(This is a sample cover image for this issue. The actual cover is not yet available at this time.

This article appeared in a journal published by Elsevier. The attached

copy is furnished to the author for internal non-commercial research
and education use, including for instruction at the authors institution
and sharing with colleagues.
Other uses, including reproduction and distribution, or selling or
licensing copies, or posting to personal, institutional or third party
websites are prohibited.
In most cases authors are permitted to post their version of the
article (e.g. in Word or Tex form) to their personal website or
institutional repository. Authors requiring further information
regarding Elseviers archiving and manuscript policies are
encouraged to visit:
http://www.elsevier.com/copyright
 Author's personal copy

Renewable Energy 55 (2013) 467e473

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Renewable Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/renene

Hydrokinetic power generation for rural electricity supply: Case of

South Africa
Kanzumba Kusakana*, Herman Jacobus Vermaak
Department of Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering, Central University of Technology, Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This study investigates the possibility of using and developing hydrokinetic power to supply reliable,
Received 21 August 2012 affordable and sustainable electricity to rural, remote and isolated loads in rural South Africa where
Accepted 24 December 2012 reasonable water resource is available. Simulations are performed using the Hybrid Optimization Model
Available online
for Electric Renewable (HOMER) and the results are compared to those from other supply options such as
standalone Photovoltaic system (PV), wind, diesel generator (DG) and grid extension. Finally the paper
Keywords:
points out some major challenges that are facing the development of this technology in South Africa.
Hydrokinetic power
2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Renewable energy
Rural electrication
South Africa
HOMER

1. Introduction competitive compared to traditional micro hydropower even

though they can extract almost the same amount of energy.
South Africa is endowed with abundant renewable energy Approximately 6000e8000 potential sites for traditional micro
resources that can be used optimally to help facing the challenges hydropower applications are situated mainly in Eastern Cape and
of global warming, reduce green house gases emissions resulting KwaZulu-Natal provinces [4]. Due to the simplicity of the hydroki-
from the extensive use of fossil fuel as primary resource of electric netic power design, there are theoretically huge numbers of potential
energy and to have an energy security through diversication of sites as compared to small hydropower generation. The cost of en-
supply [1]. It is in this context that the South African Government is ergy extracted from hydrokinetic is lower than the one of small
giving a push to renewable energy and integrates it into the hydropower. Hydrokinetic technology is more economical compared
mainstream energy economy. To reach this goal, South African to solar power system; it is thus a better candidate for South African
Government is setting a target 10,000 GWh renewable energy rural electrication programs where water resource is available.
contribution to be produced mainly from biomass, wind, solar and This study investigate the possibility of using and developing
small-scale hydropower by 2013 [2]. hydrokinetic power to extend the reliable, affordable and sustain-
Hydrokinetic power generation is a category of hydropower able electricity supplies for rural and remote loads in South Africa
energy that extracts kinetic energy from owing water rather than where reasonable water resource is available. For this purpose, we
potential energy from water fall. Hydrokinetic power systems avoid have selected a potential site from which we have acquired data
many of the challenges which are coming across with traditional such as water ow and energy demand needed as input to the
hydropower, such as high civil infrastructure costs, and the need of HOMER program. The simulation results of the proposed hydroki-
acceptable water head [3]. They have simple design and can be netic system are compared to those from other power supply
easily installed and maintained by local population at low cost if options such as standalone PV, wind, diesel generator and grid
installed in remote and rural areas. Another advantage is that hy- extension line to nd the optimal and most suited option to supply
drokinetic can be easily installed in free-owing rivers or streams the rural and isolated load.
to enhance energy extraction, these make hydrokinetic far more
2. Hydropower situation in South Africa

2.1. Hydropower potential

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (K. Kusakana), [email protected] By international standards, the extensive development of hy-
(H.J. Vermaak). dropower for electricity generation has not yet been considered

0960-1481/$ e see front matter 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2012.12.051
 Author's personal copy

468 K. Kusakana, H.J. Vermaak / Renewable Energy 55 (2013) 467e473

Table 1
Hydropower potential in South Africa.

