the relative wcights of the SUll, the earth, and the pia nels
by comparing their relative gravitationa I strength. The greater the mass of two bodies, the
greater is the force of allldetion between them. Thus, the force of allraction between the
earth and a 200-pound person is greater than the force of attraction between the earth and 8
l()().pound person.
Gravitational force depends not only on the masses of tbe two bodies, but also on the
distance between them. Thus, astronauts experience weightlessness on the wa y to tbe moon
because they are not close enough to be affccted by the gravitational pull oftbc earth orthe
moon.
Newton extended his law even funher. He said that every object in the universe exerts
a gravitRlional pull on every other objeL1. This means that you are exerting a force on a
person sitting next to you, your desk is exerting a force on your pend I, etc. If you are
wonderillgwhy we don', fcelthi.s force, il is because gravity is only a slrong force when a
hUb'C body, such as the earth, is involved.
Newton also explained lbe tides of tile oce:ln. For thous,lIlds of years, it was noticed
Ihnt there was /I corrcJ,ltioll bctweentho oce,w's lides and the phases of lhe moon, but no
one was ablc to explain il He reasoned that JUSI as the c:lrth pulls on Ihe lIIoon, the moon
pu lis on tbe til rth. The gr,lVitational pull of the moon has little effctt on our land masses but
il pulls onlhe occan.s which are free to move. Thus, tbe law of grnvily applies everywhere
in the univelSC. The concepl of univers.ll gravity was the grealest conlribution of Isaac
Newton, the man many consider to be one of the greatest tbinkers of all time.

19
 CHAPTER S
ANSWER KEY
Analyzing Odlnltlons
1. an inert gas, thai is light and nonflammable
2 onecclled, Olga nisms
3. device. thai transforms energy from one (onn to another
4. part of the brain, tbat is the center of reasoning
5. substance, thai docs not conduct heal and electricity
6. cloud,lhat fOfms on tbe ground
7. study. oethe environlllent
8. cclcstia I body, Iba I orbits II notber celestial body
Correcting Dcnnltlons
I. Circular definition.
Belter: A scientific tbeory is a proposed explanation of why something occurs.
2 Lacks a classification.
Belter: An apple is a fruit that is round, red, and aboullhesizc ofa fist.
3. Tells how you feel about it bUI not what it is.
Belter: Calculus is a system of calculation developed by both Newton and
Lcibniz.
4. Der. nil ion is morc difliculll han tenn being defined.
Beller: An car is an organ of hearing.
5. Negative definition, that is, it Jells what it is 110t, doesn't tell whal il is.
Better: A unicom is a fictional hOlSe with one hom inlhc ccnlcr ofils forehcad.
6. Lacks both classification and characteristics.
Bcller: A lorna do is a type of Slorm wilh high, circular winds.
7. L.1cks distinguishing charncteristics.
Belter: Rad ium is a meta llic elemcnl Ilia I is highly I'll dioaclive.
8. Describes a compass but doesn't define it.
Belter: A compass is an in.<;trumcnt tbal determines direction by means of a
rotating magnetized needle.
9. Gives examples but does not define.
Beller: An amphibia n is a erealu re that can live either on III nd or in the sea.
10. Circular definition.
Better: A supernova is a star thai suddenly explodes, becoming much brighter and
then gradually fading.
Relntive Cllluses
1. Protons arc posi lively cha rged particles that arc containcd in Ihe nucleus of the
atom.
2 A black hole is an area in sp.1ce thnt has gravitational pull so powcrful that
nothing, not even light, can escape.
3. Marine biologists a re scientists who study the anima Is and pIa nls thal live in the
,;e
4. The stratosphere is the portion of the atmosphere that is over seven miles high.

20
 5. Insulin is a homlOne produced by the pancreas that is used in the treatment of
diabetes.
6. Bacteria arc simple Fonns orplan! life that arc the most abundant fonn of liCe
] on earth.
7. Oxidation is a chemical reaction thai involves the loss of Olle or more electrons
by an atom or ion.
8. Nitrogen is a calorles.li, odorless gas that makes up 80 percent nrlhe air.

1 Formulating Definitions
1. All amoeba is '3 one-celled animal thai c.onstantly changes its shape.
2. An antibiotic is a drug that cures bacterial diseases.
3. A lung is an organ of breathing.
4. Acoustics is the science of sound.
5. Photosynthesis is the process by which plants manufacture food.
6. Acatalyst is a substance that speeds up, but is lIot changed by a chemical
reaction.

1 7. A cttloric is a unit for Illcasu ri IIg beal.

8. A cyclotron is an appilratus tbilt bomb.uds the nuclci of atoms.
Crl!ntlng Deflnltlons (Answers wIll vary but should hnve a classification plus
d 1st! lIl:ulshl n C charncteristlcs.)
1. A camcrn is a device for taking photographs.
2. A bridge is a structure thai aJJows pilssllgeover a river, rond, or the like.
3. An x-ray is 11 photograph taken through tl solid substance using electromagnetic
radiation.
4. A bultcrfly is all insect with large and frequently colorful wings.
5. Geology is tbe study of the physical history of the c'lrth.
6. A d i<llllond is a precious stolle that is lila de of ,I Imost pu re cryslllll ized ca rho n.
7. An echo is the repetition oCa sound caused by tbe rcJledion of sound waves.
8, A virus is a submicroscopic agent th'lt causes disease.
9. Cart'eine is a drugfoulld in coffee, te", and cola drinks, that ,lctS as a stimulant.
10. All aquarium is a g],ISS tank where aquatic plants and animals arc grown.
Prefixes
1. d 4. b 7. c
2. , 5. , 8. h
3. r 6. g 9. ,

21
Vocabulary in Context
I. , 6. b
2. b 7. a
3. , 8. ,
4. , o. ,
5. , 10. a
Understanding the Reading (Answers will vary)
1. Energy can be transfonned from one type to another or transferrcd hom one
body to another.
2. Kinetic energy is the energy of motion.
3. Like maller, energy cannot be created or destroyed.
4. Potential energy is the energy of position.
5. Einstein said that the conscrvation of matler and lhe conservation of energy arc
rclated.
6. Einstein's theol)' aboul the conservation of mailer a nd energy was proved.
7. The dcvelopmcllt of atomic encrgy dCllIonslmtes I hal llUlller Cit 11 be convert cd
into cncrgy.
8. Whcn an atom is split, it gives off neutrons.
9. An atomic cxplosion occurs as 8 rcsult of the rnpid chitin reaction ofsplilling
atOmS.
10. Fusion takes place on the sun when two hydrogen atoms arc combined.
It. Extrcmc hc;lI is rcquired for fusion to takc place.
12. Fusion produced on thc earth results in a hydrogen bomb.
Vocabulary in Context (listening skills)
I. , 6. b
2. b 7. b
3. , 8. ,
4. , 9. ,
5. ,
Understanding the Lecture
J. b 6. ,
2. b 7. ,
3. b 8. b
4. a 9. b
5. 11 10. b

