VICTORIA

UNIVERSITY
Lab Report to Investigate the
Ferranti Effect using Artificial
Transmission Line
Using Open Circuit, Load Test and Short Circuit Test to Find
ABCD Parameters of Transmission Lines

Submitted By: Ayaz Ahmad

Student ID: 4462542

Supervisor: Piyali Sen

Submitted To: Piyali Sen

Date Submitted: 7 October

2016
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction:................................................................................................. 3
1.1 Aims & Objectives:.................................................................................... 3
1.2 Equipments:.............................................................................................. 3
2.0 Methodology:................................................................................................ 3
2.1 No Load Test:............................................................................................. 4
2.1.1 Results:............................................................................................... 4
2.1.2 No Load Three Phase Graph:...............................................................5
2.1.3 No Load Single Phase Graph:..............................................................5
2.1.4 Analysis and Discussion:.....................................................................5
2.2 Load Test:.................................................................................................. 7
2.3 Short Circuit Test:......................................................................................... 9
2.3.1 Three Phase Short Circuit Test Values Graph:...................................10
2.3.2 Single Short Circuit Test Values Graph:.............................................11
2.3.3 A, B, C, D Parameter Calculations & Discussion:...............................11
3.0 Practical Long Line Model:.............................................................................13
4.0 Discussion & Conclusion:............................................................................16
5.0 Shut Down:.............................................................................................. 17
6.0 References:................................................................................................ 17

1
TABLE OF FIGURES

FIGURE 1 CAPACITIVE & INDUCTIVE LOAD ILLUSTRATION FOR POWER MEASUREMENTS....6

FIGURE 2 EQUIVALENT PI MODEL.......................................................................................6
FIGURE 3 PHASER DIAGRAM FOR ABCD PARAMETERS ILLUSTRATION ACCORDING TO -
MODEL CIRCUIT........................................................................................................... 6
FIGURE 4 TWO PORT NETWORK FOR ABCD PARAMETERS CALCULATIONS.......................11
FIGURE 5 LONG TRANSMISSION LINE REPRESENTATION [2].............................................13

List of Table

TABLE 1 NO LOAD/OPEN CIRCUIT TEST RESULTS 4

TABLE 2 LOAD TEST RECORDED RESULTS FOR THREE PHASE & SINGLE PHASE 9
TABLE 3 SHORT CIRCUIT TEST RECORDED VALUES FOR THREE PHASE AND SINGLE PHASE
10
TABLE 4 ABCD PARAMETERS FOR LONG TRANSMISSION LINES USING OPEN AND SHORT
CIRCUIT TEST 17

2
1.0 Introduction:
A long transmission line draws a substantial quantity of charging current. If such
a line is open circuited or very lightly loaded at the receiving end the voltage at
receiving end may become greater than voltage at sending end. This is known as
Ferranti Effect and is due to the voltage drop across the line inductance being in
phase with the sending end voltages. Therefore both capacitance and inductance
is responsible to produce this phenomenon. The capacitance and charging
current is most significant in long transmission lines [1].

The factors that are causing to increase the voltage may of Ferranti effect in the
uncompensated transmission line gives result as remote end voltage is always
higher than that of source voltage. It is the effect of capacitive charging current
as it flows through the inductance of line and resulting that as the length of line
increases, the voltage also increases.

This effect of phenomenon was discovered at the end of 19th century in the
Great Britain during the AC based distribution system. In the UK it was Sebastian
Sinai de Ferranti, who as an ardent defender of an AC system. When he installed
an AC system along with intermediate levels of different voltage and remote
step-down transformers. Ferranti observed on one AC transmission system by
adding an extra distribution line, a rise in voltage in various remote ends [2].