Size Type Installed capacity (MW) Estimated potential (MW)

Macro hydropower (larger than 10 MW) (i) Imported 1450 36,400
(ii) Pumped storage for peak supply 1580 10,400
(iii) Diversion fed e 5200
(iv) Dam storage regulated head 662 1520
(v) Run of river e 270
Small hydropower (from a few kW to 10 MW) As above (iv) and (v) 29.4 113
Water transfer 0.6 38
Refurbishment of existing plants 8.0 16
Gravity water carrier 0.3 80
Sub-total for all types 3730.3 53,837
Excluding imported from abroad 2280.3 17,437
Excluding pump storages using coal based energy 700.3 7237
Total green hydro energy potential available within the border of South Africa 7237

seriously in South Africa. No signicant development of hydropower The terms hydrokinetic encapsulate both tidal and river appli-
in the country has been noted for 30 years, except the new small- cations. Within the context of this paper, the focus is on river
scale installation of 7 MW capacity commissioned at the Sol Plaatjie application, since it is suitable for energy generation at remote and
Municipality Free State province. At the present the overall hydro- isolated locations.
electricity generation capacity represents only about 5% of present
total 45,500 MW installed generation capacity [5]. Table 1 below 3.2. The turbine
gives a summary of the hydropower potential in South Africa.
Most of the operation principles of the hydrokinetic turbines are
2.2. Where to look for hydroelectricity in South Africa based upon wind turbines, as they work in a similar way but with
the possibility of having close to 1000 time more energy from the
The rural communities in the Eastern Cape, Mpumalanga and hydrokinetic compared to the wind turbine of the same swept area
KwaZulu-Natal provinces have access to water resources with good [8]. The power available (Pa) in watts can be worked out using the
hydropower potential [6]. The development of small-scale tradi- following equation.
tional hydroelectric installation particularly for the commercial and
1
domestic consumption should be strongly promoted and sup- Pa  A  r  V 3  Cp (1)
ported. Communities with hydropower potential and interest in 2
developing hydroelectricity needs a wide professional support
since any new hydropower installation is costly and requires A area in metres squared (m2)
technical and operational inputs from civil, mechanical and elec- r density of water (1000 kg/m3)
trical professionals. The gure below shows the areas where po- V velocity of water (m/s)
tential site for development of micro-hydropower as well as the Cp the power coefcient
location where they have already been implemented [7].
We have to notice that Fig. 1 and Table 1 do not take into con- The theoretical maximum power available from the river is
sideration the energy potentially available from hydrokinetic which expressed by the equation above using a power coefcient of 0.592
can represent a potential source of electric power even greater than or 59% efciency. But a small-scale river turbine has its own losses
the one from micro- and pico-hydropower plants. The ideal loca- which will reduce the power coefcient to around 0.25.
tion for a hydrokinetic turbine is to be located in deep strong From equation (1) above, it is noticeable that the power in-
owing rivers or immediately downstream from an existing con- creases in a cubed relationship to the velocity of the ow of water
ventional hydropower plant where electric transmission wires and
interconnection facilities are located, and also where the energy
remaining in the water current existing from the turbines in the
dam can be reused. Theoretically, a greater number of potential
sites to implement hydrokinetic power can be identied compare
the traditional small-scale hydropower.

3. Hydrokinetic power

3.1. Technology

Hydrokinetic was originally developed to surmount the num-

berless of problems associated with dams throughout the world.
This system in erected into the river or stream which results in the
following advantages compared to the traditional hydropower:

No dam,

No destruction of nearby land,

No change in the river ow direction,

Reduction of ora and fauna destruction. Fig. 1. Small-scale hydropower distribution in South Africa.
 Author's personal copy

K. Kusakana, H.J. Vermaak / Renewable Energy 55 (2013) 467e473 469

Table 2 Table 4
Domestic power demand estimation. BTS load.

Equipment Amount Power (kW) Time (h) Energy (kWh/d) Items Power consumption (kW) Usage h/day
Light 5 0.006 6 0.18 Constant site load (BTS, TX) 2 24
Radio 1 0.020 5 0.1 Air-conditioner (12,000 BTU) 1.8 6
T.V. 1 0.07 5 0.35 Air-conditioner start-up 3.3 e
Iron 1 1 0.1 0.1
Kettle 1 1.5 0.05 0.075
Fridge 1 0.12 24 2.88
Phone charger 3 0.004 1 0.012 4.1.2. Resources assessment
The summary of the water velocity [14], wind velocity and solar
radiation [15] from the site is shown in Table 3.
past the turbine. Therefore it is important to nd the best ow to The theoretical potential power available from the hydrokinetic
get the best power output. turbine (Pa) can be found with the help of equation (1) using the
following characteristics from the selected stream:
3.3. Generator

