PUTNAM TRAINING

EASY PUTNAM PROBLEMS

(Last updated: December 5, 2016)

Remark. This is a list of exercises on Easy Putnam Problems Miguel A. Lerma

Exercises
1. 2016-A1. Find the smallest positive integer j such that for every polynomial p(x)
with integer coecients and for every k, the integer

dj 
(j)
p (k) = p(x) 
dxj 
x=k

(the j-th derivative of p(x) at k) is divisible by 2016.

2. 2016-B1. Let x0 , x1 , x2 , . . . be the sequence such that x0 = 1 and for n 0,

xn+1 = ln (exn xn )

(as usual, the function ln is the natural logarithm). Show that the infinite series

x0 + x1 + x2 +

converges and find its sum.

3. 2016-B3. Suppose that S is a finite set of points in the plane such that the area of
triangle ABC is at most 1 whenever A, B, and C are in S. Show that there exists
a triangle of area 4 such that (together with its interior) covers the set S.
4. 2015-A1. Let A and B be points on the same branch of the hyperbola xy = 1.
Suppose that P is a point lying between A and B on this hyperbola, such that the
area of the triangle AP B is as large as possible. Show that the region bounded by
the hyperbola and the chord AP has the same area as the region bounded by the
hyperbola and the chord P B.
5. 2015-B1. Let f be a three times dierentiable function (defined on R and real-valued)
such that f has at least five distinct real zeros. Prove that f + 6f + 12f + 8f has
at least two distinct real zeros.

6. 2015-B4.
1
 PUTNAM TRAINING EASY PUTNAM PROBLEMS 2

Let T be the set of all triples (a, b, c) of positive integers for which there exist triangles
with side lengths a, b, c. Express
2a
3b 5c
(a,b,c)T

as a rational number in lowest terms.

7. 2014-A1. Prove that every nonzero coecient of the Taylor series of
(1 x + x2 )ex
about x = 0 is a rational number whose numerator (in lowest terms) is either 1 or a
prime number.
8. 2014-B1. A base 10 over-expansion of a positive integer N is an expression of the
form
N = dk 10k + dk1 10k1 + + d0 100
with dk = 0 and di {0, 1, 2, . . . , 10} for all i. For instance, the integer N = 10
has two base 10 over-expansions: 10 = 10 100 and the usual base 10 expansion
10 = 1 101 + 0 100 . Which positive integers have a unique base 10 over-expansion?

9. 2013-A1. Recall that a regular icosahedron is a convex polyhedron having 12 vertices

and 20 faces; the faces are congruent equilateral triangles. On each face of a regular
icosahedron is written a nonnegative integer such that the sum of all 20 integers is 39.
Show that there are two faces that share a vertex and have the same integer written
on them.

10. 2013-B1. For positive integers n, let the numbers c(n) be determined by the rules
c(1) = 1, c(2n) = c(n), and c(2n + 1) = (1)n c(n). Find the value of

2013
c(n)c(n + 2) .
n=1

11. 2012-A1. Let d1 , d2 , . . . , d12 be real numbers in the interval (1, 12). Show that there
exist distinct indices i, j, k such that di ,dj , dk are the side lengths of an acute triangle.
12. 2012-B1. Let S be the class of functions from [0, ) to [0, ) that satisfies:
(i) The functions f1 (x) = ex 1 and f2 (x) = ln (x + 1) are in S.
(ii) If f (x) and g(s) are in S, then functions f (x) + g(x) and f (g(x)) are in S;
(iii) If f (x) and g(x) are in S and f (x) g(x) for all x 0, then the function
f (x) g(x) is in S.
Prove that if f (x) and g(x) are in S, then the function f (x)g(x) is also in S.
13. 2011-B1. Let h and k be positive integers. Prove that for every > 0, there are
positive integers m and n such that

< |h m k n| < 2.
 PUTNAM TRAINING EASY PUTNAM PROBLEMS 3

14. 2010-A1. Given a positive integer n, what is the largest k such that the numbers
1, 2, . . . , n can be put into k boxes so that the sum of the numbers in each box is the
same? [When n = 8, the example {1, 2, 3, 6}, {4, 8}, {5, 7} shows that the largest k is
at least 3.]
15. 2010-B1. Is there an infinite sequence of real numbers a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . such that

1 + a2 + a3 + = m
am m m

for every positive integer m?

16. 2010-B2. Given that A, B, and C are noncollinear points in the plane with integer
coordinates such that the distances AB, AC, and BC are integers, what is the smallest
possible value of AB?
17. 2009-A1. Let f be a real-valued function on the plane such that for every square
ABCD in the plane, f (A) + f (B) + f (C) + f (D) = 0. Does it follow that f (P ) = 0
for all points P in the plane?

