Shipping Solutions:: Technological and Operational Methods Available To Reduce Co
Shipping Solutions:: Technological and Operational Methods Available To Reduce Co
Shipping Solutions:: Technological and Operational Methods Available To Reduce Co
2 Executive Summary
4 Introduction
20 Conclusion
21 Recommendations
www.oceana.org 1
SHIPPING
SOLUTIONS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Global shipping is a major contributor of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.
Operational and technical measures that can drastically reduce emissions
are available to the existing fleet, and need to be used. In 2007 shipping was
responsible for approximately 3.3 percent of global carbon dioxide (CO2)
emissions (over 1 billion tonnes).1 If the global shipping fleet were a nation it
would be the sixth largest emitter of carbon dioxide, only emitting less than
China, the United States, Russia, India and Japan.2 In the absence of emission
reduction policies, emission scenarios predict a doubling to tripling of 2007
emission levels by 2050.3
The International Chamber of Shipping recognizes By 2030 a reduction of 33 percent below the
that reductions of 15 to 20 percent of the carbon business-as-usual baseline could be attained at no
dioxide emitted per tonne of cargo transported are cost. However, for a relatively small abatement cost
possible from 2007 to 2020, primarily through the use of $70 per tonne, emissions could by reduced by 45
of operational and technological measures.6 Similarly, percent, taking absolute emissions down to almost
Det Norske Veritas (DNV) also finds that a 15 percent 6 percent below 2007 levels. Similarly, a cost of
reduction of carbon dioxide from across the existing $205 per tonne of carbon dioxide could result in an
fleet can be achieved in a cost effective way.7 emission reduction of 56 percent, taking emissions
down to almost 23 percent below 2007 levels.9
Aggressive action to increase vessel efficiency could
reduce absolute emissions to 10 percent below 2007 There is a large potential for short-term emission
levels by 2020 and to almost 18 percent below 2007 reductions through speed reductions even when
levels by 2050.8 putting extra ships to work. By 2013, a combination
of speed reductions and utilization of previously out-
of-work vessels could result in an approximately 30
Examples of Currently Available percent reduction in carbon dioxide emissions below
Emission Reduction Measures business-as-usual levels across the fleet. If put into
immediate effect, this reduction in emissions would
REDUCTION IN
Measure result in the elimination of 465 to 507 million tonnes of
CO2 EMISSIONS
carbon dioxide in the period of 2011 to 2012 alone,10
Operations 10 50%
which is the equivalent of shutting down 11 to 12
Slow Steaming 30% below BAU by 2013
percent of the coal based emissions in the United
Weather Routing 2 4%
States for the same period.11
Just-in-Time Arrival 1 5%
Optimization of Trim More than 225 shipping companies are engaging in
1%
& Ballast slow steaming.12 In 2009 alone Maersk saved $300
Propeller Polishing & million in fuel costs and has been able to reduce the
3%
Maintenance
carbon dioxide emission per container moved by
Engine Tuning 1 2% 7 percent.13
Technology 10 50%
Hull Coatings 10%
Technical measures, especially those like hull
coatings that are widely applicable, can be an
Propellers 5 10%
important way to reduce carbon dioxide emissions
Vanes, Vane Wheels,
Swirl Devices, Fins, 5 10%
from the fleet. Such measures can increase efficiency
Ducts, Rudders and reduce per tonne emissions across the fleet 10
Waste Heat Recovery 10% to 50 percent below 2007 levels by 2050.14
Alternate Fuels
& Propulsion
Marine Diesel Oil 5%
Kites 10 35%
www.oceana.org 3
SHIPPING
SOLUTIONS
INTRODUCTION
The continued burning of fossil fuels produces billions of tonnes of carbon
dioxide each year. This carbon dioxide is the main driver of climate change and
In 2007 over
ocean acidification, the impacts of which could be catastrophic in the near future.