Minimum water velocity in the worst month: 1.41 m/s
In order to reduce costs, and to be able to rely on locally-made
Viable depth: 1.8 m
technology, permanent magnet generator can be used. The mag-
Width: 5.2 m
nets allowed the speed of generation to be reduced, and lowered
Cross sectional area: 9.36 m2
the cost of the equipment, which itself could be adapted to be
Pa 1075 kW
a river turbine rotor and ultimately, tested and built [9]. Due to
lower generation speed, gearboxes or generators with high number A correction factor of 0.8 has been applied to the measured
of poles can be used [10]. values to accommodate friction effects along the bottom and sides
of the river on the current velocity [16]. With reasonable sizing of
the battery storage system, this available power can cover the load
4. System design
energy requirement without interruption. The selected site has
very good solar and wind resources as shown in Table 3, so the solar
The HOMER simulation program has been chosen as a tool for
PV system, wind and the standalone diesel generator can be com-
system design. HOMER was selected due to its capability to evaluate
pared to the hydrokinetic while supplying the same load to nd out
the best option by harnessing energy from a single or combination of
which one is the best supply option for the site.
various energy resources [11]. It is an economic model that provides
rational selection of the most cost effective option [12]. Fur-
thermore, its hourly energy ow approach offers a comprehensive 4.2. Case 2: base transceiver station
analysis of the system performance throughout a year. Two case
studies have been conducted on different sites from which the load 4.2.1. Load description
energy demand, the renewable energy resources, as well as the cost The medium-sized indoor base transceiver station used has an
of the supply options (hydrokinetic, solar PV, wind, diesel generator equipment power loading of 2 kW. The items and their power
and grid extension) have been used as input to HOMER. consumptions are given in Table 4. Normally the full load will only
be the constant site load and the air-conditioner running power (or
3.8 kW), or when temperatures permit the air-conditioners to be
4.1. Case 1: rural household
shut off, only the BTS load (2 kW) [17]. The total power required in
the worst case will be the full load plus the air-conditioner start-up
4.1.1. Load description
power (7.1 kW). Thus the load is 7.1 kW peak and 58.8 kWh energy
For this rst case, a typical rural household in the KwaZulu-
consumption per day.
Natal has been selected.
The site is situated at 30.6 Latitude South and 29.4 Longitude
4.2.2. Resources assessment
East.
The summary of the water velocity [14], wind velocity and solar
Table 2 gives domestic appliances, power demand and running
radiation [15] from the site is shown in Table 3 plus the air-condi-
times for an average typical household in rural South Africa [13].
tioner start-up power (7.1 kW). Thus the load is 7.1 kW peak and
The load is 3.4 kW peak and 9.5 kWh per day.
58.8 kWh energy consumption per day.
Table 3
Site 1 energy resources. Table 5
Site 2 energy resources.
Month Water speed Daily radiation Wind speed
(m/s) (kWh/m2/d) (m/s) Month Water speed (m/s) Daily radiation (kWh/m2/d) Wind speed (m/s)
January 5.31 6.23 4.1 January 6.410 8.44 6.6
February 7.25 5.83 3.9 February 5.270 7.50 5.9
March 6.09 5.21 3.8 March 3.830 6.22 5.8
April 1.81 4.46 3.9 April 3.120 4.66 5.1
May 2.67 3.81 4.1 May 2.470 3.43 4.9
June 2.18 3.33 4.5 June 2.160 3.01 5.3
July 1.84 3.62 4.5 July 1.580 3.21 5.1
August 1.54 4.29 4.6 August 1.220 4.10 5.3
September 1.41 5.08 4.8 September 1.710 5.33 5.6
October 1.69 5.41 4.6 October 2.430 6.82 6.2
November 2.83 6.00 4.3 November 4.190 7.96 6.2
December 5.27 6.35 4.0 December 6.600 8.51 6.0
Average 3.32 4.947 4.26 Average 3.047 5.76 5.7
 Author's personal copy

470 K. Kusakana, H.J. Vermaak / Renewable Energy 55 (2013) 467e473

1.0

0.8
Power Output (kW)

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0 Fig. 4. Hydrokinetic output.