18. 2009-B1. Show that every positive rational number can be written as a quotient of
products of factorials of (not necessarily distinct) primes. For example,

10 2! 5!
= .
9 3! 3! 3!

19. 2008-A1. Let f : R2 R be a function such that f (x, y) + f (y, z) + f (z, x) = 0 for
all real numbers x, y, and z. Prove that there exists a function g : R R such that
f (x, y) = g(x) g(y) for all real numbers x and y.
20. 2008-A2. Alan and Barbara play a game in which they take turns filling entries of
an initially empty 2008 2008 array. Alan plays first. At each turn, a player chooses
a real number and places it in a vacant entry. The game ends when all the entries are
filled. Alan wins if the determinant of the resulting matrix is nonzero; Barbara wins
if it is zero. Which player has a winning strategy?
21. 2008-B1. What is the maximum number of rational points that can lie on a circle
in R2 whose center is not a rational point? (A rational point is a point both of whose
coordinates are rational numbers.)
1
22. 2007-A1. Find all values of for which the curves y = x2 + x + 24
and x =
1
y 2 + y + 24 are tangent to each other.
23. 2007-B1. Let f be a polynomial with positive integer coecients. Prove that if n
is a positive integer, then f (n) divides f (f (n) + 1) if and only if n = 1. [Note: one
must assume f is nonconstant.]
 PUTNAM TRAINING EASY PUTNAM PROBLEMS 4

24. 2006-A1. Find the volume of the region of points (x, y, z) such that

(x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 8)2 36(x2 + y 2 ).

25. 2006-B2. Prove that, for every set X = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn } of n real numbers, there
exists a non-empty subset S of X and an integer m such that
 
 
 1
m + s .
  n+1
sS

26. 2005-A1. Show that every positive integer is a sum of one or more numbers of the
form 2r 3s , where r and s are nonnegative integers and no summand divides another.
(For example, 23 = 9 + 8 + 6.)
27. 2005-B1. Find a nonzero polynomial P (x, y) such that P (a, 2a) = 0 for all real
numbers a. (Note: is the greatest integer less than or equal to .)
28. 2004-A1. Basketball star Shanille OKeals team statistician keeps track of the num-
ber, S(N ), of successful free throws she has made in her first N attempts of the season.
Early in the season, S(N ) was less than 80% of N , but by the end of the season, S(N )
was more than 80% of N . Was there necessarily a moment in between when S(N )
was exactly 80% of N ?
29. 2004-B2. Let m and n be positive integers. Show that

(m + n)! m! n!
m+n
< m n.
(m + n) m n
30. 2003-A1. Let n be a fixed positive integer. How many ways are there to write n as
a sum of positive integers, n = a1 + a2 + + ak , with k an arbitrary positive integer
and a1 a2 ak a1 + 1? For example, with n = 4 there are four ways: 4,
2+2, 1+1+2, 1+1+1+1.
1
31. 2002-A1. Let k be a fixed positive integer. The n-th derivative of xk 1
has the form
Pn (x)
(xk 1)n+1
where Pn (x) is a polynomial. Find Pn (1).

32. 2002-A2. Given any five points on a sphere, show that some four of them must lie
on a closed hemisphere.
33. 2001-A1. Consider a set S and a binary operation , i.e., for each a, b S, a b S.
Assume (a b) a = b for all a, b S. Prove that a (b a) = b for all a, b S.
34. 2000-A2. Prove that there exist infinitely many integers n such that n, n + 1, n + 2
are each the sum of the squares of two integers. [Example: 0 = 02 + 02 , 1 = 02 + 12 ,
2 = 12 + 12 .]
 PUTNAM TRAINING EASY PUTNAM PROBLEMS 5

35. 1999-A1. Find polynomials f (x), g(x), and h(x), if they exist, such that for all x,

1
if x < 1
|f (x)| |g(x)| + h(x) = 3x + 2 if 1 x 0

2x + 2 if x > 0.

36. 1998-A1. A right circular cone has base of radius 1 and height 3. A cube is inscribed
in the cone so that one face of the cube is contained in the base of the cone. What is
the side-length of the cube?
37. 1997-A5. Let Nn denote the number of ordered n-tuples of positive integers (a1 , a2 , . . . , an )
such that 1/a1 + 1/a2 + . . . + 1/an = 1. Determine whether N10 is even or odd.
38. 1988-B1. A composite (positive integer) is a product ab with a and b not necessarily
distinct integers in {2, 3, 4, . . . }. Show that every composite is expressible as xy +
xz + yz + 1, with x, y, z positive integers.
 PUTNAM TRAINING EASY PUTNAM PROBLEMS 6

Hints
dj
1. When is the coecient of dxj
xn divisible by 2016?
2. Show that the sum telescopes and the n-th term tends to zero.