22
 LECTURE,
The End of the Universe

We have 1I1rcmly read that energy cannot be created or destroyed. This law of conservation
of energy is also referred to as the first law of thcnnooyn'lInics. However, we should never
assume that we have an inexhaustible supply of energy. We con.'>L111lly need more energy
because whenever we use energy, we degrade Ulal energy into some less useful [onlL
Energy continually runs downhill from a higher 10 a lower grndc. This is called the
second law of lhcnllodynamics. AJthough energy is alwa ys cOlLserved, it usually winds up
as heal energy. For example, if you rub your bnnds together, they will gel wann. Your
muscle energy has dlil ngcd 10 heal energy.
Heal energy is a lower faml of energy. Considcrwhll' happens when you drop a rock.
In your hand, the rock has a potential energy which ehllnges into kineliecncrgy as it fll11s.
Wllen it hits the ground, ils kinetic energy cbanges to heat energy. Heal energy is a lower
fonn of cnergy because it t~lnnot readily be trnn~fonned into useful work. When thc rock
WIIS in tbe air, il bad potcntial cncrgy to do work, such as driving a stick into tbe ground.
After the rock hits the ground, it is no longer capable of doing any work. Energy was
preserved inlhc process, but since heat cncrgy isa lowcr fonll ofcnergy than potential or
kinetic energy, energy is running downhill.
One sign of the degrading of energy is that heal alwnys lJows from a wanncr object to a
coolcronc; it never docs the rcvcrne. Tfyou put lin icecubc in a hot drink, heat nows frolllthe
1 hot liquid to wann and melt lhe cube. Hell! energy never !lows from a cold objed to a hot onc,
i making the cold object colder and the hot object holter. HC<lt energy ~~ II low gmde of encrgy
lind the lowcr the temperature of the object, Ihe lower the grode of energy it contaill~.
TIlC downgrndingof encrgy is llwnifesled in another way. Natul'lll processes tend to
proceed Iowa rd asIa te of grca ter disorder. Nothing goes from disorder to order. When you
open a bottle of perfume, the molccules of the perfullIc rush out into the air in di.~ordcrly
fashion. Thcy never go lJ.1ck into Ihe bottle and retum to an orderly state! Simila rly, if you
shook sOllie sail and peppcr together, tlu:y wou Id become mixed. 11lere is no wlIY you could
mix, stir, or slwke Ihe mixlure to extract the salt from the pepper and restore two orderly
1 piles of disH net subsla nces. The disorder of the universe continually increases.
If this condition exists cvcrywhere, thc natural outcome will be tbat everything in the
universe will degcneratc into disorder, all energy will be depleted, and all life wil I eome to
an end. llLis running down of energy is referred 10 as ~entropy~ or the ~hent-death~ of the
univcrse. However, you don'l need 10 worry aboul it, unless you plan to be around in a
billion yearn orso.

23
 CHAPTER 6-
ANSWER KEY
Analyzing Exempllncatlon
1. Carbohydrates afC organic compounds. Organic compounds contain carbon in
combination wilh hydrogen and oxygen.
2 Some birds travel (nannOllS distances without rcsting. The ruddy turnstone flies
nonstop from Alaska to Hawaii every !car.
3. Parasites are living tbings that feed ocfother living things. The mistletoe plant
lives off apple, maple, or poplar trees, causing them to die from
malnutrition.
4. Severn! theories have been proposed 10 explain the nature oflight. Christian
Huygens suggested thai ligbl Irnvels in waves. Albert Einstein proposed
that Ii hi is transmiucd as tin rticlcs or hotons.
5. SymbIOSIS IS the coexIstence 0 hVlng thin&" or t cir mutual benefit. Planllicc
or a hids live wilh a nts ill a s mbiotic lela lions hi .
6. AtOllllC rescarch las e to t edeveloplIlcnt 0 arll icially prepucd clcmcnts.
EinsteiniullI, fermiulll, californium, and bcrkcliulIIllrc allmanmilde
clcmcnts.
Recognlzln~ Examples
1. a, C
2. b
3. a, c
4. a, C
5. a, b
Using Modals or Neceulty
1. must only be administered
2 lIlust be prepared
3. must be produced
4. must always be turned ofT
5. must not be inhaled
6. must be fertilized
7. must never be allowed
8. must never be released
Formulating Sentences with Necessity
1. The electricity should bc shut off.
2. The blood donors should be tested foranelilia.
3. The radiation monitoring devices should be calibrated regularly.
4. A fire extinguisber should be available in lhe laboratory. .'.
5. The explosive devices should be properly i IL'iulated.
6. The technicians should be protected from excessive mdiation.
7. The needles should be sterilized before the injections.
8. The patients should be immunized againsttbe flu.

24
Suffixes
1. shorten 5. widen 9. tighlen 13. slrengthen
2. broaden 6. weaken 10. loosen 14. lengthen
3. deepen 7. soften 11. brighten 15. sharpen
4. darken 8. blacken 12. frighten 16. straighten

I. to identify 5. to exemplify
2. to solidify 6. to humidify
3. 10 liquefy 7. to electrify
4. to purify 8. to clarify

1. identification 5. exemplification
2. solidification 6. humidification
3. liqucfication 7. electrification
4. purification 8. clarification
Vocllbuillry In Context
1. b 6.
2. 7.
3. 8. b
4. 9. b
5. b
Druwlng Conclusions
1. a 6. b
2. a 7. 8
3. b 8. a
4. a 9. a
5. 3 10. a
VOCAbulary In Context (listening skills)
I. b 5. b 9. a
2. a 6. a 10. b
3.a 7.b 11.b
4. b 8. a 12. b
Understnllding the Lecture
1. T 5. F 9. T
2. F 6. T 10. T
3. F 7. F 11. T.
4. F 8. F 12. F