1.1 Aims & Objectives:

The main objective of this experimental report is to study the effects of
Ferranti using a 300 Kilo Meters Artificial Transmission Line.
Find the A, B, C, D Parameters using No Load and Short Circuit Test
Understand the effect of Current and Voltage in Long Transmission Lines

1.2 Equipments:
The list of equipment used in the experiment included the following items:

Artificial Transmission Line: Artificial transmission line (ATL) is a mimic of

real life transmission line, the ATL used in this experiment is four
segments of 75 Km each. ( This ATL is consisting of 12 inductors, 12
resistors and 24 capacitors. Circuit breakers and for cooling purposes
electric fans)
Main Panel for connection to the Artificial Transmission Line which will act
as a bus bar.
Transformer Bank Variable supply
Control cables, leads and wires
Electrical Load Bank of at least 2 kW

3
2.0 Methodology:
For 3 phase transmission line purpose, the red, yellow and blue leads symbolize
the three phase channels, while the black lead represents the neutral channel.
The three phase connection of the control cable and the colored leads is made to
the main panel and the output side of the transformer bank to the transformer
terminals 1, 2, 3 and 4 which distribute power to the main panel. Also for the
connection of the three phase transmission line to the ATL, the connection is
made from terminal 1, 2, 3, and 4 of the main panel according to the circuit
diagram. After connection of all the wires, the connections were checked by the
supervisor. Now the circuit was ready for the flow of power. The main switch
circuit breaker, Auxiliary Circuit Breaker 1 and Auxilary 2 Circuit breaker for the
transformer bank and main panels were turned ON accordingly and then the
Bank Circuit breaker.

2.1 No Load Test:

The No Load Test of three phases was performed by connecting two power
meters across the very first connection to the ATL and fourth segment which is
the last segment of the Artificial Transmission Line. The meter across the
connection to the ATL showed the sending end voltage while the meter at the
last end was representing the receiving end voltage.

The voltage was raised in step to 415 volts. The readings were recorded for the
Red and yellow, Red and Blue, and Yellow and Blue configurations using the
power meter. The readings indicated a rise of voltage from 416 to 419 volts. This
was because when the length of the line increases specially in extra high voltage
(EHV) lines, beyond 200km, phenomenon called Ferranti Effect in no load or low
load condition occurs.

Similarly, the single phase no-load test was performed by connected the phase
terminal to the meter and neutral point of the Artificial Transmission Line. The
Results for no load three-phase and single phase test were recorded. The
recorded values are given in Table 1 below.

2.1.1 Results:
Source
Segment 1 Segment 2 Segment 3 Segment 4
Phases Voltage
( Volts ) ( Volts ) ( Volts ) ( Volts
( Volts )
Yello
Red 416 418 419 420 421
w
Red Blue 416 418 419 419 420
Neutr
Red 242 243 229 230 229
al
Yello
Blue 416 418 419 420 420
w
Yello Neutr
239 240 226 226 226
w al
Blue Neutr 238 239 272 273 272

4
 al

Table 1 No Load/Open Circuit Test Results

2.1.2 No Load Three Phase Graph:

No Load Test Three Phase Graph

422

421 421

420 420 420

419 419 419

Three Phase Voltage ( Volts )
418 418

417

416 416

415
1 2 3 4 5

Graph 1 Open Circuit / No Load Test Graph 3 phase

2.1.3 No Load Single Phase Graph:

Open Circuit Single Phase Graph

240 240
239 239 239
238 238
237
236
Phase to Neutral Voltage ( Volts ) 235
234
233
232
231
230 230
1 2 3 4 5

5
 Graph 2 Open Circuit / No Load Test Graph Single Phase

2.1.4 Analysis and Discussion:

The results for the Phase values increases which is because of the Ferranti effect.
Furthermore, the phase to neutral voltage drops significantly. This voltage drop is
because of Mutual Coupling. Mutual coupling happen in high frequency
structures when they are exposed to each other. In many places, population
density has put restrictions on the availability of transmission line right of ways,
therefore multiple transmission lines are put on each transmission line tower. As
a result, mutual coupling effects between circuits can influence impedance
measurements performed by impedance based distance relays that are often
used to protect these lines during faults [3]. Bringing the zero sequence current
from a parallel line into a distance relay used to protect a power line, can be
used to correct the effect of mutual coupling from other parallel lines. The
example can be illustrated from the Figure 1 below.

Figure 1 Capacitive & Inductive Load illustration for Power

Measurements

The relative voltage rise is proportional to the square of the line length.

Lets represent line by equivalent -model in Figure 2 below.

Figure 2 Equivalent pi Model

VS is the Sending End Voltage

VR is the Receiving End Voltage

Adding the phaser diagram for the current circuit in Figure 3 below, we get,

6
Figure 3 Phaser Diagram for ABCD Parameters illustration according to
-model circuit

OM = receiving end voltage Vr, Line capacitance is assumed to be concentrated

at the receiving end.