3. Consider three points A, B, and C such that triangle ABC has the largest area.
4. Find the area of the triangle, maximize it, and compute the area between the cords
and the hyperbola.
5. The given expression is the third derivative of a function with the same zeros as f .
6. Rewrite the sum and add the resulting geometric sums.

7. The coecient can be computed and simplified explicitly.

8.
9. If the the numbers of the faces having a common vertex have dierent numbers, what
can we say about their sum?
10. Telescoping.

11. Three numbers 0 < a b c are the side lengths of an acute triangle precisely if
a2 + b 2 > c 2 .

12. eu+v = eu ev .
3 4
13. There is some rational number between hk
and hk
.
14. For k to be as large as possible the boxes must be small.

15. One approach is to use the Cauchy-Schwartz inequality for some appropriately chosen
values of k. Another approach is to look at how the LHS grows with m depending on
the values of the ak .

16. By looking at Pythagorean triples we get a reasonable conjecture about what the
smallest possible value of AB could be. Then use |AC BC| AB, with equality if
and only if A, B, C are collinear.
17. Find relations among the values of the function at nine points forming a 2 by 2 square
grid.
18. Induction.

19. Try successively (x, y, z) = (0, 0, 0), (x, y, z) = (x, 0, 0), (x, y, z) = (x, y, 0).
20. Try either getting two equal rows, or all rows summing zero.
 PUTNAM TRAINING EASY PUTNAM PROBLEMS 7

21. How can we find the center of a circle if we are given some points on that circle?

22. Considered dierent cases depending on how each curve intersects the line y = x.
23. Consider f (f (n) + 1) mod f (n).
24. Change to cylindrical coordinates.

25. Pigeonhole Principle.

26. Induction. The base case is 1 = 20 30 . The induction step depends on the parity of n.
If n is even, divide by 2. If it is odd, subtract a suitable power of 3.
27. Note that 2a = 2a or 2a = 2a + 1 depending on whether the fractional part
of a is in [0, 0.5) or [0.5, 1).
28. Assume that S(N ) jumps abruptly from less than 4/5 to more that 4/5 at some point
and find a contradiction.
(m + n)! m n
29. Rewrite the inequality m n < (m + n)m+n .
m! n!
30. If 0 < k n, is there any such sum with exactly k terms? How many?
31. Dierentiate Pn (x)/(xk 1)n+1 and get a relation between Pn (1) and Pn+1 (1).
32. Draw a great circle through two of the points.

33. Replace a by b a.
34. Show that the equation x2 y 2 = z 2 + 1 has infinitely many integer solutions. Set
n = y2 + z2.
35. Try with first degree polynomials. Some of those polynomials must change sign pre-
cisely at x = 1 and x = 0. Recall that |u| = u depending on whether u 0 or
u < 0.

36. Consider the plane containing both the axis of the cone and two opposite vertices of
the cubes bottom face.

37. Discard solutions coming in pairs, such as the ones for which a1 = a2 ; so we may
assume a1 = a2 .

38.
 PUTNAM TRAINING EASY PUTNAM PROBLEMS 8

Solutions
1. The answer is j = 8.
dj j
j x = j!, so j! must be a multiple of 2016 = 2 3 7. Since 2 does not
5 2 5
We have dx
divide 7! we have j 8.
Next, for any polynomial p(x) = ni=0 ai xi , we have


d8  n

p(x) = n(n 1)(n 2)(n 3)(n 4)(n 5)(n 6)(n 7) ai k i8 .
dx8 x=k i=8

So, all we need to prove is that n(n 1) (n 7) a multiple of 25 , 32 , and 7.

In fact, one of any seven consecutive integers is a multiple of 7, so n(n 1)(n 2)(n
3)(n 4)(n 5)(n 6) must be a multiple of 7.
One of every three consecutive integers is a multiple of 3, so n(n 1)(n 2) and
(n3)(n4)(n5) are multiples of 3, which implies n(n1)(n2)(n3)(n4)(n5)
is a multiple of 32 .
Finally, given eight consecutive integers, four of them will be multiples of 2, two will
be multiples of 4 , and one is a multiple of 8, hence n(n 1)(n 2)(n 3)(n 4)(n
5)(n 6)(n 7) is a multiple of 24 22 2 = 27 , which is in fact more than needed.