0 1 2 3 4
Wind Speed (m/s)

Fig. 2. Hydrokinetic power-curve.

4.3.3. Wind system
The wind speed variations are of great impact on the energy
availability produced by the system. Thus, wind turbine rating is
The site is located near Cape Columbine at 32.8 Latitude South usually much higher compared to the average electrical power
and 17.9 Longitude East with one of the best solar potential in South demand. For our study, we have considered the XLR turbine man-
Africa and very good yearly wind speed. The water potential is in ufactured by Bergey Windpower and rated at 7.5 kW. The cost of
favor of the development of hydrokinetic system. The renewable the system is $26,900, the replacement and maintenance costs are
resources can be found on Table 5. taken as $15,000 and $75/year [23]. The lifetime of the wind
turbine is taken as 20 year.
4.3. Components information
4.3.4. Diesel generators
4.3.1. Hydrokinetic power Given that for the rural household (Case 1) the peak power
Unfortunately, HOMER is not equipped with a hydrokinetic power demand is 3.4 kW, the diesel generator cost is taken as $900. For the
module as considered in this study. Consequently, instead of using BST (Case 2), the price of the diesel generator is taken as 1950 $ [24].
a traditional micro-hydro module, the wind turbine component has The operating and maintenance costs are 0.5$/h and the fuel con-
been used with related hydrokinetic input rather than wind-related sumption (0.55 L/kWh). In the South Africa the price of the diesel
information [14]. This approach was considered because wind tur- and lubricant is 1.2 $/l and 1.30 $/l respectively.
bines share some similarities with hydrokinetic turbines which are We have also to take in account the international carbon
commonly referred to as underwater wind turbines. Thus, the wind emission penalty of 2.25 $/t.
turbine power-curve has been replaced with the power-curve of the
selected hydrokinetic turbine by altering the wind speed information 4.3.5. Simulation results and discussion
with the river current velocity [18]. HOMER simulates system congurations with all of the combi-
The Darrieus hydrokinetic turbines (DHT) developed by Alter- nations of components that were specied in the component input.
native Hydro Solutions in Canada has been chosen because of its It discards from the results, all non-feasible system congurations,
simple structure and its ability to generate a relatively high power which are those that do not adequately meet the load, given either
output from low to medium ow velocities [19]. Figs. 2 and 3 are the available resource or constraints that were specied.
the power-curve of the turbine based on information from The simulation results will be analyzed and then compared to
the turbines manufacturer. The turbines rated power is 1 kW at those acquired by the use of the PV, wind standalone, diesel gen-
1.4 m/s current velocity. Since the information about the power erator as well as hybrid diesel-battery used to supply the same load.
outputs at the ow speed above 1.5 m/s ow was not available, it The comparison criteria will be the Initial Capital (IC), the Total Net
has been assumed that above 1.5 m/s, there are no increases in Present Cost (NPC), the Cost of Energy (COE) as well as the system
power output. Capacity Shortage.
The investments as well as the replacement costs of the 1 kW
hydrokinetic turbine are $7500 respectively, the operation and 4.4. Case study 1: rural household
maintenance cost is $20/year; the system lifetime span is 25
years [18]. 4.4.1. Hydrokinetic
The architecture and costs of the hydrokinetic option found
4.3.2. Photovoltaic system feasible by Homer are presented on Fig. 3. For the selected site, the
The actual price of the PV module is set at 3.59 $/W in USA, optimal combination of 2 hydrokinetic modules, 4 batteries and
considering the transport and other unpredictable costs. The price a 3.5 kW converter has an IC of $16,660; an NPC of $20,662, an OC of
of PV is set to 4500 $/kW with the replacement cost of $4100. The $313/yr and a COE of 0.464 $/kWh.
cost of the inverter is set 800 $/kW [20]. The operation and main-
tenance costs of the photovoltaic module and of the inverter are
estimated at 105 and 10 $/yr respectively [21]. The price of the deep
cycle battery is $215 with a replacement cost of $215, the operation
and maintenance is $5 [22], the lifetime is taken as 20 year.

Fig. 3. Simulation result of the hydrokinetic. Fig. 5. Battery state of charge.

 Author's personal copy

K. Kusakana, H.J. Vermaak / Renewable Energy 55 (2013) 467e473 471

Fig. 10. Simulation result of the diesel generator.