100,000 ships Warming global temperatures are changing weather patterns, altering food
plied the seas, production capabilities, and contributing to melting glaciers, rising sea levels,
shifting animal populations and bleaching corals. Increasing ocean acidity caused
emitting over one
by the absorption of carbon dioxide into ocean waters is making it more difficult
billion tonnes of for marine calcifiers to create their shells and skeletons, as well as disrupting
carbon dioxide. many other important functions and processes throughout the ocean. This could
result in a mass extinction of coral reefs beginning only about forty years from now.
Source: 2006 Country data from www.eia.doe.gov/pub/international/iealf/table1co2.xls and 2007 Shipping data from Buhaug, , et al.
(2009) Second IMO (International Maritime Organization) GHG Study 2009; International Maritime Organization London, UK
www.oceana.org 5
SHIPPING
SOLUTIONS
www.oceana.org 7
SHIPPING
SOLUTIONS
Emission Reduction
Options are Available
to the Current Fleet
Large emission reductions are attainable across the existing fleet. Emissions can
be reduced by increasing efficiency, using less carbon-intensive fuels or power
sources, including renewables and using emission reduction technologies, such
as chemical conversion.
The speed and capability of a ship is also closely linked to its operations,43 and
therefore operations are an important part of the emissions reduction potential of
the fleet. Operational measures can include enhanced weather routing, energy
management, hull and propeller cleaning, engine maintenance and tuning and
optimized ballasting.44
Port operations, though not the focus of this report, can also play an important
role in reducing emissions. These can include improving logistics to reduce
congestion and turn around time and implementing a system of slot time allocation.45
While many of these emission reduction techniques may seem piecemeal, they
will contribute to reducing fuel consumption and hence carbon dioxide emissions
from individual ships. Incremental decreases in emissions from individual ships
can result in large reductions across the entire fleet.46 In fact, the 2009 IMO
study suggests that the fleet can become 25 to 75 percent more efficient than it
is currently through both operational and technological measures (retrofits and
newbuilds) by 2050. This same study finds that operational measures alone can
reduce emissions by 10 to 50 percent.47
Future emissions will depend not only on how much emissions can be reduced There are
per tonne-mile but also on how the fleet grows in the future. Only if the technological
percentage growth of the fleet is smaller than the percentage reduction in per
options that are
tonne-mile emissions will the absolute emissions from the fleet fall below current
levels. An annual growth rate of between 2 and 3 percent, which represents a available to the
range of growth patterns without including the extremes, coupled with aggressive existing fleet that
emission reductions will result in emissions remaining close to the 2007 level
can considerably
until 2050 (Table 1). However, the emissions avoided in this scenario could be as
much as 2.7 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide,51 which is the equivalent of shutting reduce emissions.
down all the coal plants that are projected to be in operation in the United States
in 2035.* 52
Table 2: Possible 2020 and 2050 CO2 emission levels due to either no, low, moderate or high implementation of operational and technical measures and use of
alternative fuels compared to 2007 assuming growth scenarios that represent a range of growth patterns without representing extremes.53
www.oceana.org 9
SHIPPING
SOLUTIONS
No-B
3500 No-A
Low-B
3000 Low-A
Mid-B
2500 Mid-A
2000 High-B
High-A
1500
1000
500
Figure 1: Future emission levels under no, low, medium and high emission reduction scenarios.54 Each of the growth
futures is broken into A and B scenarios, which correspond, respectively, to the global development A1B and B1
scenarios examined in the 2009 Second IMO GHG Study.
Figure 2: An abatement cost of $205/t CO2 will result in an emission level 23 percent below 2007
levels.The orange line represents the 2007 emission level.61
Fuel costs have increased substantially over recent also be attained at no cost; however, for a relatively
years and continue to account for an increasingly larger small abatement cost (cost to avert one tonne of CO2
portion of a vessels operations costs.58 Finding ways to $/tonne CO2) of $70, emissions could be reduced by
increase efficiency and reduce fuel consumption will be 45 percent, taking absolute emissions down to almost
of benefit to the fleet as a whole. By 2020 the fleet could 6 percent below 2007 levels. Similarly a cost of $205 could
reduce emissions, at no cost, by 25 percent below the result in a reduction of 56 percent, taking emissions
business-as-usual baseline.59 By 2030 a reduction of down to almost 23 percent below 2007 levels (Figure 2).60
33 percent (18 percent above 2007 emissions) could This would allow accelerated emission reductions.
www.oceana.org 11
SHIPPING
SOLUTIONS
*10% reduction in speed, therefore the vessel is operating at 90% of its original speed (0.93 = 0.73). Therefore, operating at 90%
produces 73% of the emissions if operating at full speed, hence an emission reduction of 27%.