OC = Current drawn by capacitance = Ic

MN = Resistance drop

NP = Inductive reactance drop

Therefore; OP = Sending end voltage at no load and is less than receiving end
voltage (Vr) Since, resistance is small compared to reactance; resistance can be
neglected in calculating Ferranti Effect.

From pi model,

YZ
(
V S = 1+
2 )
V R+ Z I R

Therefore, for open circuit line Ir=0;

YZ
(
V S = 1+
2 )
VR

YZ YZ
Or; (
V S V R = 1+
2) (
V R V R =V R 1+ 1
2 )
Or;
V S V R =( YZ2 ) V = ( jCl ) ( r2+ jL ) l V
R R

Neglecting Resistance,

V R 2 l 2 LC
V S V R =
2

7
 1
The quantity LC is constant in all line and I equal to velocity of propagation

of electromagnetic waves i.e. 3x105 km/sec,

LC=1 /(3 105 )

1
LC= 2
( 3 105 )

2 2 10
l 10
1 2 l 2 1010
Therefore, 18 ] which equates, 1 <1
V S =V R 18

So,
V S <V R or vice versa, i.e.
V R> V S

Which implies that the receiving end voltage is greater than sending end voltage
for open circuit condition of long transmission line and this effect is called
Ferranti Effect [4].

2.2 Load Test:

For the purpose of performing Load test, the receiving end of the ATL is
connected to a three phase load. The load was raised in steps to 2 kW and the R-
Y, R-B, Y-B phase values across each segment was recorded. The values of the
loss of voltage, Power and Power factor were recorded from the meter readings.

For the single phase load measurement, the meter leads were connected to the
Phase and Neutral terminals of the artificial transmission line. The values were
recorded accordingly. The recorded values for the three0phase and single phase
test of 2 KW load is given in the table below.

Phases Power Source

Voltage Current Powe Power

(V) (A) r Factor
(W)
Red Yellow 416 1.64 761 -0.65
Red Blue 414 1.57 768 -0.68
Red Neutral 242 0.00 0.00 0.00
Yellow Blue 414 1.55 754 -0.68
Yellow Neutral 242 0.00 0.00 0.00
Blue Neutral 238 0.00 0.00 0.00
Phases Segment 1

Voltage Current Powe Power

(V) (I) r Factor
(W)

8
 Red Yellow 347 1.67 587 -0.59
Red Blue 337 1.60 572 -0.61
Red Neutral 245 0.00 0.00 0.00
Yellow Blue 331 1.60 555 -0.60
Yellow Neutral 244 0.00 0.00 0.00
Blue Neutral 241 0.00 0.00 0.00
Phases Segment II

Voltage Current Powe Power

(V) (I) r Factor
(W)
Red Yellow 292 1.63 402 -0.49
Red Blue 278 1.59 388 -0.51
Red Neutral 160 0.00 0.00 0.00
Yellow Blue 269 1.57 353 -0.48
Yellow Neutral 145 0.00 0.00 0.00
Blue Neutral 130 0.00 0.00 0.00
Phases Segment III

Voltage Current Powe Power

(V) (I) r Factor
(W)
Red Yellow 230 1.62 191 -0.30
Red Blue 217 1.58 168 -0.28
Red Neutral 111 0.00 0.00 0.00
Yellow Blue 211 1.56 147 -0.26
Yellow Neutral 97.3 0.00 0.00 0.00
Blue Neutral 90.1 0.00 0.00 0.00
Phases Segment IV

Voltage Current Powe Power

(V) (I) r Factor
(W)
Red Yellow 188 1.73 0.00 0.00
Red Blue 180 0.869 207 0.76
Red Neutral 64.9 0.00 0.00 0.00
Yellow Blue 173 1.12 264 0.78
Yellow Neutral 66.4 0.00 0.00 0.00
Blue Neutral 69.2 0.00 0.00 0.00
Table 2 Load Test Recorded Results for Three Phase & Single Phase

2.3 Short Circuit Test:

For the short circuit test of the three phase analysis, the receiving end phases
are short circuited of the Artificial Transmission Line. The voltage at the receiving
end will be 0 Volts now. Also for the purpose of analysis the current is fixed to
2.76

Similarly for the short circuit single phase analysis, the receiving end phases are
short circuited. The voltage across the Red & Neutral, Blue & Neutral and Yellow
& Neutral was recorded to be 24.4 volts, while the current was 2.74. The Practical

9
results for the short circuit test analysis of three phase and single phase are
given in the table below.