25

\
 LECTURE:
The Changing State o[ Matter

We read carlier in this chaptcr about how tcmperature affcels mallcr. One oftbc most
important effccts of heat is tbat it can ell.1 nge thc stalc of a substance from solid 10 liquid to
gas. III facl, heal is a requiremcnt in any change ofphysil'al stale. We know lhal watcrcan
be cooled to fonn ice, or beated so that it boils and changes to steam or vapor. With the
addition or subtrneLion of heat, almost all substalln~s can be converted from one pbysiC3l
slale to anolher.
Melling is the conversion of a solid to a liquid. If we heat a block of icc, when the
tcmperature of thc kc reaches DoC, the llloiccu les of icc sta rt 10 movc so fast that their order
breaks down and they tumble all over eacb olber. Gradually, the ire begins to melt
Substances convert from one statc to anotber al fixcd temperatures. For examplt:, gold
mclts at 1063C and iron at 1535C. Fro,,.cn oxygen willlllelt at 219C.
TIIC rcveffic of thc lllelti ng process is freczing. Frcezi ug is lowering Ihe tcmperature of
a liqu id su fficienU y to eba nge. it to a solid. Thcfrcezing point of a substa nee is the ~1 me as
its melting poinl For example, liquid gold will solidify al l036C, iron at 1535C, and
oxygenat-219C
If a liquid is heated sufficiently, it will boil and convcrt to a gas. The process of
convcrtingrrom a liquid to a WIS, or H vllpor, is ~~llled evapontlion. WlJen water is Iu.~lllcd,
the molccules becomc increasingly violcnt so 1b.1t SOllie Jose Iheir allnH.1ion to the other
molecules. They try to escape inlo the air and bubbles are formed. Evcntually, all the
molecules disperse into the air and the water gradually tUniS to steam or vapor. You have
seen an cxample of this whcn water was lcft boiling in a pol. Liquids can evapol'lilc without
boiling. Liquids thOlt evapol'lltc easily, that is at low IClllpcl'lllureS, nrc described as being
VOL1tile. Alcohol and perfUIIIC are volatile liquids. You h.wc probably noticed how quickly
they disappca r when left uncovered.
Thc reverse of evaporation is condenAAtion, the ronvc~ion of a vapor into a liquid.
During t'Ondcns.1tion, Ihc molceules ofa gas comc ill contact with drops or liquid and lire
absorbcd by thcm. 1llc condensa lion poillt of a su b:;lance is lhe 5:lme llS the boili ng point.
Exa mplcs of eonden~1tion are the steam that fonns on your gIilsscs whcn you enter a hea ted
room from thc cold outdoors, or the moisture thai [onns onlhe outside of all iced drink.
Dew, fog. douds, and rain are examples in nalure of condcnsation 111.11 lakes place whcn
wllnn air is cooled. Any gas cOIn be mnveJ1ed to a liquid if it is cooled sulTicieully. Mllny
industrial processes rcqu ire Ihe Iiquefication of air and other WIses.
When the rale of evaporation is exactly equal 10 the mle of cOlxlen.<;ation, a state of
equilibrium CXiSIS. An ex.1ll1plc of trus occurs whcn liqu id is in a closed contai ncr. Sollie of
the molecules oflhe liquid evapomte and dispcrnc into the air inside the conlaincr. At the
sa me time, other ai r molecules inside the contai ner collide with the surface orlhe liquid II nd
condense at the s.111le speed, and the amount of liquid and amount of vapor in the conL1iner
remain constanl

26
 CHAPTER 7
ANSWER KEY
Identirying Evidence
1. A plRSlic raincoat prevents lhe min from pcnclr.lting. but 11 wool coat docs nolo
Plastic is impermeable 10 waler, lind wool is not.
2. If 11 bottle of perfume is lert open in 8 closed roOlll, the smell will eventually
spread allover the room. The molecules of a gas spread, or diffuse, 10 fill
lhe enlire area.
3. The earth is round. A persolllrnvelingdireClly east fromlhc cgunlorwill
eventuall y return to the sia Ttl ng place.
4. A bell rung in a vacuum makes no sound. Sound is only produced when there
are molecules 10 transmit il.
5. Life as we know it cannot exist on Venus. lllcre is no o'Wgcn or water on
Venus.
6. MOn?hinc is addictive. Has ilal aticnls who are ivclllllor hillcas 11 lill
reliever sQlIlclimcs develop a p VSlca cpen cnee on lhe rug.
7. Death often occurs when drugs and alcohol arc used together. Certain
combinations of alcohol and drugs l'ltl1 be. falal.
8. Glass is fragile, or breakable. A glass boUle dropped on a hnrd surface is likely
10 break.

DrAWing Conclusions froln Evidence

I. b 5. ,
2. " 6. II

3. b 7. a
4. b
EvaluatIng Evidence
L C, d 4. a, b, d
2. c 5. a, C
3. a 6.a,b,c
Identlfylnj; Deductive lind Inducllve Reasonin~
1. [ 5. 0
2. [ 6. [
3. [ 7. 0
4. 0 S. 0
Using ReasonIng
There is 00 allempt here 10 teach ronnal logic. The object or Ihe exercise is only 10
increase awa rencss or raise reasoning.

Conclusions rrom inductive reasoning mayor may not be true.

27
 1. False deduction becausc first premise is false. All birds do not fly. (All birds
have fealhclS.)
2 False inductive reasoning. Although the characteristics coexist in Einstein,
there is no evidence of Iheir relationship.
3. Even if all metals were solid (no true, mercury is a liquid metal), it does not
follow thai all solids are metal.
4. Conclusion does !lot follow from tile premise. Premise does not specify that
animals are classified according to t he way tbey walk.
5. False induClive reasoning. Example is nol representative or typical.
6. The first premise is not all inclusive. That is, it does not say tbat all elements
arc cither gases or liquids.
7. False inductive reasoning. Example is not typical or rcprcsen!ntive.
8. FillH premise is false. Bcinga genius and working bard are not mutually
exclusivc.
9. Conclusion does not follow from premise. The lack of proof that it is hamlful is
not evidcnce thai it is Safe.
to. Even if all animals have tails, it docs nol follow that everything Ihat bas a tail is
"n animal.
Vocnbulnry Building
excites stimulates excitability. irritability
portions - doses endurance -tolerance
tired - fatigued 1I0t enough insufficicnt
a Wll ke - alert persuade - convince
harmful- detrimcntal
Suffixes
1. conncction 6. gravit.. tion 10. attraction 14. specullltion
2. conduqioll 7. lubrication II. abiorption 15. extension
3. radiation 8. calculation 12. correlation 16. demonstration
4. insulation 9. elimination 13. exertion 17. formulation
5. acceler.ttion

I. connector 5. accelerator 8. speculator

2. radiator 6. demonstrator 9. lubricator
3. insulator 7. correia tor 10. calculator
4. resistor

28
Vocabulary in Context (reading skills)
1. b 8. b 15. !I
2. a 9. b 16. b
3.a 1O.b 17. a
4.a II.b 18.b
5. 8 12. 8 19. b
6. a 13. b
7.a 14. a

Skimming
l. ,
2 cocaine, Amphetamines, narcotics, mariju~IlA, barbitul"iltes
Understanding the Reading
l. F 7. F
2. F 8. T
3. F 9. F
4. F 10. T
5. T 11. F
6. F 12. T
Vocabulary In Context (listening skills)
l. , 6. b
2. b 7. b
3. b 8. b
4. b 9. b
5. b 10. a
Understanding the Lecture
I. F 7. F
2. F 8. F
3. T 9. F
4. T 10. T
5. T It. F
6. T 12. T