The short term potential for emission reductions by It is unmistakable that considerable emission reductions
reducing speed is large even when putting extra ships are possible through slow steaming. In fact, many
to work. By 2030 reducing speeds to utilize all laid-up lines have implemented slow steaming over the past
vessels, and without any retrofits would allow tankers to years as a way to reduce fuel consumption in the face
reduce their emissions from 12 to 20 percent, bulkers of high fuel costs.84 Sustainable Shipping recently
by 17 to 29 percent and container ships by 4 to 16 reported that more than 225 vessels are slow or super
percent. Combined, this could total an approximate 30 slow steaming.85 This is evidence that slow steaming
percent reduction in carbon dioxide emissions below works to reduce fuel and emissions and is not a danger
business-as-usual across the fleet. This reduction in to the life of an engine. Shipping companies such as
emissions would result in the mitigation of 465 to 507 Maersk describe slow steaming as the most innovative
million tonnes of carbon dioxide in the period of 2011 development in container shipping in recent history.86
to 2012 alone,76 or the equivalent of shutting down Hapag-Lloyd has reported that by reducing the ship
11 to 12 percent of the coal plant emissions in the speed by just five knots, equating to a 20% reduction in
United States for the same period.77 Some of these vessel speed, the company would save approximately
reductions may have already been realized by the fleet; 50% on fuel costs.87
however there is still room for larger reductions in the
very near term. Slow steaming can cause concerns While it is likely that slow steaming will remain in favor
due to vessels operating off-design. Concerns include while fuel prices are high, if fuel prices drop again in
loss of efficiency from the heat recovery systems, the future lines may shift back to full steaming. It is
propeller and turbo charger; increased hull and propeller therefore important that policies are implemented to
fouling; increased maintenance of auxiliary systems; institutionalize the practice of slow steaming so that
increased consumption of lubricant; and increased reductions in emissions, not just costs, are seen long
level of vibrations.78,79 Most of these concerns can be into the future.
www.oceana.org 13
SHIPPING
SOLUTIONS
www.oceana.org 15
SHIPPING
SOLUTIONS
It is possible to
retrofit a vessel
with a more
efficient propeller
and reduce fuel
consumption by as
much as 15%.
Propellers
Large rotating propellers that turn at a low revolution produce high propulsive
efficiency.113 It is possible to retrofit a vessel with a more efficient propeller. This
could increase fuel consumption by as much as 15 percent, with a range of 5 to
10 percent likely.114
The loss of propeller energy can also be recovered by measures such as vanes,
free rotating vane wheels, pre and post-swirl devices, fins, ducts and high-
efficiency rudders. These measures can reduce a vessels propulsion power by
5 to 10 percent.115
Automatic Controls
Upgrading the automatic systems, such as temperature control, lights, and
speed control, can also improve the efficiency of a vessel. These improvements
can reduce the need for auxiliary power by about 10 percent.116
Engine energy recovery systems can increase engine power and therefore
reduce fuel use and emissions. These systems can increase engine power by
9 to 11 percent.119
Alternative fuels
will become a more
attractive option in
the future as more
fuels are developed.