4.4.3. Wind energy system

From Fig. 9 the optimal size and conguration of the pure wind
Fig. 6. Inverter output. energy system are 7 wind turbine of 7.5 kW each, 357 batteries and
3.5 kW inverter. It has an IC of $261,475, an NPC of $413,362, an OC
of $11,882/yr and a COE of 9.311 $/kWh.
We can easily see that small wind turbines are not particularly
efcient and need to be situated in an area of above average wind in
order to generate reasonable amounts of power.

4.4.4. Diesel generator

From Fig. 10 the optimal size of the diesel generator is 3.4 kW. It
has an IC of $900, an NPC of $139,234, an OC of $10,821/yr and
a COE of 3.125 $/kWh.
The cost of 1 kWh produced by the diesel generator is 7 times
higher compared to the cost of energy produced by the hydroki-
netic system.
Fig. 7. Grid extension distance (km). By using the hybrid system rather the diesel generator stand-
alone, 4952 L corresponding to $5943 can be saved annually.
Table 6 shows the different pollutants emitted per year by using the
diesel generator which have impacts such as global warming and
on the environment in general. For the duration of the project
(25 years) the use of the hydrokinetic is a more environmental
friendly solution to supply the load compare to the diesel generator.
Fig. 8. Simulation result of the PV.
4.4.5. Case study 1 summary
A summary of the technical and economical results obtained by
Fig. 4 shows the average monthly hydrokinetic output power. Homer is displayed on Table 7. From this table we can notice that
During the month of September, due to insufcient water resource based on the NPV, COE and the breakeven grid extension distance
the hydrokinetic plan gives an average of 1 kW which is its mini- that the hydrokinetic is the best option to supply the load with
mum output. electricity.
Figs. 5 and 6 show the converter usage and the battery state of
charging. It can easily be seen that from April to November the 4.5. Case study 2: BTS load
battery system is charged during off-peak times and used during
peak power demand times occurring in the mornings and evenings. A similar analysis done with case 1 has also been done with the
Fig. 6 shows that the power from the battery is used only during case 2 (BTS load) under different load and resources conditions.
morning and evening peak times to compensate the hydrokinetic
decit in power supply. 4.5.1. Hydrokinetic
Fig. 7 gives the breakeven grid extension distance at 0.911 km. The architecture and costs of the hydrokinetic option found
This means that the total cost of implementing the micro-hydro feasible by Homer are presented on Fig. 3. For the selected site, the
project for 25 years will be equivalent to the cost of installing a grid optimal combination of 4 hydrokinetic modules, 6 batteries and
extension line of 0.911 km. a 7.5 kW converter has an IC of $37,050; an NPC of $53,087, an OC of
$641/yr and a COE of 0.1 $/kWh.
4.4.2. Photovoltaic system Fig. 4 shows the average monthly hydrokinetic output power
From Fig. 8 the optimal size and conguration of the pure which is close to maximum value all along the year.
PV system are 5 kW PV, 23 batteries and 3.5 kW inverter. It has an IC Figs. 5 and 6 show the converter usage and the battery state of
of $28,245, an NPC of $45,989, an OC of $1388/yr and a COE of charging. We can notice that the power from the battery is mainly
1.036 $/kWh. used in conjunction with the hydrokinetic mainly during the eve-
It is noticeable that the cost of 1 kWh produced by the PV is 2.5 ning peak demand to supply the load.
times higher compared to the cost of energy produced by the
hydrokinetic system.
Table 6
Diesel generator emissions.

Pollutant Emissions (kg/yr)

Carbon dioxide 13,042
Carbon monoxide 32.2
Unburned hydrocarbons 3.57
Particulate matter 2.43
Fig. 9. Simulation result of the wind system. Sulfur dioxide 26.2
Nitrogen oxides 287
 Author's personal copy

472 K. Kusakana, H.J. Vermaak / Renewable Energy 55 (2013) 467e473

Table 7
Simulation results summary (Case 1).

Costs HKP PV Wind DG

Capital ($) 16,660 28,245 261,475 900
Replacement ($) 3290 13,611 143,869 6456 Fig. 15. Simulation result of the PV.
O&M ($) 895 8309 31,306 55,991
Fuel ($) 0 0 0 75,971
Salvage ($) 183 4176 23,288 84
Total NPC ($) 20,662 45,989 413,363 139,234
COE ($/kWh) 0.464 1.036 9.311 3.125
Grid extension (km) 1.26 3.5 36 11.8

Fig. 16. Simulation result of the wind system.