2. First we prove that xn has a limit as n . The recurrence can be writen exn+1 =
exn xn . For x > 0 we have ex > 1 + x, hence by induction we get 0 < xn+1 < xn 1,
so the sequence is decreasing and bounded. By the Monotonous Convergence Theorem
that implies that xn has in fact a limit.
Next we prove that the limit is zero. In fact, let x = limn xn . Then x = ln (ex x),
ex = ex x, hence x = 0.
Finally we will prove that the sum is e 1. From the recursive definition of xn we
have xn = exn exn+1 , hence

x0 + x1 + x2 + + xN = (ex0 ex1 ) + (ex1 ex2 ) + + (exN exN +1 )

= ex0 exN +1 e1 e0 = e 1 .
N

3. See figure 1
Pick three points A, B, C in S such that the triangle ABC has maximum area.
Draw lines A B , B C , C A parallel to AB, BC, CA respectively. For any point P
above line B C , the triangle P BC will have larger area than ABC because it has
the same base but more height than ABC, hence all points of S must below line
B C . A similar argument leads to the conclusion that all points of S must be on the
triangle A B C . Also note that triangles ABC and CB A are each half of the
parallelogram ABCB , so they are equal. For the same reason BAC and A CB
are also equal to ABC. Since the area of ABC is at most 1, then the area of
A B C is at most 4, and this completes the proof.
 PUTNAM TRAINING EASY PUTNAM PROBLEMS 9

A
C B

B C

Figure 1

4. If A = (x1 , x11 ), B = (x2 , x12 ), P = (x, x1 ), the area of the triangle AP B is

 
 1 1 1
 
T (x) = x1 x2 x .
 1 1 1
x1 x2 x

Its derivative respect to x is

x2 x1 1
T (x) = (x2 x1 ) 2 .
x1 x2 x

Solving T (x) = 0 we get a maximum at x0 = x1 x2 .
Alternatively we could also find P as the point where the tangent to the hyperbola is
parallel to AB. The slope of the hyperbola at (x, x1 ) is 1/x2 , hence

1
1 1

= x2 x1 x0 = x1 x2 .
2
x0 x2 x 1
Next, the line going through (x1 , x11 ) and (x0 , x10 ) is

x x1 y x11 1 x1 x
= 1 y= + .
x0 x1 x0
x11 x1 x0 x1
The area of the region bounded by the hyperbola and the chord AP is
x0 ( )
1 x1 x 1 x2 x1 x2
RA = + dx = log .
x1 x1 x0 x 1 x 2 x1 x2 x1
If we swap x1 and x2 in the computations above and integrate between x0 and x2 we
get the area of the region bounded by the hyperbola and the chord P B:
x2 ( )
1 x2 x 1 x2 x1 x2
RB = + dx = log .
x0 x2 x0 x2 x 2 x1 x2 x1
That shows that RA = RB , QED.
 PUTNAM TRAINING EASY PUTNAM PROBLEMS 10

5. The given expression multiplied by ex/2 is the third derivative of g(x) = 8ex/2 f (x),
which has the same zeros as f (x). We know (from Rolles theorem) that between two
distinct real zeros of a function there is a zero of its derivative, hence g must have
at least 5 3 = 2 distinct real zeros, and the same is true for the given expression.
6. In order to form a triangle, a, b, c must verify a + b > c, b + c > a, and c + a > b.
Hence the following numbers (Ravi substitution) x = a + b c, y = b + c a, and
z = c + a b must be all positive, and all have the same parity, hence they can be
written as (x, y, z) = (2u, 2v, 2w), or (x, y, z) = (2u1, 2v1, 2w1) with u, v, w 1.
Also we have a = x+z 2
, b = x+y
2
, y+z
2
. Hence
2a 2u+w 2u+w1
= +
3b 5c u,v,w1 3u+v 5v+w u,v,w1 3u+v1 5v+w1
(a,b,c)T
( )
2u+w 21
= u+v 5v+w
1 + 1 1
u,v,w1
3 3 5

17 2u 1 2w

=
2 u=1 3u v=1 3v 5v w=1 5w
17 23 1
15
2
5
=
2 1 23 1 15
1
1 2
5
17
= .
21
7. The coecient of xn in the Taylor series of (1 x + x2 )ex for n = 0, 1, 2 is 1, 0, 21 ,
respectively. For n 3, the coecient of xn is
1 1 1 1 n + n(n 1)
+ =
n! (n 1)! (n 2)! n!
n1
= .
n(n 2)!
If n 1 is prime, then since n 1 is relatively prime to n and to (n 2)!, the lowest-
terms numerator is n 1, which is prime. If n 1 = ab is composite, then if a = b,
both a and b appear separately in (n 2)!, and so the lowest-terms numerator is 1.
If n 1 = a2 , then either a = 2, in which case the coecient is 30 4
= 152
; or a > 2,
in which case n 1 = a > 2a, whence both a and 2a appear in (n 2)!, and so
2

n 1 = a2 divides (n 2)! and the lowest-terms numerator is 1.

