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Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Algebra basics

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106 views11 pages

Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Algebra basics

Uploaded by

ja_mufc_scribd
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

The "Fundamental Theorem of Algebra" is not the start of algebra or anything, but it
does say something interesting about polynomials :

Any polynomial of degree n ... has n roots


but we may need to use complex numbers

Let me explain:

A Polynomial looks like this:

example of a polynomial
this one has 3 terms

The Degree of a Polynomial with one variable is ...

... the largest exponent of that variable.

A "root" (or "zero") is where the polynomial is equal to zero.


So, a polynomial of degree 3 will have 3 roots (places where the polynomial is equal to
zero). A polynomial of degree 4 will have 4 roots. And so on.

And there is something else of interest:

A polynomial can be rewritten like this:


The factors like (x-r1) are called Linear Factors, because they
make a line when we plot them.

So knowing the roots means we also know the factors.

Here is another example:


Likewise, when we know the factors of a polynomial we also know the roots.

Complex Numbers
We may need to use Complex Numbers to make the polynomial equal to zero.

A Complex Number is a combination of a Real Number and an


Imaginary Number

And here is an example:

Complex Pairs
So the roots r1, r2, ... etc may be Real or Complex Numbers.

But there is something interesting...

Complex Roots always come in pairs!


You saw that in our example above:

The pair are actually complex conjugates (where we change the sign in the middle)
like this:

Always in pairs? Yes (unless the polynomial has complex coefficients, but we are only
looking at polynomials with real coefficients here!)

So we either get:

no complex roots
2 complex roots
4 complex roots,
etc

And never 1, 3, 5, etc.

Which means we automatically know this:

Degree Roots Possible Combinations

1 1 1 Real Root
2 2 2 Real Roots, or 2 Complex Roots

3 3 3 Real Roots, or 1 Real and 2 Complex Roots

4 4 4 Real Roots, or 2 Real and 2 Complex Roots, or 4 Complex Roots

etc etc!

And so:

When the degree is odd (1, 3, 5, etc) there is at least one real root ... guaranteed!

But Real is also Complex!


I have been saying "Real" and "Complex", but Complex Numbers do include the Real
Numbers.

So when I say there are "2 Real, and 2 Complex Roots", I should be saying
something like "2 Purely Real (no Imaginary part), and 2 Complex (with a
non-zero Imaginary Part) Roots" ...

... but that is a lot of words that sound confusing ...

... so I hope you don't mind my (perhaps too) simple language.


Don't Want Complex Numbers?
If we don't want Complex Numbers, we can multiply pairs of complex roots together:

(a + bi)(a - bi) = a2 + b2

We get a Quadratic Equation with no Complex Numbers ... it is purely Real.

That type of Quadratic (where we can't "reduce" it any further


without using Complex Numbers) is called an Irreducible
Quadratic.

And remember that simple factors like (x-r1) are called Linear
Factors

So a polynomial can be factored into all Real values using:


Linear Factors, and
Irreducible Quadratics
How do we know if the Quadratic is Irreducible?
Just calculate the "discriminant": b2 - 4ac

(Read Quadratic Equations to learn more about the discriminant.)

When b2 - 4ac is negative, the Quadratic has Complex solutions,


and so is "Irreducible"

Multiplicity
Sometimes a factor appears more than once. That is its Multiplicity.

The Multiplicities are included when we say "a polynomial of degree n has n roots".
Summary
A polynomial of degree n has n roots (where the polynomial is zero)

A polynomial can be factored like: a(x-r1)(x-r2)... where r1, etc are


the roots

Roots may be Complex Numbers

Complex Roots always come in pairs

Multiplying a Complex pair gives an Irreducible Quadratic

So a polynomial can be factored into all real factors which are either:

Linear Factors or

Irreducible Quadratics

Sometimes a factor appears more than once. That is its Multiplicity.


Question 1 Question 2 Question 3 Question 4
Question 5 Question 6 Question 7 Question 8
Question 9 Question 10

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