The University for business

and the professions

WHAT IS CONTROL ?
Control is the process of altering, manually or
automatically, the performance of a system to a
desired one

WHY CONTROL ?
Because systems by themselves usually do not
behave the way we would like them to

The University for business

and the professions

Manual Control Automatic Control

system to be automatic system to be

controlled controller controlled

process
operator
measured behaviour
measured
behaviour

levers of
power
process supervisor

1
 The University for business
and the professions

MAIN AIMS OF CONTROL SYSTEMS

Regulation regulate the output from some
process to remain constant to a required value
despite disturbances and/or noise
Tracking or Servo system make the
process output follow a particular changing
form
Sequential Control make events occur in a
particular sequence, either time driven or event
driven

The University for business

and the professions

THE THREE ELLEMENTS FOR

SUCCESSFUL CONTROL DESIGN

a definition of desired behaviour

an ability to generate and apply actions
a means to select actions or to make
modifications that when applied to the system
will result in the desired behaviour being
obtained

2
 The University for business
and the professions

OPEN- versus CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL

Open-Loop Control the controller does not

use a measure of the system output to be
controlled in computing the control action to
take
Closed-Loop Control the controlled output
is measured and fed back for use in the
computation of the control action

OPEN-LOOP CONTROL
input or output or
reference plant controlled
variable variable
Controller Actuator Process

Process of which a variable (output) is being

controlled
Controller determines the action to be taken as
a result of the system input
Actuator gives an output of some action
designed to change the controlled variable

3
 OPEN-LOOP CONTROL: Some Comments
input or output or
reference plant controlled
variable variable
Controller Actuator Process

The controller is designed on the basis of previous

experience asWElikely to give GOD
PLAY the output required.
Therefore, the behaviour of the process must be
known as accurately as OR possible
There is no changing of the control action to
WE RELY HEAVILY ON HIM
account for any disturbances which may change
the output variable

CLOSED-LOOP or FEEDBACK CONTROL

disturbance
control
variable plant
reference output
Controller Actuator Process
error
Sensor
noise

Main futures: Feedback and Comparison

Sensor measures the system output and feeds
it back
Comparator computes the difference between
the reference signal and the sensor output to give
the controller a measure of the system error

4
 CLOSED-LOOP or FEEDBACK CONTROL
Example: Automobile Cruise Control

road grade
control
variable
actuator process
desired actual
speed Controller Engine Auto body
speed
error throttle
sensor
Speedometer

sensor
noise

THE EFFECTS OF FEEDBACK

Reduce the error between the actual and the
desired value
Change the stability of the system
Change the overall system gain
Change the sensitivity of the system gain
Change the bandwidth of the system
Reduce the effect of external disturbances and
noise
Reduce the effect of variations of system
parameters

5
 THE DESIGN PROCESS
Transform Requirements into a Physical System

Control Systems Engineering 4th Edition, by Norman S Nise

2004, by John Wiley & Sons, Inc

THE DESIGN PROCESS

Draw a Functional Block Diagram

Control Systems Engineering 4th Edition, by Norman S Nise

2004, by John Wiley & Sons, Inc

6
 THE DESIGN PROCESS
Create a Schematic

Control Systems Engineering 4th Edition, by Norman S Nise

2004, by John Wiley & Sons, Inc

THE DESIGN PROCESS

Develop a Mathematical Model (Block Diagram)

Control Systems Engineering 3rd Edition, by Norman S Nise

2000, by John Wiley & Sons, Inc

7
 THE DESIGN PROCESS

Reduce the Block Diagram

Analyse and Design

MATHEMATICAL MODELING

WHAT IS A MODEL ?

The term model, as it is used and understood

by control engineers, primarily means a set of
differential equations that describe the dynamic
behaviour of a system

8
 MATHEMATICAL MODELING

HOW IS A MODEL OBTAINED?