8. These are the integers with no 0s in their usual base 10 expansion. If the usual base
10 expansion of N is dk 10k + + d0 100 and one of the digits is 0, then there exists
an i k 1 such that di = 0 and di+1 > 0; then we can replace di+1 10i+1 + (0)10i by
(di+1 1)10i+1 + (10)10i to obtain a second base 10 over-expansion.
We claim conversely that if N has no 0s in its usual base 10 expansion, then this
standard form is the unique base 10 over-expansion for N . This holds by induction on
 PUTNAM TRAINING EASY PUTNAM PROBLEMS 11

the number of digits of N : if 1 N 9, then the result is clear. Otherwise, any base
10 over-expansion N = dk 10k + + d1 10 + d0 100 must have d0 N (mod 10), which
uniquely determines d0 since N is not a multiple of 10; then (N d0 )/10 inherits the
base 10 over-expansion dk 10k1 + + d1 100 , which must be unique by the induction
hypothesis.

9. If the numbers on the faces having a common vertex v have dierent numbers a0 <
a1 < a2 < a3 < a4 , then ak k for k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and Sv =a0 + a1 + a2 + a3 + a4
0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10. Adding over the 12 vertices we get v Sv 12 10 = 120. In
that sum each number occurs three times, one per each vertex of the face, so the sum
of the numbers written on the faces of the icosahedron will be greater than or equal
to 120/3 = 40, contradicting the hypothesis that it is 39.
10. We have:
c(2n)c(2n + 2) + c(2n + 1)c(2n + 3) = c(n)c(n + 1) + (1)n c(n)(1)n+1 c(n + 1)
= c(n)c(n + 1) c(n)c(n + 1) = 0 ,
so each term in an even position cancels with the next term, and the sum telescopes:

2013
2013
c(n)c(n + 2) = c(1) c(3) + c(n)c(n + 2)
|{z} |{z}
n=1 1 1 |n=2 {z }
0
= 1 .

11. Assume without loss of generality that 1 < d1 d2 d12 < 12.
Note that three numbers 0 < a b c are the side lengths of an acute triangle
precisely if a2 +b2 > c2 , so if not such three indices exist we would have d2i +d2i+1 d2i+2
for i = 1, . . . , 10. Consequently 1 < d1 , d2 , d33 d21 + d22 > 2, d34 d22 + d23 > 3, and
analogously d25 > 5, d26 > 8, d27 > 13, d28 > 21, d29 > 34, d210 > 55, d211 > 89, d212 > 144,
but this last inequality implies d12 > 12, which is a contradiction.
12. Assume f (x) and g(x) are in S. Then by (ii) the following function is in S:
f2 (f (x)) + f2 (g(x)) = ln (f (x) + 1) + ln (g(x) + 1)
= ln ((f (x) + 1)(g(x) + 1))
= ln (f (x)g(x) + f (x) + g(x) + 1) .
Next, by (i) the following function is in S:
f1 (ln (f (x)g(x) + f (x) + g(x) + 1)) = eln (f (x)g(x)+f (x)+g(x)+1) 1
= f (x)g(x) + f (x) + g(x) .
Finally we can apply (iii), subtract f (x), then g(x), and we get that the following
function is in S:
(f (x)g(x) + f (x) + g(x)) f (x) g(x) = f (x)g(x) ,
where the use of (iii) is justified because the final dierence f (x)g(x) is non-negative.
 PUTNAM TRAINING EASY PUTNAM PROBLEMS 12

13. Since the rational numbers are dense in the reals, we can find positive integers a, b
such that
3 b 4
< < .
hk a hk
By choosing a and b large enough we can also ensure that 3a2 > b. We then have
b b
< < = a2 + b a
hk 3a a2 + b + a
and
b b
a2 + b a = <2 .
2
a +b+a 2a hk
2 2 2 2
We may then take m = k (a + b), n = h a .
14. The largest such k is n+1
2
= n2 . For n even, this value is achieved by the partition
{1, n}, {2, n 1}, . . . ;
for n odd, it is achieved by the partition
{n}, {1, n 1}, {2, n 2}, . . . .
One way to see that this is optimal is to note that the common sum can never be less
than n, since n itself belongs to one of the boxes. This implies that k (1 + +
n)/n = (n + 1)/2. Another argument is that if k > (n + 1)/2, then there would have
to be two boxes with one number each (by the pigeonhole principle), but such boxes
could not have the same sum.
15. - First solution: No such sequence exists. If it did, then the Cauchy-Schwartz inequal-
ity would imply
8 = (a21 + a22 + )(a41 + a42 + )
(a31 + a32 + )2 = 9,
contradiction.
- Second solution: Suppose that such a sequence exists. If a2k [0, 1] for all k, then
a4k a2k for all k, and so
4 = a41 + a42 + a21 + a22 + = 2,
contradiction. There thus exists a positive integer k for which a2k > 1. However, in
k > 2m and so a1 + a2 + = 2m.
this case, for m large, a2m 2m 2m