Phases Power Source

Voltage Current Powe Power

(V) (A) r Factor
(W)
Red Yellow 417 2.81 128 -0.63
0
Red Blue 241 2.80 110 -0.94
0
Red Neutral 241 2.80 110 -0.94
0
Yellow Blue 415 2.60 106 -0.56
0
Yellow Neutral 240 2.65 985 -0.89
Blue Neutral 238 2.51 9.77 -0.95
Phases Segment 1

Voltage Current Powe Power

(V) (I) r Factor
(W)
Red Yellow 307 2.76 705 0.66
Red Blue 176 2.74 762 -0.91
Red Neutral 176 2.74 762 -0.91
Yellow Blue 290 2.64 731 -0.55
Yellow Neutral 171 2.64 712 -0.91
Blue Neutral 172 2.47 6.89 -0.94
Phases Segment II

Voltage Current Powe Power

(V) (I) r Factor
(W)
Red Yellow 222 2.78 705 -0.66
Red Blue 125 2.77 525 -0.88
Red Neutral 125 2.77 525 -0.88
Yellow Blue 196 2.63 522 -0.58
Yellow Neutral 114 2.62 495 -0.96
Blue Neutral 127 2.49 517 -0.94
Phases Segment III

Voltage Current Powe Power

(V) (I) r Factor
(W)
Red Yellow 111 2.81 348 -0.65
Red Blue 56.7 2.79 192 -0.7
Red Neutral 56.7 2.79 192 -0.7
Yellow Blue 88.9 2.64 246 -0.69
Yellow Neutral 54.2 2.64 248 1.00
Blue Neutral 70.3 2.52 284 -0.92

10
 Phases Segment IV

Voltage Current
Powe Power
(V) r (I)
Factor
(W)
Red Yellow 0.00 2.76 0.00 0.00
Red Blue 0.00 2.76 0.00 0.00
Red Neutral 24.4 2.74 106 0.91
Yellow Blue 0.00 2.76 0.00 0.00
Yellow Neutral 24.4 2.74 106 0.91
Blue Neutral 24.4 2.74 106 0.91
Table 3 Short Circuit Test Recorded Values for Three Phase and Single
Phase

2.3.1 Three Phase Short Circuit Test Values Graph:

Short Circuit Test Graph for 3 Phase

450
417
400 415
350
300 290
250
3 Phase Voltage ( Volts ) 200 196
176
150
125
100 88.9
50 56.7
0 0
1 2 3 4

Graph 4 Short Circuit Test graph for Three Phase

2.3.2 Single Short Circuit Test Values Graph:

Short Circuit Test Graph for Single Phase

300

250 240
238
200
172
171
Single Phase Voltage ( Volts ) 150
127
114
100
70.3
50 54.2
24.4
0
1 2 3 4 5

11
 Graph 5 Short Circuit Test Graph for Single Phase

2.3.3 A, B, C, D Parameter Calculations & Discussion:

The entire transmission system can be simplified to a two port network for
the sake of easier calculations. The circuit of a 2 port network is shown in
the diagram below. As by the name, a 2 port network consists of an input
port PQ and an output port RS. Each port has 2 terminals to connect itself
to the external circuit. Thus it is essentially a 2 port or a 4 terminal circuit
[1].

Figure 4 Two Port Network for ABCD Parameters Calculations

Where Vs is the Sending Voltage.

Is is the Sending Current.

IR is the Receiving Current.

VR is the Receiving Voltage.

The A, B, C, D Parameters also knows as the transmission line parameters

provide the link between the supply and receiving end voltages and currents,
considering the circuit elements to be linear in nature. Therefore the relationship
between the Sending and Receiving end can be given in the form given as:

[ ][ ][ ]
VS
IS
=A
C
B = VR
D IR

This computes to:

V S =A V R + B I R Equation( I )

I S=C V R + D I R Equation(II )

Given Equations to solve for the A, B, C, D parameters are given below:

V S =V r cosh l+ I r Z C sinh l Equation (III)

12
 Vr
I S=I r cosh l+ sinh l Equation (IV)
ZC

V R =V S cosh l+ I S Z C sinh l Equation (V)

VS
I R=I S cosh l+ sinh l Equation (VI)
ZC

Comparing equation (I) and equation (III)

cosh l B=ZC sinh l

A= ; ;

Comparing equation (II) and equation (V)

Vr
C= cosh l ; D= Z C sinh l

Therefore Equation (I) and Equation (II) can be used to calculate the A, B, C, and
D Parameters.