Fig. 11. Simulation result of the hydrokinetic.

Fig. 17. Simulation result of the diesel generator.

Table 8
Diesel generator emissions.

Pollutant Emissions (kg/yr)

Carbon dioxide 28,316
Carbon monoxide 69.9
Unburned hydrocarbons 7.74
Particulate matter 5.27
Sulfur dioxide 56.9
Fig. 12. Hydrokinetic output. Nitrogen oxides 624

batteries and 7.5 kW inverter. It has an IC of $151,750, an NPC of

$228,025, an OC of $3051/yr and a COE of 0.431 $/kWh.
For this specic area we can see that the wind system is a good
option to supply the BTS load compared to the PV system. But its
cost still 4.3 times higher compared to 1 kWh produced by the
hydrokinetic system.

4.5.4. Diesel generator

Fig. 13. Battery state of charge. The cost of 1 kWh produced by the diesel generator is 7 times
higher compared to the cost of energy produced by the hydrokinetic
system. By using the hybrid system rather the diesel generator
4.5.2. Photovoltaic system standalone, 10,753 L corresponding to $13,441can be saved annually.
From Figs. 11e15 the optimal size and conguration of the pure Table 8 shows the different pollutants emitted per year by using
PV system are 30 kW PV, 134 batteries and 7.5 kW inverter. It has an the diesel generator which have impacts such as global warming
IC of $152,450, an NPC of $301,025, an OC of $5943/yr and a COE of and on the environment in general.
0.568 $/kWh.
It is noticeable that the cost of 1 kWh produced by the PV is 5.6 4.5.5. Case study 2 summary
times higher compared to the cost of energy produced by the hy- As for the case 1, a summary of the technical and economical
drokinetic system for this specic load and resources. results obtained by Homer is displayed on Table 9. Form this table
we can notice that based on the Net Present Cost (NPV), Cost of
4.5.3. Wind energy system Energy (COE) and the breakeven grid extension distance that the
From Figs. 16 and 17 the optimal size and conguration of the hydrokinetic is the best option to supply the load with electricity.
pure wind energy system are 4 wind turbine of 7.5 kW each, 218

Table 9
Simulation results summary (Case 2).

Costs HKP PV Wind DG

Capital ($) 37,050 152,450 151,750 1950
Replacement ($) 11,400 151,200 71,400 27,300
O&M ($) 9825 90,675 25,725 12,542
Fuel ($) 0 0 0 336,028
Salvage ($) 5188 93,300 20,850 783
Total NPC ($) 53,087 301,025 228,025 377,037
COE ($/kWh) 0.100 0.568 0.431 0.709
Grid extension (km) 0.00929 20.7 14.6 27
Fig. 14. Inverter output.
 Author's personal copy