16. The smallest distance is 3, achieved by A = (0, 0), B = (3, 0), C = (0, 4). To check
this, it suces to check that AB cannot equal 1 or 2. (It cannot equal 0 because if
two of the points were to coincide, the three points would be collinear.)
The triangle inequality implies that |AC BC| AB, with equality if and only if
A, B, C are collinear. If AB = 1, we may assume without loss of generality that
A = (0, 0), B = (1, 0). To avoid collinearity, we must have AC = BC, but this forces
C = (1/2, y) for some y R, a contradiction.
 PUTNAM TRAINING EASY PUTNAM PROBLEMS 13

If AB = 2, then we may assume without loss of generality that A = (0, 0), B = (2, 0).
The triangle inequality implies |ACBC| {0, 1}. Also, for C = (x, y), AC 2 = x2 +y 2
and BC 2 = (2 x)2 + y 2 have the same parity; it follows that AC = BC. Hence
c = (1, y) for some y R, so y 2 and y 2 + 1 = BC 2 are consecutive perfect squares.
This can only happen for y = 0, but then A, B, C are collinear, a contradiction again.

17. Yes, it does follow. Let P be any point in the plane. Let ABCD be any square
with center P . Let E, F, G, H be the midpoints of the segments AB, BC, CD, DA,
respectively. The function f must satisfy the equations
0 = f (A) + f (B) + f (C) + f (D)
0 = f (E) + f (F ) + f (G) + f (H)
0 = f (A) + f (E) + f (P ) + f (H)
0 = f (B) + f (F ) + f (P ) + f (E)
0 = f (C) + f (G) + f (P ) + f (F )
0 = f (D) + f (H) + f (P ) + f (G).
If we add the last four equations, then subtract the first equation and twice the second
equation, we obtain 0 = 4f (P ), whence f (P ) = 0.
18. Every positive rational number can be uniquely written in lowest terms as a/b for a, b
positive integers. We prove the statement in the problem by induction on the largest
prime dividing either a or b (where this is considered to be 1 if a = b = 1). For the base
case, we can write 1/1 = 2!/2!. For a general a/b, let p be the largest prime dividing
either a or b. Assume p divides a (the other case, with p dividing b, is analogous).
Then a/b = pk a /b for some k > 0 and positive integers a , b whose largest prime
a
factors are strictly less than p. Writing p = p!/(p 1)! we have a/b = (p!)k (p1)! kb ,

and all prime factors of a and (p 1)! b are strictly less than p. By the induction
k
a
hypothesis, (p1)! k b can be written as a quotient of products of prime factorials, and
a
so a/b = (p!)k (p1)! k b can as well. This completes the induction.

19. The function g(x) = f (x, 0) works. Substituting (x, y, z) = (0, 0, 0) into the given
functional equation yields f (0, 0) = 0, whence substituting (x, y, z) = (x, 0, 0) yields
f (x, 0) + f (0, x) = 0. Finally, substituting (x, y, z) = (x, y, 0) yields f (x, y) =
f (y, 0) f (0, x) = g(x) g(y).
20. First solution: Pair each entry of the first row with the entry directly below it in the
second row. If Alan ever writes a number in one of the first two rows, Barbara writes
the same number in the other entry in the pair. If Alan writes a number anywhere
other than the first two rows, Barbara does likewise. At the end, the resulting matrix
will have two identical rows, so its determinant will be zero.
Second solution: Whenever Alan writes a number x in an entry in some row,
Barbara writes x in some other entry in the same row. At the end, the resulting
matrix will have all rows summing to zero, so it cannot have full rank.
 PUTNAM TRAINING EASY PUTNAM PROBLEMS 14

21. There are at most two such points. For example, the points (0, 0) and (1, 0) lie on a
circle with center (1/2, x) for any real number x, not necessarily rational.
On the other hand, with three point A, B, C, we could find the center of the circle as
the intersection of the perpendicular bisectors of the segments AB and BC. If A, B,
and C are rational, the middle points of AB and BC will be rational, the bisectors
will be rational lines (representable by equations with rational coecients), and their
intersection will be rational.

22. The only such are 2/3, 3/2, (13 601)/12.
1 1
In fact, let C1 and C2 be the curves y = x2 + x + 24 and x = y 2 + y + 24 ,
respectively, and let L be the line y = x. We consider three cases.
If C1 is tangent to L, then the point of tangency (x, x) satisfies
1
2x + = 1, x = x2 + x + ;
24
by symmetry, C2 is tangent to L there, so C1 and C2 are tangent. Writing =
1/(2x + 1) in the first equation and substituting into the second, we must have

x2 + x 1
x= + ,
2x + 1 24
which simplifies to 0 = 24x2 2x 1 = (6x + 1)(4x 1), or x {1/4, 1/6}. This
yields = 1/(2x + 1) {2/3, 3/2}. If C1 does not intersect L, then C1 and C2 are
separated by L and so cannot be tangent.
If C1 intersects L in two distinct points P1 , P2 , then it is not tangent to L at either
point. Suppose at one of these points, say P1 , the tangent to C1 is perpendicular to
L; then by symmetry, the same will be true of C2 , so C1 and C2 will be tangent at
P1 . In this case, the point P1 = (x, x) satisfies
1
2x + = 1, x = x2 + x + ;
24
writing = 1/(2x + 1) in the first equation and substituting into the second, we
have
x2 + x 1
x= + ,
2x + 1 24

