STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM

Structural functionalism, or simply functionalism, is a framework for building theory that sees society as a complex
system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability. Two theorists, Herbert Spencer and Robert Merton,
were major contributors to this perspective. Important concepts in functionalism include social structure, social functions,
manifest functions, and latent functions.

The structural-functional approach is a perspective in sociology that sees society as a complex system whose parts
work together to promote solidarity and stability. It asserts that our lives are guided by social structures, which are
relatively stable patterns of social behavior. Social structures give shape to our lives - for example, in families, the
community, and through religious organizations. And certain rituals, such as a handshake or complex religious
ceremonies, give structure to our everyday lives. Each social structure has social functions, or consequences for the
operation of society as a whole. Education, for example, has several important functions in a society, such as
socialization, learning, and social placement.

This approach looks at both social structure and social functions. Functionalism addresses society as a whole in
terms of the function of its constituent elements; namely norms, customs, traditions, and institutions.

Herbert Spencer

Herbert Spencer (18201903) was a British philosopher famous for applying the theory of natural selection to
society. He was in many ways the first true sociological functionalist.

In describing society, Spencer alludes to the analogy of human body. Just as the structural parts of the human body -
the skeleton, muscles, and various internal organs function independently to help the entire organism survive, social
structures work together to preserve society.

Spencer concluded that society is constantly facing selection pressures (internal and external) that force it to adapt
its internal structure through differentiation.

he was in many ways a political sociologist, and recognized that the degree of centralized and consolidated authority
in a given polity could make or break its ability to adapt. In other words, he saw a general trend towards the centralization
of power as leading to stagnation and ultimately, pressures to decentralize.

More specifically, Spencer recognized three functional needs or prerequisites that produce selection pressures: they
are regulatory, operative (production) and distributive. He argued that all societies need to solve problems of control
and coordination, production of goods, services and ideas, and, finally, to find ways of distributing these resources.

The solution, as Spencer sees it, is to differentiate structures to fulfill more specialized functions; thus a chief or "big
man" emerges, soon followed by a group of lieutenants, and later kings and administrators. The structural parts of society
(ex. families, work) function interdependently to help society function. Therefore, social structures work together to
preserve society.

Robert Merton

Robert K. Merton made important refinements to functionalist thought. Merton believed that any social structure
probably has many functions, some more obvious than others. He identified 3 main limitations: functional unity, universal
functionalism and indispensability [Ritzer in Gingrich, 1999]. He also developed the concept of deviance and made the
distinction between manifest and latent functions. Manifest functions referred to the recognized and intended
consequences of any social pattern. Latent functions referred to unrecognized and unintended consequences of any
social pattern.

There are two types of functions that Merton discusses the "manifest functions" in that a social pattern can trigger a
recognized and intended consequence. The manifest function of education includes preparing for a career by getting
good grades, graduation and finding good job. The second type of function is "latent functions", where a social pattern
results in an unrecognized or unintended consequence. The latent functions of education include meeting new people,
extra-curricular activities, school trips.
 Another type of social function is "social dysfunction" which is any undesirable consequences that disrupts the
operation of society.The social dysfunction of education includes not getting good grades, a job. Merton states that by
recognizing and examining the dysfunctional aspects of society we can explain the development and persistence of
alternatives.

Merton believes that there are 5 situations facing an actor.

Conformity occurs when an individual has the means and desire to achieve the cultural goals socialized into
him.

Innovation occurs when an individual strives to attain the accepted cultural goals but chooses to do so in novel
or unaccepted method.

Ritualism occurs when an individual continues to do things as prescribed by society but forfeits the achievement
of the goals.

Retreatism is the rejection of both the means and the goals of society.

Rebellion is a combination of the rejection of societal goals and means and a substitution of other goals and
means.

Thus it can be seen that change can occur internally in society through either innovation or rebellion. It is true that
society will attempt to control these individuals and negate the changes, but as the innovation or rebellion builds
momentum, society will eventually adapt or face dissolution.

Terms defined

Social cohesion describes the bonds that bring people together in a society. In order for groups to be cohesive in a
social context, positive membership attitudes and behaviors have to be produced and maintained. Social cohesion can be
looked at on both an individual and group level. Individual-levels include: an individuals desire or intention to remain a
part of a group, her attitudes and beliefs about the group, the individuals intention to sever, weaken, maintain, or
strengthen her membership or participation in a groups, and her susceptibility to group influence. Social cohesion at a
group level is directly affected by the individual members.

Social inequality refers to any scenario in which individuals in a society do not have equal social status. Areas of
potential inequality include voting rights, freedom of speech and assembly, the extent of property rights and access to
education, health care, quality housing and other social goods. Social inequality is an important characteristic of
Structural Functionalism as the theory assumes, since inequality exists, there needs to be a certain level of inequality in
order for a society to operate. One possible function of inequality is to motivate people,as people are motivated to carry
out work through a rewards system. Rewards may include income, status, prestige, or power.

Interdependence is a central theme in structural functionalism; it refers to the parts of society sharing a common set
of principles.Institutions, organizations, and individuals are all interdependent with one another.