K. Kusakana, H.J. Vermaak / Renewable Energy 55 (2013) 467e473 473

5. Conclusion [5] Baseline study on hydropower in South Africa. Pretoria: Department of Min-
erals and Energy; 2002.
[6] Hearn IR. Energy sources for remote area power supply e a review and
This paper aimed to investigate the possibility of using and assessment. In: Proceedings of the conference E-I 92 electricity beyond the
developing hydrokinetic power suitable to supply electricity to grid; 1992. p. 60e75.
rural and isolated loads in South Africa where reasonable water [7] Barta B. Status of the small-scale hydroelectric (SSHE) development in South
Africa; March 2010.
resource is available. [8] Arango MA. Resource assessment and feasibility study for use of hydrokinetic
The proposed hydrokinetic system is sized to meet the load turbines in the tailwaters of the priest rapids project. MSc dissertation.
energy requirement during the worst months. Simulations of the Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington; 2011.
[9] Susanto J, Stamp S. Local installation methods for low head pico-hydropower
hydrokinetic power have been performed with HOMER software in the Lao PDR. Renewable Energy 2012;44:439e47.
with a rural household and a BTS load as case studies under dif- [10] Grabbe M, Yuen K, Goude A, Lalander E, Leijon M. Design of an experimental
ferent demand and energy resources. The results have been com- setup for hydro-kinetic energy conversion. The International Journal on Hy-
dropower & Dams 2009;16(5):112e6.
pared with those from a diesel generator, wind turbine and [11] National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NERL). Hybrid optimization model for
standalone PV system while they are supplying the same load. The electric renewable (HOMER) [Online]. Available from: www.nrel.gov; 2005
comparison criteria were the Initial Capital, the Total Net Present [accessed 29.11.2011].
[12] Givler T, Lilienthal P. Using HOMER software, NREL micropower optimization
Cost, the Cost of Energy as well as the system Capacity Shortage. In model, to explore the role of Gen-sets in small solar powersystem: case study
summary, hydrokinetic power generation is the best supply option Srilanka [Online]. Available from: http://www.scribd.com/doc/6610003/Homer-
compared to the wind, PV and diesel generator where adequate Case-Study-Sri-Lanka?autodownpdf; 2005 [accessed 12.04.2012].
[13] Kusakana K, Munda JL, Jimoh AA. Economic and environmental analysis of
water resource is available. Apart for being very cost effective, the
micro hydropower system for rural power supply. In: PECon 2008, the 2nd
hydrokinetic system contributes to the reduction of the CO2 and IEEE power and energy conference, Johor Bahru, Malaysia; 1e3 December
green house gases in the atmosphere. 2008. p. 41e4.
The results of this study have led to the following further study [14] Kusakana K, Vermaak HJ. Feasibility study of hydrokinetic power for energy
access in rural South Africa. In: The fth IASTED Asian conference on power and
recommendations: energy systems (AsiaPES 2012); April 2e4, 2012, Phuket, Thailand. p. 433e8.
[15] Clean Energy Decision Support Center. RETScreen software. [Online]. Avail-

Identify more sites in addition to those already identied for able from: www.retscree.net. [accessed 17.06.2012].
[16] Twidell J, Weir T. Renewable energy resources. 2nd ed. New York: Taylor &
traditional micro-hydropower, and assess potential energy Francis; 2006.
available, [17] Kusakana K, Vermaak HJ. Hybrid photovoltaic-wind system as power solution

Develop policies supporting the development and deployment for network operators in the D.R.Congo. In: International conference on clean
electrical power (ICCEP), Ischia, Italy; 2011. p. 703e8.
of hydrokinetic power in South Africa. [18] Kunai S. Options for the electrication of rural villages in the Province of
Riau, Indonesia. MSc dissertation. School of Engineering and Energy, Murdoch
University; Perth, Australia: 2009.
References [19] Darrieus turbine. Alternative hydro solutions. Available from: http://www.
althydrosolutions.com [accessed 20.08.2012].
[1] Department of Minerals and Energy Affairs see South Africa Department of [20] 125 Watts and Higher Module Index. Retail price per watt peak. [Online]. Avail-
Mineral and Energy Affairs. Implementation of strategy for renewable energy able from: http://www.solarbuzz.com/Moduleprices.htm [accessed 07.06.2012].
in South Africa. Draft 2. Pretoria: Government Printer; 2000. [21] Ahmed A, Ziedan H, Sayed K, Amery M, Swify M. Optimal sizing of a hybrid
[2] DME. White paper on the energy policy of the Republic of South Africa. Pre- system of renewable energy for a reliable load supply without interruption.
toria: Department of Minerals and Energy; 2003. November 2003. European Journal of Scientic Research 2010;45(4):620e9.
[3] Wang L, Infante D, Lyons J, Stewart J, Cooper A. Effects of dams in river net- [22] Trojan battery L16p price. [Online]. Available from: http://www.solar-review.
works on sh assemblages in non-impoundment sections of rivers in Michi- com/reviews/read-review.cfm/id/8/ [accessed 07.11.2011].
gan and Wisconsin, USA. River Research and Applications 2011;27(4):473e87. [23] Barley DC, Winn BC. Optimal dispatch strategy in remote hybrid power sys-
[4] Department of Minerals and Energy Affairs (DME). Eskom and Counsil for tems. Solar Energy 1996;58(4e6):165e79.
Scientic and Industrial Research (CSIR) renewable energy resource GIS [24] Portable generators. Available from: www.peakpowertools.com/Portable-
Database; 2001. Generators-s/1.htm [accessed 20.08.2012].