29
 LECTURE,
The Physiologic.al Effects of A.lcohol

So far, in this chaplcr, we have discussed the banneul effects of smoking and drugs.
Alcohol is another substance that affects our minds and our bodies.
Until recent yea 1S, little was known about tbe effects of alcohol. Recent resea reh has
shown that some people are more likely 10 become addicted tban others, bUI it is nol known
why. Efrccl~ depend on how much is consumed and over what period oflimc. Ethcr five
ounces of winc, twelve ou nees of beer, or one and one-half ou necs of 80 proof spi rits will
put two-thirds oCan ounce of pure alcohol into Ibe bloodslream. Once an ounce of alcohol
is ahwrbed into the bloodstream, it takes about an bour for the body to bum iL Drinking
coffee or taking a sbowerdoes not speed up the process.
II is an interesting and JXltcntially dangerous fact 1b.11 small amounts of alcohol C3n
make sollle people feel good while Inrger 1l1llOUllls mnke tbelll feci depressed. TIlLs
observation hllS becn supported by cvidence. Alcobollllkcll in Slllall quanlilies can bring
pleasumblc feelings and give some people II boosl in confidence and social poise. The
dllnger lies in tbe fact that nlilllY people think Ihat if a little is good, a lot will be even belter.
The lruth is that studies have shown Ihal small doses of alcohol PUIllP up the heart mte
while high doses call depress or slow down the heart mle and Ic.,d 10 addiclion. Allhough
small qU<lntities Illay not be hannful, llkohol taken ill large qunnlilies (';luses serious
changes ill the body's chemistry, affecting nearly every part orthe body.
Alcohol bas a 1I1.1rked effect of the nervous syslem. In modernte "Iuanlities, it may be
beneficial in rei icving lensiolL At tbe same ti Ille, judgment and l'Oordill.1tion a re imp.' ired,
shown by the fact thai alcohol is a faclor in more Ihan hal I' of all fat.' I automobile accidents
in North AmeriC'.l. Alcohol impairs the ability of lhe nerve cells 10 tr.msll1il messagcs.
There is evidence of this in lbe unclear speech, blurred vision, and tellipomry loss of
memory of intoxicated people.
Chronic alcoholism affects the muscles in the body. Rcsearch shows Ihat the muscles
of heavy uscrs are innametl and show sings of degenernlion, and the hellrth is sometimcs
enlargetllcading 10 death.
Alcohol affects scxualily and reproduC't ion. All hough moderatc II mounts ClllI incrcilSC
scxulll desire, alcohol usullily decrcllSCs lhe llbility 10 pcrfonn. Chronic 1lkoholislll ('nn
illlj>.,ir spenn production nnd lelld to sterility. 111is is p.1rtly caused by the dcstruction of the
1l1.1lc sex bonllone, teslosterone, illlbc liver.
Chronic alcoholism has a detrimenta I effect on the liver. Heavy d rillking causes fallo
accumul.1le in lhe liver. Passage of blood becomcs impaired, tbe capacity of Ihe livcr to
process food decreases, lind the genem I hea lth of the individual deteriorn les.
One of lhe worst effects of alcohol is 011 the hrnin. Heavy drinking call lead to
confusion and even unconsciousness. Pregn.,nl women nrc advised 110t 10 drink .11 .111,
especially in the early months, beCIiUse oflhe blinn it can cnuse the unborn b.1by. Alcohol
affects each person differently, lind cvery user should be aware of its potential eITects. Any
short ternt benefits may be oUlweighed by long tenll negative effects.

30
 CHAPTER 8
ANSWER KEY
Impcnltivc Verbs
1. Make 4. Move
2. Tie 5. Place
3. hiSerl 6. Check
Arranging Items Chronolol;lcally
1. 3, 1,4,2
2. 5,3, 1,4,2
3.1,4,3,2
4. 1,3, 4, 2
5.3,2.1
6. 4,2, 1,3
Using Imperative Verbs (Answers will vary)
1. Obtain a oollcry, sollie insulated wire, a nail, lind sOllie paper clips.
2. Connect one end ortbe wire 10 a ballCry node.
3. Coil the wire around a nail.
4. Connect tbe Olber end ortb~ wire 10 the olher ballery nooe.
5. Usc the naillo pick up paperclips.
(Explanation: Electric currents produce magnetic fields. lfyou disconnccllbc nail
fromlbc ooltcry, it will no longer be magnetized.)
Choosing Verb Forms
I. , 6.
2. b 7. ,
3. b 8. a
4. 9. b
5. " to. a
Word Roots
I. c 4. 7. f
2. h 5. b 8. d
3. c 6. j 9. g
Vocahulary In Contexl (reading skills)
1. b 6. a
2. b 7. 11
3. a 8. a
4. a 9. b
5. ,

31
Understanding the Read!ng
LT 7. F
2. F 8. F
3. T 9. T
4. T to. F
5. F 11. T
6. T 12. F
Vocabulary In Context (lIstening skills)
L 5.
2. 6.
3. 7.
4. b
Understanding the Lecture
L E 8. WN
2. G 9. G
3. E to. SN and WN
4. E II. G
5. SN 12. E
6. E 13. E
7. G

LECTURE,
The Four Forces of Nature

Isallc Newton identified grnvity as one of the basic forces of nature. Since !hen, o!her
forces have been discovered. Physicists believe there are four forces in nalure: a
grnvitational force, an electromagnetic forcc, a strong nuclear fon.-e, Ilnd a weak nuclear
force.
Gnvitation is !he force by which all bodies are allrncted to each OIher. It kecps planets
in theirorbilS and makes applcs fall fromlrces. It is actually the weakest of the four forces,
bul its effects arc strongly fclt because celesl ia I bodies arc so massive.
The electromagnelie force is considered by Illany scientists to be the most important of
all. The electromagnetic forcc is the powerful aUtaction of unlike electrical charges I'Ind
repulsion of like charges. The nucleus of an alom has 8 posilive electric charge Ilnd
electrons orbiting the nucleus have a ne~ live charge. Since opposite cha rges atlra ct, tbese
electric forces cause the nucleus and the electrons to be attrncted to ellch otber. This is the
underlying force of chemistry because it is responsible for biooing the particles of an atolll
together, holding atoms toge!her to fonn molecules, and keeping molecules together to