However, the IMO was charged with addressing the While the IMO has recognized that an Energy Efficiency
issue of greenhouse gases from ships thirteen years Design Index (EEDI) for new ships can be a cost-effective
ago. In that time, no requirements have been set to measure to reduce emissions it has not at all addressed
address global warming pollution. This is due, in part, the emissions from the current fleet. A similar emissions
to opposition from some countries, such as China, who index that has been considered but not adopted focuses
seem to oppose any action, indeed, oppose even the on the operations of existing ships, from which a much
discussion of emissions reductions for greenhouse greater contribution to carbon dioxide reductions could
gases. Similarly, flag-states, or countries that many be achieved. Putting in place an Energy Efficiency
ships are flagged by, have also frustrated such actions. Operational Index (EEOI) would promote both technical
While the IMO is not required to have full consensus and operational measures.129
in decision-making, it does appear to prefer such an
approach and as a result, little has been accomplished
in the past thirteen years. In fact, the IMO has failed
to set a target for emission reductions, a baseline that
emission reductions will be measured against and even In 2000, IMO found that
a method of how emissions will be reduced.128 speed reductions and other
measures could reduce
In the last thirteen years the IMO has conducted a
emissions 40% by 2010.
series of studies, all pointing to large carbon dioxide
emissions from ships, and demonstrating the many
2000
Global shipping emits over The Second IMO GHG Study No policies regulating
2007
2009
2010
1 billion tonnes of carbon finds shipping emissions have carbon dioxide emissions
dioxide. grown to account for 3.3% from ships have been
of global CO2 emissions. implemented despite the
Technical and operational huge reductions available
measures are estimated to from operational and
be able to reduce emissions technical measures.
by up to 75%.
www.oceana.org 19
SHIPPING
SOLUTIONS
CONCLUSION
>> Operational measures are a very important tool in reducing emissions from
across the fleet. These measures are broadly applicable and can be quickly and
easily implemented. Since these measures aim to increase vessel efficiency and
cost little to implement they can also result in large cost savings across the fleet.
However, to reach the emissions reductions required from the shipping industry
more than just cost-saving operational measures will be required. Many technical
measures that are available to the current fleet can also increase efficiency and
can therefore also result in cost-savings.
>> Technical measures, especially those like hull coatings that are widely applicable,
can be an important way to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from the fleet. Such
measures may be able to increase efficiency and reduce per tonne emissions
across the fleet from 10 to 50 percent below 2007 levels by 2050.131
>> Operational and technical measures will need to be implemented fleet wide
to see substantial reductions in emissions. While, these are the most readily
applicable methods to reduce emissions alternative fuels and methods of
propulsion will become more important in the future.
>> Policies should be implemented to make sure that they are used to their full
advantage as it is evident that many emission reduction options are available to
the fleet. But even before these policies are implemented studies have shown
that many of these measures are in fact cost effective and can in fact save ship
owners money as they act to reduce fuel consumption.
Recommendations
Shipping fleets should implement technical and operational measures to reduce carbon dioxide emissions
immediately. Such measures include speed reductions, weather routing, improved maintenance and
specialized hull coatings.
The U.S. EPA should regulate carbon dioxide emissions from ships. This can be done by setting emission
standards and by requiring specific operational procedures, such as speed limits.
The IMO should implement a mandatory EEOI that will drive the use of operational and technical measures
to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. Policies should be applied to all ships regardless of flag state. Such
policies should not be subject to consensus approval and voting should be utilized to speed this outcome.