2.3.3.1 No Load Test Values used:

At no load test, the

I r =0 , put values in equation (I) and equation (II), we get

V S =A V R + B ( 0 ) Equation ( I )

V S 416
A= = =0.991
V R 420

Thus its implies that on applying open circuit condition to ABCD parameters, we
get parameter A as the ratio of sending end voltage to the open circuit receiving
end voltage. Since dimension wise A is a ratio of voltage to voltage, A is a
dimension less parameter

I S=C V R +D ( 0 ) Equation ( II )

IS 0
C= = =0 1
V R 420

By applying open circuit condition to ABCD parameters of transmission line, we

get parameter C as the ratio of sending end current to the open circuit receiving
end voltage. Since dimension wise C is a ratio of current to voltage, its unit is

13
mho. Thus C is the open circuit conductance and is given by
C = IS VR mho.

2.3.3.2 Short Circuit Test Values used:

At short circuit test,

V R =0 put values in equation (I) and equation (II), we get

V S =A V R + B I R Equation ( I )

VS 417
B= = =151.190
I R 2.76 90

On applying short circuit condition to ABCD parameters, we get parameter B as

the ratio of sending end voltage to the short circuit receiving end current. Since
dimension wise B is a ratio of voltage to current, its unit is . Thus B is the short
circuit resistance and is given by B = VS IR .

I S=C (0)+ D I R Equation (II)

I S 2.8150.95
D= = =1.02140.95
IR 2.76 90

We get parameter D as the ratio of sending end current to the short circuit
receiving end current. Since dimension wise D is a ratio of current to current, its
a dimension less parameter.

3.0 Practical Long Line Model:

For accurate modelling of the transmission line one must not assume that the
parameters are lumped but are distributed throughout line. The single-line
diagram of a long transmission line is shown in Fig. 2.5. The length of the line is l.
Let us consider a small strip x that is at a distance x from the receiving end.
The voltage and current at the end of the strip are V and I respectively and the
beginning of the strip are V + V and I + I respectively. The voltage drop
across the strip is then V [5].

Since the length of the strip is x, the series impedance and shunt admittance
are z x and y x. It is to be:

Z =z l ; Y = y l

14
 Figure 5 Long transmission line representation [6].

From the circuit considered, the equation for Sending and Receiving current and
Voltages can be derived accordingly.

Equation (7.1)

Again as x 0, from (7.1) we get

Equation (7.2)

Now for the current through the strip, applying KCL we get,

Equation (7.3)

The second term of the above equation is the product of two small quantities and
therefore can be neglected. For x 0 we then have,

Equation (7.4)

Taking derivative with respect to x of both sides of (7.2) we get,

Equation (7.5)

Substitution of (7.4) in the above equation results

Equation (7.6)

The roots of the above equation are located at (yz). Hence the solution of (7.6) is of
the form

15
 Equation (7.7)

Taking derivative of (7.7) with respect to x we get,

Equation (7.8)

Combining (7.2) with (7.8) we have

Equation (7.9)

Let us define the following two quantities

ZC =
Z
y
Which is known as the characteristic impedance

= yz Known as the propagation constant

Then (7.7) and (7.9) can be written in terms of the characteristic impedance and
propagation constant as:

V = A 1 e x + A1 ex Equation (7.10)

A 1 x A2 x
I= e e Equation (7.11)
ZC Zc

Let us assume that x = 0. Then V = VR and I = IR. From (7.10) and (7.11) we then
get,

V R = A1 + A2 Equation (7.12)

A 1 A2
I R= Equation (7.13)
Z C ZC

Solving (7.12) and (7.13) we get the following values for A1 and A2

16
 V R +Z C I R V ZC I R
A 1= A 2= R Equation (7.14)
2 2

Also note that for x = l we have V = Vs and I = IS. Therefore replacing x by l and
substituting the values of A1 and A2 in (7.10) and (7.11) we get,