or x = (23 601)/72. This yields = 1/(2x + 1) = (13 601)/12.
If instead the tangents to C1 at P1 , P2 are not perpendicular to L, then we claim there
cannot be any point where C1 and C2 are tangent. Indeed, if we count intersections
of C1 and C2 (by using C1 to substitute for y in C2 , then solving for y), we get at
most four solutions counting multiplicity. Two of these are P1 and P2 , and any point
of tangency counts for two more. However, o of L, any point of tangency would have
a mirror image which is also a point of tangency, and there cannot be six solutions.
Hence we have now found all possible .
 PUTNAM TRAINING EASY PUTNAM PROBLEMS 15

23. The problem fails if f is allowed to be constant, e.g., take f (n) = 1. We thus assume

that f is nonconstant. Write f (n) = di=0 ai ni with ai > 0. Then

d
f (f (n) + 1) = ai (f (n) + 1)i
i=0
f (1) (mod f (n)).
If n = 1, then this implies that f (f (n)+1) is divisible by f (n). Otherwise, 0 < f (1) <
f (n) since f is nonconstant and has positive coecients, so f (f (n) + 1) cannot be
divisible by f (n).

24. We change to cylindrical coordinates, i.e., we put r = x2 + y 2 . Then the given
inequality is equivalent to
r2 + z 2 + 8 6r,
or
(r 3)2 + z 2 1.
This defines a solid of revolution (a solid torus); the area being rotated is the disc
(x 3)2 + z 2 1 in the xz-plane. By Pappuss theorem, the volume of this equals
the area of this disc, which is , times the distance through which the center of mass
is being rotated, which is (2)3. That is, the total volume is 6 2 .
25. Let {x} = xx denote the fractional part of x. For i = 0, . . . , n, put si = x1 + +xi
(so that s0 = 0). Sort the numbers {s0 }, . . . , {sn } into ascending order, and call the
result t0 , . . . , tn . Since 0 = t0 tn < 1, the dierences
t1 t0 , . . . , tn tn1 , 1 tn
are nonnegative and add up to 1. Hence (as in the pigeonhole principle) one of these
dierences is no more than 1/(n + 1); if it is anything other than 1 tn , it equals
({si } {sj }) for some 0 i < j n. Put S = {xi+1 , . . . , xj } and m = si sj ;
then
 
 
 
m + s = |m + sj si |
 
sS
= |{sj } {si }|
1
,
n+1
as desired. In case 1 tn 1/(n + 1), we take S = {x1 , . . . , xn } and m = sn , and
again obtain the desired conclusion.
26. We proceed by induction, with base case 1 = 20 30 . Suppose all integers less than
n 1 can be represented. If n is even, then we can take a representation of n/2 and
multiply each term by 2 to obtain a representation of n. If n is odd, put m = log3 n,
 PUTNAM TRAINING EASY PUTNAM PROBLEMS 16

so that 3m n < 3m+1 . If 3m = n, we are done. Otherwise, choose a representation

(n 3m )/2 = s1 + + sk in the desired form. Then
n = 3m + 2s1 + + 2sk ,
and clearly none of the 2si divide each other or 3m . Moreover, since 2si n 3m <
3m+1 3m , we have si < 3m , so 3m cannot divide 2si either. Thus n has a representation
of the desired form in all cases, completing the induction.
27. Take P (x, y) = (y 2x)(y 2x 1). To see that this works, first note that if m = a,
then 2m is an integer less than or equal to 2a, so 2m 2a. On the other hand,
m + 1 is an integer strictly greater than a, so 2m + 2 is an integer strictly greater than
2a, so 2a 2m + 1.
28. Yes. Suppose otherwise. Then there would be an N such that S(N ) < 80% and
S(N + 1) > 80%; that is, OKeals free throw percentage is under 80% at some point,
and after one subsequent free throw (necessarily made), her percentage is over 80%. If
she makes m of her first N free throws, then m/N < 4/5 and (m + 1)/(N + 1) > 4/5.
This means that 5m < 4N < 5m + 1, which is impossible since then 4N is an integer
between the consecutive integers 5m and 5m + 1.
29. We have ( )
m+n m+n
(m + n) > m m nn
m
because the binomial expansion of (m + n)m+n includes the term on the right as well
as some others. Rearranging this inequality yields the claim.