ENDNOTES
1 Buhaug, . et al. (2009) Second IMO 12 Reported in Should slow steaming 23 APL Environment
GHG Study 2009, International Maritime become a regulatory requirement? http://www.apl.com/environment/html/
Organization (IMO), London, UK Sustainable Shipping, 20 August 2010, environment_initiatives.html
http://www.sustainableshipping.com/
2 Harrould-Kolieb, Ellycia (2008) Shipping 24 APLE Environment
forum/polls/95993/Should-slow-steaming-
Impacts on Climate: A source with http://www.apl.com/environment/html/
become-a-regulatory-requirement
solutions, Oceana environment_initiatives.html
13 Reported in Exclusive: Maersk Line
3 Marine Environment Protection 25 Reported in Shipowner benefits from hull
confounds critics of slow steaming,
Committee, IMO, 60th Session (2010) performance monitoring, Sustainable
Sustainable Shipping, 24 August 2010,
Prevention of Air Pollution from Ships, Shipping, 13 February 2008, http://
http://www.sustainableshipping.com/
Assessment of IMO Energy Efficiency www.sustainableshipping.com/news/
news/i96049/Exclusive_Maersk_Line_
Measures for the Control of GHG i70704/Shipowner_benefits_from_hull_
confounds_critics_of_slow_steaming
Emissions form Ships, Note by performance_monitoring
the Secretariat 14 Buhaug, . et al. (2009) Second IMO
26 Buhaug, . et al. (2009) Second IMO
GHG Study 2009, International Maritime
4 Buhaug, . et al. (2009) Second IMO GHG Study 2009, International Maritime
Organization (IMO), London, UK
GHG Study 2009, International Maritime Organization (IMO), London, UK
Organization (IMO), London, UK 15 Buhaug, . et al. (2009) Second IMO
27 Harrould-Kolieb, Ellycia (2008) Shipping
GHG Study 2009, International Maritime
5 Buhaug, . et al. (2009) Second IMO Impacts on Climate: A source with
Organization (IMO), London, UK
GHG Study 2009, International Maritime solutions, Oceana
Organization (IMO), London, UK 16 Marine Environment Protection
28 Marine Environment Protection
Committee, IMO, 60th Session (2010)
6 International Chamber of Shipping (2009) Committee, IMO, 60th Session (2010)
Prevention of Air Pollution from Ships,
Shipping, World Trade and the Reduction Prevention of Air Pollution from Ships,
Assessment of IMO Energy Efficiency
of CO2 Emissions Assessment of IMO Energy Efficiency
Measures for the Control of GHG
Measures for the Control of GHG
7 Alvik, S., M. S. Eide, O. Endresen, Emissions form Ships, Note by
Emissions form Ships, Note by
P. Hoffmann and R. Longva (2009) the Secretariat
the Secretariat
Pathways to low carbon shipping:
17 Buhaug, . et al. (2009) Second IMO
Abatement potential towards 2030, 29 Buhaug, . et al. (2009) Second IMO
GHG Study 2009, International Maritime
Det Norske Veritas (DNV) GHG Study 2009, International Maritime
Organization (IMO), London, UK
Organization (IMO), London, UK
8 Calculated from Marine Environment
18 Buhaug, . et al. (2009) Second IMO
Protection Committee, IMO, 60th Session 31 Buhaug, . et al. (2009) Second IMO
GHG Study 2009, International Maritime
(2010) Prevention of Air Pollution from GHG Study 2009, International Maritime
Organization (IMO), London, UK
Ships, Assessment of IMO Energy Organization (IMO), London, UK
Efficiency Measures for the Control of 19 Reported in Should slow steaming
32 Buhaug, . et al. (2009) Second IMO
GHG Emissions form Ships, Note by become a regulatory requirement?
GHG Study 2009, International Maritime
the Secretariat Sustainable Shipping, 20 August 2010,
Organization (IMO), London, UK
http://www.sustainableshipping.com/
9 Alvik, S., M. S. Eide, O. Endresen,
forum/polls/95993/Should-slow-steaming- 33 Buhaug, . et al. (2009) Second IMO
P. Hoffmann and R. Longva (2009)
become-a-regulatory-requirement GHG Study 2009, International Maritime
Pathways to low carbon shipping:
Organization (IMO), London, UK
Abatement potential towards 2030, 20 Dynamar (2010) SLOW STEAMING: A
Det Norske Veritas (DNV) transient fashion or here to stay? 34 Sell, Malena (Ed) (2008) Climate Change
and Trade on the Road to Copenhagen,
10 Faber, J., M. Freund, M. Kopke, D. 21 Reported in Exclusive: Maersk Line
International Centre for Trade and
Nelissen (2010) Going Slow to Reduce confounds critics of slow steaming,
Sustainable Development (ICTSD), Geneva
Emissions: Can the current surplus of Sustainable Shipping, 24 August 2010,
maritime transport capacity be turned into http://www.sustainableshipping.com/ 35 Submission by Norway to the Marine
an opportunity to reduce GHG emissions? news/i96049/Exclusive_Maersk_Line_ Environment Protection Committee, 60th
Seas At Risk confounds_critics_of_slow_steaming Session (2010) Prevention of Air Pollution
from Ships, Updated Marginal Abatement
11 Calculated from EIA (2009) Annual 22 Reported in Exclusive: Maersk Line
Cost Curves for Shipping, Submitted by
Energy Outlook 2010, Table 18: Carbon confounds critics of slow steaming,
Norway, DNV.