32
fonn liquids and solids. In nonnal life, we are not aware of lhe electric.1l force because
when positive and negalive charges arc equal, they cancel each otheroul and no force is fclt
at aIL
The eledromagnetie force causes friction. For example, as you walk, lhe atom... and
molecules on the floor and on your feet are pressed out of shape and the electric force of
one a1.1s on the other. All conlact forces are oosically electrical. For example, when you
push or pull an object wilh your hand, the e1cr.:lricnl force acts to move the object, and
provides the resista nce to prevent your ha IW from going through the object!
111c electrical force is even in action when you pul a b.1nd-aid on your ri.nger. The
sticky side of the band-aid has a chemical thaI loose I\." the elcctcollS so they jump over to
your finger. Your ringer becomes neg;llivcly charged and the ba tid-aid become:, positively
ch.uged so lhe allraction of opposites holds thelll together.
The electric-a I force is si milll r to the gravi\..1tiom I force, acting across empty space, or
rather an electromagnetic tield. However, grnvitaliol1 only attract... E1cclrit.ally charged
substances cilher allract or repel. Fina lIy, the electrical force is at work in all the processes
oflhebody. '
The remaining two forces are the nuclear fOll.:es lhnt ncl only within the atom.
Scientists divide them into two categories, the slrong nuclcar force lind the weak nuclear
force. 11le strong force is the one that lids on the nucleus of the atom to hold together lhe
protons. Since tile prolOl1S are positively dlllfged, tilcy repel each olher and a very strong
foree is needed to hold tilemtogether. The weilk force is the one responsible for certllin
types of radioactivity.
For II long time, it was thought tb"t all events inllalurc could be explained by these four
forces. Recentl y, however, scientists h,we discovered problcms with this theory. For one
thing, the grnviL1tionlli pull deep ill ,Ill Austr.i1ian mine W,\S found to be stroliger than
gmvity on the surfacc of lhc eart h. Also, some experiment'; lwve revc<llcd differences inthe
mle cert"ill objects fall towan! the cnrth. To explain thcse diffefCnces, physicists h,we
proposed that there may Ix 11 fifth lorcc opemting in thc universe. 11lis force, allied
hYPl!rch:Jfj:;c, is thoughllo be wC<lker than grnvity and counteracts the forcc of gravity al
short distances. So far, IllOrc experimcntH tion is ncccssa ry before the hYIXlthc.')is of 11 mth
force becomcs accepted thcory. ,

33
 CHAPTER 9
ANSWER KEY
Undel'Shlllding Mathematical Ternls
l.w=f.d
d
2. v=-
I

3.v=l.w.b
w
4. p=-
I
1 2
5. k= -(Ill. v)
2
6. c=:r.d

7. c= .?:(OF _ 32)
9
Indefinite Articles
1. penicillin, a drug, diseases
2. a qU;lsar, a galaxy
3. zinc, a moderately aclive melal
4. beat, energy
S. ligut, an exira fluorescent light
6. iron, glasses, glass
7. alpha rays, bela rays, gamma rays /
8. a colorless. odorless, and tasteless gas
Dc[illile Articles
I. A biochemistry professor, an experimenl, guinea pig-;, The experiment, lhe
professor, Ihe animals
2. The Humber Bridge, the longest suspcmioll bridge, the world
3. 3 comet, lhe comel
4. Eckert, Mauchly, the riml all electronic computer
5. The cffcCI, living things, the amount, the rate
Number !','cfixcs
I. d 6. k
2. g , 7. j
3. II 8. r
4. c 9. h
5. c 10.

34
Vocabulary in Context (reading skills)
1. a 7. a
2. a 8. b
3. a 9. a
4. a 10. b
5. a 11. a
6. b
Drawing Conclusions
I. b 6. b
2. a 7. a
3. b 8. b
4. b 9. a
S. b 10. 11
Vocabulary in Context (listening skills)
1. a 7. a
2. b 8 b
3. a 9. a
4. a 10. b
5.n Il.b
6.3 12.b
Undershmding the Lecture
1. T .8. T
2. T 9. T
3. F 10. F
4. T II. T
5. F 12. F
6. T 13. F
7. F

LECTURE,
The Remarkable Behavior of Gases

One of Ihe reasons scientists study gases is that lhe behavior of gases can be
understood in quantitative lenn.'). The behavior of gllses is subject to three related factors:
temperaturc, pressure, and volullle. A change in one of these facloirs - such as a drop in
temperature - can bring about a change in Ihe olher faclors. Moreover, the behavior orany
one gas is lhe same for all gases or mixtures of gases. Therefore, basic rules or scienlific
laws have been established to help predict the effccts of envirolllllcnlal changes 011
temperaturc, pressure, and volume. The first of these laws was discovered by the British

35
scienlist Robert Boyle in 1662. Boyle found thaI ifbe squeezed a rubber ball, the volume
of air in:o:;ide it decreased. The more be squeezed, Ibe less Ihe volumc oftbe confined air. In
fncl, if he doubled the pressure, the volume dccrensed to precisely hnl!" of what il was. If he
quadrupled Ihe pressure, lhe volumc decreased 10 one quarter of whllt it was! Accordingly,
he eslablished that the volume of a gas is inversely proportiol\3l to the pressure applied to
it, provided tbe 1cmperature remains constant.
Boyle had demoru:;trated thai pressure and volume are inversely relatcd. However,
tcmperature also aITee~ thc volume of a gas. In the late 17l:Xli, in Fra nee, !acqucs Charles
noted that as a gas gets cooler, its volulllc contracL<;. In fact, with each dcgree il gets cooler
its volumc gets sIllllllcr so that if you {.'Ooled it to _273 Celsius, it would shrink 10 nothing
and disnppei1f! Lucky Jacques Charles did nol have to worry about proving his hypothesis
because 110 one could getlempcratures down thai low!
The simil<lr behavior of gases led the Italian chemist Am.1deo Avog.1dro to the
discovery of anothcr amazing fact. In the year 1811, Avogildro rigured OUI Ihal equal
volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure rontain tbe same number of
particles. He assumed the pnrticlcs were atoms bUllaler they were delennincd to be groups
o[alollls, or 1Il0leculcs. Avogadro's "molecular hypotheses," as il is known tod:ly, is one of
lhe most imporl:lIIt principlcs of chcmistry, :llld its implic3tiolls played a rolc in lhc
develd]:lment of the atomic theory.
Witb the development of this hypothesi:o:;, the volume of a gas was understood 10 be
relaler to the movement of the molecules. That is, Ihe volume ofa gas increases because at
higher tempcrdturcs molecules move faster. requiring more SP.1ce 10 move around.
Conversely, at lower temperatures. molecules slow down, requiring less space, and g;Jses
conlrnct. In the 1860s, Briti:o:;h physici.~l Lord Kelvin suggested thlll if a g;:ts wcre rcduced to
_273 Celsius, il would not shrink and disappcllr. as Jncques Clmrlcs Il.1d suggested.
Instcad, the energy of the molccules would be rcduecd to zero. This tcmpc"!ture (-273.16
Celsius to be precise) L<; considered the lowest pos.<;ible tell1pernture, Ihat is, the complete
absence ofhcat. It is known today as abwlute zero or7.cro Kelvin. Evcn your minen.<; and
car muITs wouldn't belp in this kind oftcmpcrdturc. To give you an idc3 of how cold it is,
on thc Kelvin sl"ale, 150 is colder IMn thc naturaltcmpernture at allY spot on Cllrth.
Physicists todn y continuc to study the remarJ..., blc behavior of gases, particuln rly at low
tempcmtllres. Wilh the usc of modem lcchniqucs Ihey have becn able to a1l3in
tempernlurc.<; as low as one millionth of a degrce abovc absolute zero (O.(X)()()()IK)!
Absolute zero, howevcr. remains ull.1ttainable.