Equilibrium, in a social context, is the internal and external balance in a society. While temporary disturbances may
upset the equilibrium of society, because of social structure, society will eventually return to a balanced, orderly state.
That society strives toward equilibrium also means that changes happen slowly.
 General Conceptual Diagram

The diagram (right) is a general conceptual diagram of

Structural functionalism. It shows that all of the different
organizations and institutions in society are interdependent.
When one institution in society changes, other institutions
accommodate that change by changing as well, though the
ultimate effect is to slow overall change.

Specific Conceptual Diagram

Below is a chart depicting how deviance is functional for

society and how society responds to deviance. A "deviant"
individual commits an act that is deemed by the rest of
society as criminal, because it leads to public outrage and
punishments. Because a large portion of society respond to
the action as though it is deviant, this draws a boundary
between what is and is not deviant. Thus, deviance actually
helps to indicate what is not deviant, or, the function of
labeling behaviors or ideas as deviance is to insure that most
people do not engage in those behaviors.

Modern Examples of Structural Functionalist Oriented

Research

September 11, 2001

On September 11, 2001 modern American culture was

disoriented due to an attack . This event affected both
American travel customs, reflecting the Structural Functionalist
idea that a change in one element of society results in
changes in other aspects of society. Before the attacks, airport
security in the U.S. existed, but they changed substantially as
a result of the attacks. Scrutiny of travelers was heightened
and included new protocols, like the removal of shoes, belts,
and eventually liquids, as well as random, more detailed
screenings. Thus, a change in the cultural sense of security
resulted in a corresponding change in travel protocol.

Increase in Technology

Modern technology has resulted in substantial changes to the economy and the military. Before the advent of
telephones, the internet, and video conferencing, most business meetings occurred face to face. If an individual had a
business proposal for a company in San Francisco but lived in New York, she would have to travel to San Francisco.
Modern technology has changed this, reducing the necessity of business travel. As a result, the function of face to face
meetings in business has changed; they are no longer a necessary part of social interactions and have therefore begun to
lose their structural role.

Likewise, the traditional approach to war between two nations was an all-out invasion involving hundreds of
thousands if not millions of troops. During WWI, America sent over two million men to fight. During WWII, American sent
over eleven million soldiers to fight. During the Korean War America sent approximately 1.5 million troops. And finally in
1990, just over 700,000 soldiers fought in Operation Desert Storm. Due to the increase in military technology and new
military tactical norms the number of military personnel present in war zones has dramatically decreased. When America
invaded Iraq in 2003, they sent 150,000. Modern technology, including advanced, long-range weapons and unmanned
drones, has changed the function of mass invasions.

Advantages of structural functionalism

Provides a wide-ranging explanation for many social phenomena

 Has guided a great deal of valuable research

Latter models allow not only for stability, but also for conflict, social change, and power relationships

Has contributed useful concepts to the field

Disadvantages of structural functionalism

An ideal model of society rather than an empirically derived one

Operational definitions are hard to come by

At its outset had a tendency to value stability, consensus

Cannot explain the existence of societies in the first place

Social Institutions

Economy
The economy is the social institution responsible for the production and distribution of goods.
The two dominant economic systems in the world are capitalism, under which resources and means of production are
privately owned, and socialism, a system under which those resources are owned by the society as a whole.
Welfare capitalism and state capitalism are hybrids of capitalism and socialism. Welfare capitalism features a market-
based economy coupled with an extensive social welfare system. Under state capitalism, the government closely
monitors and regulates the resources and means of production, which are privately owned.
According to Karl Marx, capitalism brings workers and employers into conflict. The only way to resolve the conflict is
workers revolution to replace capitalism with communism.
The economy is a quickly changing social institution. Economic trends include globalization, demand for educated
professionals,self-employment, and diversity in the workplace.

Government
The government is the institution entrusted with making and enforcing the rules of the society, as well as with regulating
relations with other societies.
Most of the worlds governments fall into one of four categories:monarchy, democracy, authoritarianism, or totalitarianism.
A monarchy is a political system in which a representative from one family controls the government and power is passed
on through that family from generation to generation.
A democracy is a political system in which the citizens periodically choose officials to run their government.
Authoritarianism is a political system that does not allow citizens to participate in government.
Totalitarianism is a political system under which the government maintains tight control over nearly all aspects of citizens
lives.
The U.S. government is characterized by a limited welfare state and a two-party political system.
Conflicts in governments generally take three forms: revolution, war, and terrorism.

Family
The institution of family has three important functions: to provide for the rearing of children, to provide a sense of identity
or belonging among its members, and to transmit culture between generations.
There are two types of families. A nuclear family comprises a mother, father, and their children living under one roof.
An extended family includes several generations and branches living nearby.
Marriage is a foundation of family life. It exists in every society, with some variations.
Alternative families such as single-parent households, unmarried couples, and gay and lesbian couples are on the rise in
the United States.

Religion
Religion is a social institution that answers our larger questions and explains the seemingly inexplicable.
The worlds major religions include Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Hinduism, and Buddhism.
Religious groups include churches, sects, and cults.

Education
Education is the preparation of children for adulthood. It is an important agent of socialization and encourages social
integration.

Medicine
The institution of medicine is responsible for defining and treating physical and mental illnesses among members of a
society. The goal of a societys medical establishment is to promote health, the total well-being of its people.
The definitions of physical and mental illnesses are different in different cultures.
Scientific medicine is an approach to healing that focuses on illness.
Holistic medicine is an approach to healing that focuses on a patients whole environment.