30. There are n such sums. More precisely, there is exactly one such sum with k terms
for each of k = 1, . . . , n (and clearly no others). To see this, note that if n = a1 +
a2 + + ak with a1 a2 ak a1 + 1, then
ka1 = a1 + a1 + + a1
n a1 + (a1 + 1) + + (a1 + 1)
= ka1 + k 1.
However, there is a unique integer a1 satisfying these inequalities, namely a1 = n/k.
Moreover, once a1 is fixed, there are k dierent possibilities for the sum a1 +a2 + +ak :
if i is the last integer such that ai = a1 , then the sum equals ka1 +(i1). The possible
values of i are 1, . . . , k, and exactly one of these sums comes out equal to n, proving
our claim.

31. By dierentiating Pn (x)/(xk 1)n+1 , we find that

Pn+1 (x) = (xk 1)Pn (x) (n + 1)kxk1 Pn (x) .
Substituting x = 1 yields Pn+1 (1) = (n + 1)kPn (1). Since P0 (1) = 1, an easy
induction gives Pn (1) = (k)n n! for all n 0.
 PUTNAM TRAINING EASY PUTNAM PROBLEMS 17

Note: one can also argue by expanding in Taylor series around 1. Namely, we have

1 1 1
= = (x 1)1 + ,
xk 1 k(x 1) + k
so
dn 1 (1)n n!
=
dxn xk 1 k(x 1)n1
and
dn 1
Pn (x) = (xk 1)n+1
dxn xk 1
= (k(x 1) + )n+1
( )
(1)n n! n1
(x 1) +
k
= (k)n n! + .

32. Draw a great circle through two of the points. There are two closed hemispheres with
this great circle as boundary, and each of the other three points lies in one of them.
By the pigeonhole principle, two of those three points lie in the same hemisphere, and
that hemisphere thus contains four of the five given points.
33. The hypothesis implies ((b a) b) (b a) = b for all a, b S (by replacing a by b a),
and hence a (b a) = b for all a, b S (using (b a) b = a).

34. - First solution: Let a be an even integer such that a2 + 1 is not prime. (For example,
choose a 2 (mod 5), so that a2 + 1 is divisible by 5.) Then we can write a2 + 1 as
a dierence of squares x2 b2 , by factoring a2 + 1 as rs with r s > 1, and setting
x = (r +s)/2, b = (r s)/2. Finally, put n = x2 1, so that n = a2 +b2 , n+1 = x2 +0,
n + 2 = x2 + 1.
- Second solution: It is well-known that the equation x2 2y 2 = 1 has infinitely many
solutions (the so-called Pell equation). Thus setting n = 2y 2 (so that n = y 2 + y 2 ,
n + 1 = x2 + 02 , n + 2 = x2 + 12 ) yields infinitely many n with the desired property.
- Third solution: As in the first solution, it suces to exhibit x such that x2 1 is
the sum of two squares. We will take x = 32 , and show that x2 1 is the sum of two
n

squares by induction on n: if 32 1 = a2 + b2 , then

n

n+1 n n
(32 1) = (32 1)(32 + 1)
n1 n1
= (32 a + b)2 + (a 32 b)2 .

35. Note that if r(x) and s(x) are any two functions, then

max(r, s) = (r + s + |r s|)/2.
 PUTNAM TRAINING EASY PUTNAM PROBLEMS 18

Therefore, if F (x) is the given function, we have

F (x) = max{3x 3, 0} max{5x, 0} + 3x + 2
= (3x 3 + |3x 3|)/2
(5x + |5x|)/2 + 3x + 2
1
= |(3x 3)/2| |5x/2| x + ,
2
so we may set f (x) = (3x 3)/2, g(x) = 5x/2, and h(x) = x + 21 .
36. Consider the plane containing both the axis of the cone and two opposite vertices
of the cubes bottom face. The cross section
of the cone and the cube in this plane
consists of a rectangle of sides s and s 2 inscribed in an isosceles
triangle of base 2
and height 3, where s is the side-length of the cube. (The s 2 side of the rectangle
lies onthe base of the triangle.) Similar triangles yield s/3 = (1 s 2/2)/1, or
s = (9 2 6)/7.

37. We may discard any solutions for which a1 = a2 , since those come in pairs; so assume
a1 = a2 . Similarly, we may assume that a3 = a4 , a5 = a6 , a7 = a8 , a9 = a10 . Thus we
get the equation
2/a1 + 2/a3 + 2/a5 + 2/a7 + 2/a9 = 1.
Again, we may assume a1 = a3 and a5 = a7 , so we get 4/a1 + 4/a5 + 2/a9 = 1; and
a1 = a5 , so 8/a1 +2/a9 = 1. This implies that (a1 8)(a9 2) = 16, which by counting
has 5 solutions. Thus N10 is odd.

38. Let x = a 1, y = b 1, z = 1. Then:

xy + xz + yz + 1 = (a 1)(b 1) + (a 1) 1 + (b 1) 1 + 1
= ab a b + 1 + a 1 + b 1 + 1
= ab .