36
 CHAPTER 10
ANSWER KEY
Identifying Tenses

1. 4
2. 8
a. simple past
a. present perfect
b. active
b. active
3. 5 a. past perfect b. passive
Using the Simple Past Tense
1. wrote 5. was formed
2. were found 6. reproduced
3. appeared 7. were discovered
4. lived 8. rotated
Using the Present Perfect Tense
1. h<ls become
2. h;IVC been made
3. have been discovered
4. hllS still 1I0t been found
5. has recently been discovered
6. has just gone
7. bave known
8. has been seen
9. have destroyed
Choosing the Correct Past Tense
believed was covered
generated decayed
was held were attracted
pcnormcd laid
placed were found
WilS len demonstrated
was covered hllVC performed
Forming Sentences Thai Report (Answer will vury)
I. The first test-lube baby was born in England in 1978.
2. The principles of geometry were developed by Euclid ill Alex~ ndria, Egypt in
300 B.C.
3. The plants and animals were classified by the Swedish Cllrolus Linnaeus in
1735.
4. In 1911, Mllrie Curie of Frllllce received the Nobel Prize forthe discovery of
plutonium a nd radiulll.
5. Pi4shengorChina invented printing with movahle type in the Illb century.
6. In 1942, the Italia n Enrico Fcnni accomplished the controlled nuclear fission of
uranium.

37
 7. The first Illndingon the mpon was made by the Amcril'31l Project Apollo in
1969.
8. William Harvey discovered lhe circulation orlhe blood in England in 1628.
9. In 1961, Juri Gagarin orlbe Soviet Union made the first space night.
10. The American Jonas Salk developed a polio vaccine in 1954.
11. The incandescent lamp was iovenlcd by Thomas Edison in America in
1879.
Word Roots
I. c 5. ,
2. c 6. d
3. b 7. g
4. [ 8. h
Vocnbuhll'y In Context (I"~l\dlng skills)

I. , 8. ,
2. , 9. b
3. b 10. b
4. , II. b
5. 12. b
6. , 13. a
7. ,
Skll11mln~
I. , 2. c
Dlstllll::ulshlng Fnel from OllllllOIl
1. F 6. 0 II. 0
2. F 7. F 12. F
3. 0 8. F 13. 0
4. 0 9. F 14. 0
5. F 10. F 15. 0
Vocllbulary in Context (listening skills)
I. , 6. b
2. b 7. b
3. 8.
4. a 9. n
5. ,

38
Understanding the Lecture
1. F 7. T
2; F 8. T
3. F 9. F
4. T 10. T
5. F 11. F
6. T 12. T

LECTURE:
The Science of Genetics

Most of us t.1ke it for gmnted that we have inherited certain characteristics. We might
be tfi11 Ii ke our father, l\lUsica Ilike ou I' mother, hrown-eyed like our grand mother. But why
is it we inherit some trails and not others? You might think you lire very different from your
brother or sister, yet other people notice II family rescmblance. How can we explain the
diffcrellCcs - and the similarities? And bow can a dog give birth 10 11 litter ofpuppics IIlat
arc all different?
Genetics is Ihe brnnch of science 111.1t seeks to determine the :mswel'S to !l,ese
questions, and to discover how plants and "nimals have developed over the p.1St two bil lion
yC<lrs. TIle licld of genetics bcgnl1 with the discoveries of a nineteenth century Austrian
monk named Gregor Mendel, who WllS an amateur botanist. His unique contribution was
tl1.1t he studied one chamcteristie at a time to see how it was passed from one genel'lltion to
fl notllCr. He pcrfonlled experiments with red ;tnd white flowered g,1 rden peas and ohta in'ed

some interested results.

Mendel took the nuile cells (pollen grains) from a red Oower ,lnd placed thell1 on lhe
female cells (pist ils) of a white llower (a process Clll Jed cross-rolH n<ttion). When the nower
produced seeds, he planted the seeds. Then, whell the llowers began to bloom, Mendel
observed th.1 t instead of the pink flowers or mixlu re of red alld white 110wers he expected,
all the first generation flowers were red.
Next Mendel took the mil Ie l'ells a nd placed lhell! 011 Ihe rema Ie eel Is of these 5<1 me red
!lowers (H process eitlled sclf-poJli[1.1tioll). Agllin the !lowers produced seeds, and ag;dn
Mendel pl:llIled thelll. This second gcnera tion produecd somc red and some white flowers.
TIle interesting part of this was that the rutio of red flowers to while WllS precisely three to
Olle! Also, Ihere wcre no pink !lowcrs. l1lUs Mendel showed that II mixture of charac-
teristics did not blend into somclhing that WflS in belwecn the lwo. Rather, the cual'llc-
terisl ies TCma ined distinct ill the ncxt genel'llt ion.
Mendel concludcd that there are eertlli n faclOrs (later ea lied genes) lhnt deteml ilie the
color of the pIa nts. He also esta blislled tllalthc red factor was st ronger or d(ll\l inallt, ,t nd the
white radar was wCllker, or recessive. But llle rcces.~ive factor did not diSllppcnr; it only
became hidden and sometimcs emergcd in a laler gencl'lltion (witness: the red !lowers
produced white nowers). This explnins why, for example, two d,uk-haired parent~
sometimes give birth to a blond child. Both p.1rents m.1Y be cilrrying recessive genes for
blond hair.

39
 Gregor Mendel made genetics into a science. He was able 10 predict exactly the
number and type of plants his experimcnts would producc. Unhappily for him, Mendel's
work was not recognized ill the scientilic world until 16 YC<lI~ afler his death. Since then,
experiments have becn perfonncd with numerous tra its of plants a nd animals which have
demollstrnled the universal applicability of Mcndel's findin~. The principles of heredity
that Mendel established wcre signifICant in substantiating Da rwin's theory of cvolution.