Dioxide Emissions by Sector and Source, Sustainable Shipping, 24 August 2010,
http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/aeo/excel/ http://www.sustainableshipping.com/
aeotab_18.xls news/i96049/Exclusive_Maersk_Line_
confounds_critics_of_slow_steaming
www.oceana.org 23
SHIPPING
SOLUTIONS
68 Calculated from EIA (2009) Annual the current surplus of maritime transport 89 Buhaug, . et al. (2009) Second IMO
Energy Outlook 2010, Table 18: Carbon capacity be turned into an opportunity GHG Study 2009, International Maritime
Dioxide Emissions by Sector and Source, to reduce GHG emissions? CE Delft Organization (IMO), London, UK
http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/aeo/excel/ Publications.
90 IMO (2008) Ship Efficiency Management
aeotab_18.xls
79 Bush, Steve. (2008) Mistakes & Plan, Submitted by ICS, BIMCO,
69 Faber, J., M. Freund, M. Kopke, D. Experience Gained from Slow Steaming. Intercargo, Intertanko and OCIMF, MEPC
Nelissen (2010) Going Slow to Reduce Container Ship Speed Matters. 58th Session and Green, Erin H., James
Emissions: Can the current surplus of Lloyds Register. J. Winebreak and James J. Corbett
maritime transport capacity be turned into (2008) Opportunities for Reducing
80 Faber, J., M. Freund, M. Kopke, D.
an opportunity to reduce GHG emissions? Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ships,
Nelissen (2010) Going Slow to Reduce
Seas At Risk Prepared for the Clean Air Task Force,
Emissions: Can the current surplus of
Boston, MA.
70 Faber, J., M. Freund, M. Kopke, D. maritime transport capacity be turned into
Nelissen (2010) Going Slow to Reduce an opportunity to reduce GHG emissions? 91 Buhaug, . et al. (2009) Second IMO
Emissions: Can the current surplus of Seas At Risk GHG Study 2009, International Maritime
maritime transport capacity be turned into Organization (IMO), London, UK
81 Reported in Slow Trip Across Sea Aids
an opportunity to reduce GHG emissions?
Profit and Environment, New York 92 Green, Erin H., James J. Winebreak and
Seas At Risk
Times, 16 February 2010, http://www. James J. Corbett (2008) Opportunities for
71 Faber, J., M. Freund, M. Kopke, D. nytimes.com/2010/02/17/business/ Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions
Nelissen (2010) Going Slow to Reduce energy-environment/17speed.html?_ from Ships, Prepared for the Clean Air
Emissions: Can the current surplus of r=1&ref=todayspaper and Faber, J., M. Task Force, Boston, MA.
maritime transport capacity be turned into Freund, M. Kopke, D. Nelissen (2010)
93 Buhaug, . et al. (2009) Second IMO
an opportunity to reduce GHG emissions? Going Slow to Reduce Emissions: Can
GHG Study 2009, International Maritime
Seas At Risk the current surplus of maritime transport
Organization (IMO), London, UK
capacity be turned into an opportunity to
72 Faber, J., M. Freund, M. Kopke, D.
reduce GHG emissions? Seas At Risk 94 IMO (2008) Ship Efficiency Management
Nelissen (2010) Going Slow to Reduce
Plan, Submitted by ICS, BIMCO,
Emissions: Can the current surplus of 82 Faber, J., M. Freund, M. Kopke, D.