Using principles of underlying physics

Testing a prototype, measuring the response to
specific inputs, and using the data to construct an
analytical model

MATHEMATICAL MODELING
Example: A Simple System; Cruise Control Model

bx m u
force u
physical system free body diagram

b u
u bx = mx 
x+ x =
m m
Equations of motion: or (v = x )
b u
v + v=
m m

9
 Example: A Simple System; Cruise Control Model
b u
Apply Laplace transform to v + v= with zero initial conditions
m m
1m
V (s) = U ( s ) = G ( s )U ( s ), s C
s+b m
Transfer Function

input output
G(s)
U(s) Y(s)=V(s)

Y(s)=G(s)U(s) INPUT/OUTPUT DESCRIPTION

FREQUENCY DOMAIN (s=j) FREQUENCY RESPONSE

Example: A Simple System; Cruise Control Model

Introduce two variables (states) x1 = x, x2 = x

x1 0 1 x1 0
x 0 b m x + 1 m u
=
2 2
Then
x
y = v = [ 0 1] 1
x2

inputs u(t) outputs y(t)

states x(t)
x = Ax + Bu
STATE SPACE or INTERNAL DESCRIPTION
y = Cx + Du

10
 BASIC PERFORMANCE CRITERIA

Stability

Time response shape

Frequency response shape

BASIC PERFORMANCE CRITERIA

Input/Output Stability

Bounded-Input Bounded-Output (BIBO) Stability

For every bounded input the output of the system is bounded as
well

input u(t) output y(t)

BIBO stable

BIBO unstable

11
 BASIC PERFORMANCE CRITERIA
Internal Stability
Asymptotic Stability
All states tend to zero as time tends to infinity for every initial
condition
inputs u(t) outputs y(t)

states x(t)

x1(t) x1(t)

Asymptotically Asymptotically
stable unstable
x2(t) x2(t)

BASIC PERFORMANCE CRITERIA

Time Response Shape
1 input u(t) output c(t)

steady-state error

Control Systems Engineering 4th Edition, by Norman S Nise

2004, by John Wiley & Sons, Inc

12
 BASIC PERFORMANCE CRITERIA
Frequency Response Shape
WHAT IS FREQUENCY RESPONSE?

G ( j ) = M ( ) ( )

Control Systems Engineering 4th Edition, by Norman S Nise

2004, by John Wiley & Sons, Inc

BASIC PERFORMANCE CRITERIA

Frequency Response Shape
-3db
20logM (db)

bandwidth

Control Systems Engineering 4th Edition, by Norman S Nise

2004, by John Wiley & Sons, Inc

13
 BASIC PERFORMANCE CRITERIA
Frequency Response Shape

Crossover frequency

Control Systems Engineering 4th Edition, by Norman S Nise

2004, by John Wiley & Sons, Inc

THE CONTROL DESIGN TRADE OFF

D(s)
R(s) E(s) Y(s)
Controller G1(s) Process G2(s)

N(s)

G1G2 G2 GG
Y = Yr + Yd + Yn = R+ D 1 2 N
1 + G1G2 1 + G1G2 1 + G1G2

If G1 >>> {Yr  R, Yd  0 and Yn  N } Y  R N

If G1 <<< {Yr  0, Yd  G2 D and Yn  0} Y  G2 D

14
 THE CONTROL DESIGN TRADE OFF
If G1 >>> {Yr  R, Yd  0 and Yn  N } Y  R N
If G1 <<< {Yr  0, Yd  G2 D and Yn  0} Y  G2 D

Make the controller gain G1 large at low frequencies

so that the closed loop system follows its reference
input and rejects the external disturbances

Make the controller gain G1 small at high frequencies

so that the closed loop system rejects the
measurement noise

Ensure reasonable gain and phase margins at

crossover frequency for stability purposes

Example: Primitive Pitch Control of the RPV XRAE-1

Open Loop XRAE-1 (Flight Controller Off)

elevator XRAE-1 pitch angle

Open loop response to a step in the elevator of XRAE-1

6

0
1
Pitch angle (rads)

-2

-4

-6

-8

-10

-12

-14
0 50 100 150
Time (secs)

15
 Open loop response to a step in the elevator of XRAE-1
6

0
Pitch angle (rads)

-2

-4

-6

-8

-10

-12

-14
0 50 100 150
Time (secs)

Example: Primitive Pitch Control of the RPV XRAE-1

Closed Loop XRAE-1 (Flight Controller On)
elevator
pitch angle actual
Flight controller K XRAE-1
demand pitch angle

Closed loop step response of XRAE-1

1.4

1.2

1
1
Pitch angle (rads)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Ti ( )

16
 Closed loop step response of XRAE-1
1.4

1.2

1
Pitch angle (rads)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (secs)

PID: A Commonly Used Controller

D(s)
R(s) E(s) Y(s)
Controller G1(s) Process G2(s)

Proportional action N(s)

Kp

error Ki control
signal signal
d
Kd
dt Integral action

Derivative action

17