40
 CHAPTER 11
ANSWER KEY
Using Precise Descriptions
1. Too vague. Specifying when life beg~n would make it more scientific.
2 Docs not indicate if 5,500 fect is tbe width, depth, or length.
3. Does not i ndicale item of comp.1 rison. Cooler lila n what? a notber sla r? iUller
layers?
4. Again, does not indicate item of comparison. Less corrosive than what?
5. Docs 1I0! specify unit ofmcasurclllcni. Degrees Celsius? Degrees Fahrenheit?
6. Docs not indicate point of reference. Away frOlll what:?
7. Docs not i ndicalc b<lsis for compa rison. Highest in the H illla [a yllS? i II Asia? in
the world?
8. Docs not specify a.m. or p.m. Docs not indicutc date.
Describing with Adjectives (Answers wIll vary)
1. salt,sugar 12. steel, diamond, marble
2. wood, paper 13. rubber, sponge, musclc
3. fruits, vegetables, gmins 14. trce sap, lav,l
4. carbon monoxide, arsenic 15. rubber, plilnt gum
5. lemon, grapefruit 16. air, w,ltcr
6. gold, silver 17. alcobol, pcrfulllc
7. wood, meta I 18. fog,jungle
8. tile, lI1Hrblc 19. the earth, a rainbow
9. sand, tree bark 20. gasoline, petroleum
10. glass, flower 21. Hcids (sulfuric acid)
11. glass, water
Using Adjectives with ed and .Inl:!
I. , 6. 11
2. , 7. 11
3. b 8. ,
4. b 9. ,I
5. , 10. b
Forming COlllpound Nouns
1. ebcmical reaction 6. food prcservafion
2. water displacement 7. bird migration
3. air compression 8. word processor
4. fuel pump 9. acid rain
5. gas dcnsity 10. drug addict

L large oil containcr

2. excessive air pollution

41
 3. high blood pressure
4. serious birth defect
5. pawed'uJ radiation detection device
Writing Smooth Sentences (Answers will vllry)
1. Uranus, the third largest planct, is orbited by many thin rings and at lellst 15
satellites,
2. Gmnile is a hurd and shiny igneous rock thai is IWlde orseveral kinds ofmctals.
3. Calcium is a silvcry mctal that is found in limestone, marble, chalk, and marinc
animal shells.
4. The brontosaurus was a large, 30 tOil plant-eating dinosaur that lived inshallow
waters.
5. Quasars are star-like Objects that cmit more rndiation than entire gal<ixies.
6. The cerebrum, the largest part orthe brain, controls the senses and the muscles.
7. Hcmophilia is lUI inhcrited disease in which the blood docs not clot properly.
8. Thc grecnhouse effcct is the grlldual wanningor the earth by gases that are
trapped illtbe atmosphere.
WOI'd (toots
I. r 6.
2. , 7. b
3. , 8. d
4. g 9. j
5.
"
Vocllbulnry In Context (rcndlng skills)
1. b 7. a
2. a 8. ,
3. b 9. a
4. a 10. a
5. b 11. a
6. a 12. b
SkimmIng
L b 2. ,
Mnklng Inferences
I. S 7. S
2. N 8. N
3. I 9. N
4. S 10. I
5. I It. S
6. S 12. I

42
Vocabulary in Context (listening skills)
1. a 6. b
2. b 7. b
3. a 8. a
4. b 9. b
5. ,
Undl!rstrmdlng till! Ll!cture
l. T 8. T
2. F 9. F
3. F 10. F
4. T 11. F
5. F 12. F
6. F 13. T
7. T

LECfURE,
Beyond Qur Planet

One of the lIlo.5t fascinating topics in science i.~ the study ofwhatlics beyond ourplanet
and whether there is any life out there lIS we know it. Our !;Olnr system mnsists of nine
pl<lllcts and tbcir s,1tellites, plus numerous asteroids, l'OlllCts, and meteors. TIle planets
travel in elliptical orbits around the sun, kepi in place by the sun's grnvitatiol1nl force.
TIle closest planet to the sun is Mercury whit'll is only slightly larger than our moon.
Mercury is very hot and has no atJllosphere. TIterefore, there is no possibility of Ii fe. Venus,
tbe next planet, is almost the same size as the earth. Despite its proximity to Ule ear1h, its
su nace is so cloudy that scientists ea nnot sec it. Venus is so hot a nd dry, there is lillie hope
of find iog any life on its surface either.
The third pIa net in Ortle[ from the su n is the r:ar1h a nd the four1h pia net is Mars. Mars
has a rugged terrain with huge volcanoes lind deep ca nyons. Like tbe ear1h, it has icy polar
regions which change with the seasons. Accordingly, scientists and writers of science
liction have always been intrigued by its potential for sustaining life. However, recent
explom tions have not lu med up any evidence of life.
Beyond Mars lhere lire inllulllemble asteroids or minor plllllCIS lhat may he pieces of a
pia nel that once exploded. Afler the asteroids cOllies Ju piler, the la rgest pIa net Jupiter has
16 mOOIIS. Its muss is composed almost entirely of hydrogen, lind it lll>1y in fHCt be a 1>.111 of
gas with no surface at all. Some scientists believe the planet may be shrinking. Jupiter spins
rapidly on its axis and moves slowly around the sun, giving it short days and long yeats. U
tbere is life on Jupiter, it must be very diITercnt from life on ear1h. Firstly, the organisms
would not breathe oxygen because Jupiter's atmosphere has nOlle. S<:condly, they would
have to float on gas. Of course, Jupiter is so far from the sun tb.1t it is likely to be 100 cold

43
10 SUpport any life. But some scicntists have suggcstcd that a prolective atmosphere may
keep the planet waDn. Or, Jupitcr iIlay have a differenl source of energy such as energy
produced by the planet contracting.
Saturn, tbe beautiful planet with the rings, follows Jupiter. The rings are nol solid; they
are made up of sepa mtc pa rtides which orbit Satu n1. One of tbe 11I0st sped3cular sighls in
the universe must be the view f10m Sa tum of its magnificcnt ri IIgs with the sun shining on
them to produce a minbow of colors (a sight hUlllll n beings willncvcr see!). Sit lu nt has over
201>:1 tcllites a nd is tbe second la rgest pia net
Uranus and Neptune are next in order. Thcy are botb largc plancls that are quite far
fmm tbe sun and, aceordingly, very cold. Uranus is orbiled by thin rings and 11l,,1ny moons.
Pluto is a small, da rk planet, tbc fa rtbest from tbe sun. If you were on Pluton, the sun wou Id
look like a star.
Comets are also part of our sola r system. A comct consist.. ofa centmlmass of cosmic
maller with a ta il that slrca illS away from the sun. Comels trd vel through our solar systcm
sometimes swecping once around oursun and vanishing into spacc. Ha lIey 's COIllCt. na med
for Delllon Hallt.'Y who predictcd ils orhit, relurns to lhc eartb cvcry 76 years.
Mctcors are bils of cosmic llllllter tho'll enler our atlllosphcre and bum up. llu.'Y appell r
to us liS falJingslars. Meteorites are lIleleors thlll survivc lhe lltlllosphcrc and land on carth.
III betwecn thcse various celeslial Ixldies, thcse is no 3tllloophere, 1\0 air, no waler.
Most of our univcrse is JUSI empty splice. As for lifc exisling elsewhere, llIos1 scicntisls
believc that ~intelligcnt lifc~ probably does not exist in our sol.1rsystcm, bUI il probably
does exisl OUI there beyond our solar systcm. We llIay nevcr fClIcb tbese otber worlds, but
they are almost certainly there.