Intercargo, Intertanko and OCIMF, MEPC
maritime transport capacity be turned into Nelissen (2010) Going Slow to Reduce
58th Session
an opportunity to reduce GHG emissions? Emissions: Can the current surplus of
Seas At Risk maritime transport capacity be turned into 95 Buhaug, . et al. (2009) Second IMO
an opportunity to reduce GHG emissions? GHG Study 2009, International Maritime
73 McCollum, David, Gregory Gould and
Seas At Risk Organization (IMO), London, UK
David Greene (2010) Greenhouse Gas
Emissions From Aviation and Marine 83 Buhaug, . et al. (2009) Second IMO 96 Eniram, Product Data Sheet ED.8493
Transportation: Mitigation potential and GHG Study 2009, International Maritime 09/2009, www.eniram.fi
policies, Solutions White Paper Series. Organization (IMO), London, UK
97 Green, Erin H., James J. Winebreak and
PEW Center on Global Climate Change
84 Green, Erin H., James J. Winebreak and James J. Corbett (2008) Opportunities for
74 Faber, J., M. Freund, M. Kopke, D. James J. Corbett (2008) Opportunities for Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions
Nelissen (2010) Going Slow to Reduce Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ships, Prepared for the Clean Air
Emissions: Can the current surplus of from Ships, Prepared for the Clean Air Task Force, Boston, MA.
maritime transport capacity be turned into Task Force, Boston, MA. and Dynamar
98 Buhaug, . et al. (2009) Second IMO
an opportunity to reduce GHG emissions? (2010) SLOW STEAMING: A transient
GHG Study 2009, International Maritime
Seas At Risk fashion or here to stay?
Organization (IMO), London, UK
75 Reported in Extra Slow Steaming Here 85 Reported in Should slow steaming
99 Buhaug, . et al. (2009) Second IMO
to Stay, Sustainable Shipping, 3 June become a regulatory requirement?
GHG Study 2009, International Maritime
2010, http://www.sustainableshipping. Sustainable Shipping, 20 August 2010,
Organization (IMO), London, UK
com/news/2010/5/94222?tag=45-35380- http://www.sustainableshipping.com/
3453754-0-SS forum/polls/95993/Should-slow-steaming- 100 Kane, Daniel (2010) Hull and Propeller
become-a-regulatory-requirement Performance Monitoring: Fuel Conversion
76 Faber, J., M. Freund, M. Kopke, D.
and Emissions Reduction, in Climate
Nelissen (2010) Going Slow to Reduce 86 Isensee, J. and V. Vertram (2004)
Change and Ships: Increasing Energy
Emissions: Can the current surplus of Quantifying External Costs of Emissions
Efficiency, Proceedings, SNAME,
maritime transport capacity be turned into Due to Ship operation, 218 Proc. Inst.
February 16-17, 2010
an opportunity to reduce GHG emissions? Mech. Engrs. Part M:J. Engineering for
Seas At Risk the Marine Environment 41:44 101 Buhaug, . et al. (2009) Second IMO
GHG Study 2009, International Maritime
77 Calculated from EIA (2009) Annual 87 Reported in Ships turn to sails, lower
Organization (IMO), London, UK
Energy Outlook 2010, Table 18: Carbon speeds to cut fuel costs, Reuters, 22
Dioxide Emissions by Sector and Source, January , 2008, http://www.abc.net.au/ 102 Buhaug, . et al. (2009) Second IMO
http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/aeo/excel/ news/stories/2008/01/22/2143897.htm GHG Study 2009, International Maritime
aeotab_18.xls Organization (IMO), London, UK
88 IMO (2008) Ship Efficiency Management
78 Faber, Jasper., Freund, Malte., Kpke, Plan, Submitted by ICS, BIMCO,
Martin., and Nelissen, Dagmar. (2010) Intercargo, Intertanko and OCIMF, MEPC
Going Slow to Reduce Emissions: Can 58th Session
www.oceana.org iii
Oceana campaigns to protect and restore the worlds oceans. Our team of marine scientists, economists, lawyers
and advocates win specific and concrete policy changes to reduce pollution and to prevent the irreversible
collapse of fish populations, marine mammals and other sea life. Global in scope and dedicated to conservation,
Oceana has campaigners based in North America, Europe, and South America. More than 300,000 members and
e-activists in over 150 countries have already joined Oceana. For more information, please visit www.Oceana.org.