Equation (7.15)

Equation (7.16)

Equation (7.17)
There for equation (7.15) and (7.16) can be re-written as;

For example if a 500 km long transmission line for which impedance

z=0.1+ j 0.5145 and Admittance y= j3.1734 106 1

Therefore,

4.0 Discussion & Conclusion:

The conclusion that currents at the sending end and receiving ends are different,
which also does not fit into the circuit-theory postulate that the current is the
same all along a wire that connects circuit elements. The accuracy of this
approximation might increase with the number of segments. Therefore, an exact
representation is needed of infinite number of infinitely small segments. If
instead of a dc generator we connect an ac generator, the same effect occurs
even if the line dielectric is perfect, to have capacitive stray currents between
the two conductors. However, now the voltage across the receiving end will also
differ from that at the Sending end, rather than of the line conductors being

17
perfect. This is due to small inductive voltage drops across short segments of the
line; the velocity of propagation of voltage and current waves along air lines
equals the velocity of light in a vacuum. It is valid only for lines with air dielectric.

Because for any dielectric > 0 , the propagation velocity along lines with
dielectric other than air is always less than the velocity of light in a vacuum. The
last conclusion enables us to understand an extremely important fact: because
an infinite section of any lossless line with respect to its input terminals behaves
as a resistor of resistance Z, we can eliminate the reflected wave on a line of any
length by terminating the line in its characteristic impedance. If this is done, we
say that the line is matched. Also it is the attenuation of higher frequencies by
the skin effect that causes the degradation of voltage transitions on long
transmission lines, not the dispersion of higher frequencies. Indeed, the
dispersion alone would cause the opposite effect: higher frequencies propagate
far more quickly than lower frequencies.

Also because an imperfectly ended transmission line causes power to be

reflected back to the source end and the impedance seen looking into such a line
is not equal to its characteristic impedance of the line; however some function of
the reflection coefficient at the far end, and the length of the line will match. If at
one particular frequency, or a narrow range of frequencies, one can use a finite
transmission line, or to create any impedance which is necessary, stubs can be
used.

Since the parameters were found using the three test analysis, the summery of
the results is given in the table below:

Parameter Specification Value Unit

A = VS / V R Voltage ratio 0.991 Unit less
Short circuit 151.1 90
B = VS / IR
resistance
Open circuit 0 1
C = IS / VR mho
conductance
D = IS / IR Current ratio 1.02 140.95 Unit less
Table 4 ABCD Parameters for Long Transmission Lines found using Open
and Short Circuit Test

5.0 Shut Down:

For closing of the experiment, the button on the load bank was pressed to shut
down the load bank and by lowering the voltage of the transformer bank to bring
it to 0 volts. Once the Meter reading reaches 0V, the red off button was pressed
to off the power to the Artificial Transmission Line and the Transformer bank. The
remaining circuit breakers were also returned to switch off positions on the main
panel and then the main contactor was switched off to shut down all power. The
wires and leads were taken out after that with care and packed away.

18
6.0 References:

[1] M. S. S. T. J. O. J. Duncan Glover, Power System Analysis And Design,

Stamford: Cengage Learning Team, 2010.

[2] Ausgrid, 2016. [Online]. Available:

http://www.ausgrid.com.au/~/media/Files/Network/Documents/NS%20and
%20NUS/NS214.pdf. [Accessed 2 Octorber 2016].

[3] Electrical 4 U, 2016. [Online]. Available: http://www.electrical4u.com/abcd-

parameters-of-transmission-line/. [Accessed 3 Octorber 2016].

[4] Technical Arab Engieer, VBulletin, 2016. [Online]. Available:

http://tkne.net/downloads/power/transmissionlines1/transmission
%20lines/_Ferranti%20Effect.pdf. [Accessed 2 October 2016].

[5] Academia, Academia, 2016. [Online]. Available:

https://www.academia.edu/4227163/project_report_on_the_ABCD_parameters
_of_transmission_lines_with_Matlab_simulations. [Accessed 3 October 2016].

[6] National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning, MHRD, Govt. of

India, October 2016. [Online]. Available:
http://nptel.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-contents/IIT-KANPUR/power-
system/chapter_2/2_6.html. [Accessed 4 October 2016].

19