44
 CHAPTER 12
ANSWER KEY
Identifying Predictions
I. P 5. P
2. I 6. H
3. H 7. P
4. I 8. H
Formulating Hypothetical Predictions
1. If we studied, we would pass.
2 If a cure were found for leukemia, many lives would be saved.
3. If chlorine were inhaled in large doses, it would be fatal.
4. If mercury were heated to 357C, it would boil.
5. If the fuel igniled, the engine would start.
6. If il were a clear night we would see the eclipse.
7. If Ihe wires were insulated, they could be used to cllny electric current.
8. If the air tempcrrllUre dropped below aoc, the rain would lurn to snow.
Formuhltlng Impossible Predictions
1. II we bad studied, we would have passed.
2 If we bad spoken the sa me language, We would have understood eaeb olber beller.
3. If we had moved the clocks back one bour, we would have had an extra hour of
daylight in the morning.
4. If the bridge bad been properly designed, it would not have eollapl'ed.
5. If the standards had been lower, more students would have passed.
6. If the satellite had nOI been interrupted, it would have continued in its orbit.
7. tf the egg cell had been fertilized by spcnn carry ing all x chromosome, the baby
would have been n girl.
8. If he had elilen a balanced diet, he would have been healthier.
Completing Sentences
1. arc
2 had predicted
3. reaches
4. heated
5. will hibernate
6. would ru.~t
7. would hnve turned
8. would liquefy
Creating Predictions (Answers wlll vary)
I. people didn't drink and drive
2 they exercised more
3. we d rove electric autolllobi les
4. there were no tests
5. there would bc less traffic onlhc freeways
 6. there would be many disputes about who controls it
7. English would be easier to learn
8. I could sleep later in (he morning
9. I would go to ....
Word Roots
1. transmillcd 7. submit
2. aqueduct 8. ductile
3. psychosomatic 9. belio
4. psychomotor 10. cardiograpb
5. conductor 11. geometry
6. cardiac
Vocabulary In Context
I. , 7.. a
2. b 8. ,
3. b 9. ,
4. b 10. a
5. , II. II
6. , 12. a
DistInguishing Filet from Opinion
I. F 7. F
2. F 8. F
3. 0 9. F
4.0 10. 0
5. 0 II. 0
6. F 12. 0
Vocabulary In Context (list<:'nlng skulls)
1. a 4. b 7. ,
2. ~ 5. b 8. ,
3. II 6. b 9. ,
Undcrstnndlng the Lectur<:,
I. F 6. T to. F
2. F 7. F 11. T
3. F 8. F 12. T
4. T 9. F 13. F.
5. T

46
 LECfURE:
The Wonder of Water

It is difficult to overestimate the importance of water in our lives. All living matter,
including rocks, food, and llunernls, contai ns water. There is water underground a od in the
atmosphere. Areas oftlle world that have an adcquate supply of water provide for fertile
lands that can support many people in contrnst to arid desert areas where people cannot
live.
Nea rly threc-fourths of the earth's su rfacc is one big ocean in which thc continents arc
tbe largc islands. Most of the earth's life exisls in the ocean, and the ocean contI ins
enonnous guanlities of nearly every c1emcnl, including umnium, magnesium, silver, and
gold. Despite its importance, until recent years, as little was known alXlUt the occan as
aboul another planet. Today we know, forexHl1lple, tl1.1lthc land surface of the ocean bas
eXlremely high mounlains and deep valleys. The island of Hawaii is the top of a mountain
thaI is 33,000 fect high - higher lh,lll ,lilY mountain in Ihe Himalayas. And lhere are
underwater ea nyons th<lt are vastly 101 rgcr th<ll1lhe Ora nd COl nyou in the UniteI' Sta tes.
WaleI' is a colorless, odorless, lasteless liguid 1I1.1t is lr.lIl.sparcnl. The green or bluc
color 01' lhe sea is found only in deep water. Any t..1s1e in the Witter is usually due 10 the
presence of mincl'Il Is dissolved int he Willer.
WaleI' is thc mosl vcrsatile subslam;c. It is frequenlly callcd the universal solvcnt
because llIany substances dissolve in waler: sugar, gases, 5.1 It, and nlHny minerals.
Scicnlisls belicve thc saIl in thc ocean waler ('OlllCS fmm the erosion of rocks.
TIle eli tWlle on ea rth is unique among all the pIa nets in oursola rsyslcm inlha I il allows
waler 10 exist in all1l1ree slales: solid, liquid, and WIS. WOlter is onc of lhe few malerials
which expands when it freezes. For example, if you freeze a closed boltle filled wilh water,
Ihe bottle will sha1ter. lltis expanding facility bre<tks slones Mtd makes dirt oul of rocks.
Since icc takes up morc SI>lICC l1wn Willer, il is less dense and noals all the lOps of lhe
oceans. If il did not, our oceans would be frozen solid.
Anol her unique chil mclerislic of Willer is thal it heals and {'Ools morc slowly lha n most
olhcr nl1lterials, especially olher liguids. It takes llIore 10 boil waleI' or melt icc lhan mosl
subslallCes require. lltese properlies of w,ller exert II powerful moderaling effeel all our
eli male, Wa leI' tends to mooer.lle I he lcmpernlu n: <Ill yca r round. Areas lle<lr Ihe OCC<lIl ue
genera lly wa nller in winter <llId cooler in summer 111.1 n inla nd areas.
Wll ter is rema rbble in anolher wa y. If we could follow it drop of waler we nughl find
that itlr.IVcls around lhe world. As lhe sun wanns lbe ocean, SOllle of the water evapor.ltcs
into lhe air. As the air rises to cooler parts of lhe iltillosphere, il condenses and fonlls
clouds. Some of Ilie WOller falls as snow or rain Oil the mountains. In lhe spring, the snow
melts and lhe wa leI' rons downhillih rough sl reams and rivers. Evenlua II y 1I10S1 of the WaleI'
rctUntS to the ocen n vill the ground, walerl';llls, slrca lIlS, rivers. This pe'l)eIUal ei rculn lion of
\Va ter from the acea liS to the <Ii I' 10 the In nd and hlek to the ocea ns is ca lied the wa ler cycle.

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ISBN 954-520-009-X llcna 9 .6.